PROBLEM 5.

12
KNOWN: Diameter, density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of aluminum spheres used in
packed bed thermal energy storage system. Convection coefficient and inlet gas temperature.
FIND: Time required for sphere to acquire 90% of maximum possible thermal energy and the
corresponding center temperature. Potential advantage of using copper in lieu of aluminum.
SCHEMATIC:
Aluminum sphere
D = 75 mm, Ti = 25oC
= 2700 kg/m3
c = 950 J/kg-K
k = 240 W/m-K

Gas
Tg,i = 300oC
h = 75 W/m2-K

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible heat transfer to or from a sphere by radiation or conduction due to
contact with other spheres, (2) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: To determine whether a lumped capacitance analysis can be used, first compute Bi =
2
h(ro/3)/k = 75 W/m K (0.025m)/150 W/mK = 0.013 < 0.1. Hence, the lumped capacitance
approximation may be made, and a uniform temperature may be assumed to exist in the sphere at any
time. From Eq. 5.8a, achievement of 90% of the maximum possible thermal energy storage
corresponds to

Q
0.90 1 exp t / t
cV i
where t Vc / hA s Dc / 6h 2700 kg / m 3 0.075m 950 J / kg K / 6 75 W / m 2 K 427s. Hence,

t t ln 0.1 427s 2.30 984s

<

From Eq. (5.6), the corresponding temperature at any location in the sphere is

T 984s Tg,i Ti Tg,i exp 6ht / Dc

T 984s 300C 275C exp 6 75 W / m K 984s / 2700 kg / m 0.075m 950 J / kg K

T 984 s 272.5C

<

Obtaining the density and specific heat of copper from Table A-1, we see that (c)Cu 8900 kg/m
6
3
6
3
400 J/kgK = 3.56 10 J/m K > (c)Al = 2.57 10 J/m K. Hence, for an equivalent sphere
diameter, the copper can store approximately 38% more thermal energy than the aluminum.
COMMENTS: Before the packed bed becomes fully charged, the temperature of the gas decreases
as it passes through the bed. Hence, the time required for a sphere to reach a prescribed state of
thermal energy storage increases with increasing distance from the bed inlet.

PROBLEM 5.24
KNOWN: Initial and final temperatures of a niobium sphere. Diameter and properties of the sphere.
Temperature of surroundings and/or gas flow, and convection coefficient associated with the flow.
FIND: (a) Time required to cool the sphere exclusively by radiation, (b) Time required to cool the
sphere exclusively by convection, (c) Combined effects of radiation and convection.
SCHEMATIC:
Ti = 900oC
Tf = 300oC

Tsur = 25oC
Niobium
= 8600 kg/m 3
c = 290 J/kg-K
k = 63 W/m-K
= 0.1 or 0.6

Inert gas
Too = 25oC
h = 200 W/m 2-K

D = 10 mm

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Uniform temperature at any time, (2) Negligible effect of holding mechanism
on heat transfer, (3) Constant properties, (4) Radiation exchange is between a small surface and large
surroundings.
ANALYSIS: (a) If cooling is exclusively by radiation, the required time is determined from Eq.
3
2
(5.18). With V = D /6, As,r = D , and = 0.1,

8600 kg / m3 290 J / kg K 0.01m

24 0.1 5.67 108 W / m 2 K 4 298K

ln

298 573
298 1173
ln
298 573
298 1173

573
1 1173
2 tan 1
tan

298
298

t 6926s 1.153 0.519 2 1.091 1.322 1190s

0.1

<

0.6

<

If = 0.6, cooling is six times faster, in which case,

t 199s
(b) If cooling is exclusively by convection, Eq. (5.5) yields

3
cD Ti T 8600 kg / m 290 J / kg K 0.010m 875
ln

ln

6h
275
1200 W / m 2 K
Tf T

<

t 24.1s
(c) With both radiation and convection, the temperature history may be obtained from Eq. (5.15).

D3 / 6 c

dT
4
D 2 h T T T 4 Tsur

dt

Integrating numerically from Ti = 1173 K at t = 0 to T = 573K, we obtain

<

t 21.0s
Continued

PROBLEM 5.24 (Cont.)

Cooling times corresponding to representative changes in and h are tabulated as follows
2

h(W/m K) |

|
t(s)
|

200
0.6
21.0

200
1.0
19.4

20
0.6
102.8

500
0.6
9.1

For values of h representative of forced convection, the influence of radiation is secondary, even for a
maximum possible emissivity of 1.0. Hence, to accelerate cooling, it is necessary to increase h.
However, if cooling is by natural convection, radiation is significant. For a representative natural
2
convection coefficient of h = 20 W/m K, the radiation flux exceeds the convection flux at the surface
of the sphere during early to intermediate stages of the transient.

Heat fluxes (W/m ^2.K)

70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Cooling time (s)

Convection flux (h=20 W/m^2.K)
Radiation flux (eps=0.6)

COMMENTS: (1) Even for h as large as 500 W/m K, Bi = h (D/6)/k = 500 W/m K (0.01m/6)/63
W/mK = 0.013 < 0.1 and the lumped capacitance model is appropriate. (2) The largest value of hr
-8
2 4
corresponds to Ti =1173 K, and for = 0.6 Eq. (1.9) yields hr = 0.6 5.67 10 W/m K (1173 +
2
2 2
2
298)K (1173 + 298 )K = 73.3 W/m K.

PROBLEM 5.86
KNOWN: Thermophysical properties and initial temperature of thick steel plate. Temperature of
water jets used for convection cooling at one surface.
FIND: Time required to cool prescribed interior location to a prescribed temperature.
SCHEMATIC:
Water jets, Too = 25 oC

Ts = Too
Steel, T i = 300 oC
= 7800 kg/m 3
c = 480 J/kg-K
k = 50 W/m-K

x
0.025 m
T(0.025 m, t) = 50oC

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in slab, (2) Validity of semi-infinite medium

approximation, (3) Negligible thermal resistance between water jets and slab surface (T s = T), (4)
Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: The desired cooling time may be obtained from Eq. (5.60). With T(0.025m, t) = 50C,

T x, t Ts
Ti Ts

50 25 C 0.0909 erf x

300 25 C
2 t

x
0.0807
2 t
t

x2

0.0807 4
2

0.025m 2

0.0261 1.34 105 m 2 / s

3

<

1793s

-5

where = k/c = 50 W/mK/(7800 kg/m 480 J/kgK) = 1.34 10 m /s.

4

COMMENTS: (1) Large values of the convection coefficient (h ~ 10 W/m K) are associated with
water jet impingement, and it is reasonable to assume that the surface is immediately quenched to the
temperature of the water. (2) The surface heat flux may be determined from Eq. (5.61). In principle,
1/2
the flux is infinite at t = 0 and decays as t .

PROBLEM 5.92
KNOWN: Thick oak wall, initially at a uniform temperature of 25C, is suddenly exposed to combustion
products at 800C with a convection coefficient of 20 W/m2K.
FIND: (a) Time of exposure required for the surface to reach an ignition temperature of 400C, (b)
Temperature distribution at time t = 325s.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Oak wall can be treated as semi-infinite solid, (2) One-dimensional conduction,
(3) Constant properties, (4) Negligible radiation.
PROPERTIES: Table A-3, Oak, cross grain (300 K): = 545 kg/m3, c = 2385 J/kgK, k = 0.17 W/mK,
= k/c = 0.17 W/mK/545 kg/m3 2385 J/kgK = 1.31 10-7 m2/s.
ANALYSIS: (a) This situation corresponds to Case 3 of Figure 5.7. The temperature distribution is
given by Eq. 5.63 or by Figure 5.8. Using the figure with

T ( 0, t ) Ti
T Ti

400 25
= 0.48
800 25

and

2 ( t )

1/ 2

=0

we obtain h(t) /k 0.75, in which case t (0.75k/h ) . Hence,

1/2

1/2 2

1/ 2 2

2
7
2
t 0.75 0.17 W m K 20 W m K 1.31 10 m s
= 310s

<

(b) Using the IHT Transient Conduction Model for a Semi-infinite Solid, the following temperature
distribution was generated for t = 325s.
400

Temperature, T(C)

325

250

175

100

25
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

Distance from the surface, x(m)

The temperature decay would become more pronounced with decreasing (decreasing k, increasing cp)
and in this case the penetration depth of the heating process corresponds to x 0.025 m at 325s.
COMMENTS: The result of part (a) indicates that, after approximately 5 minutes, the surface of the
wall will ignite and combustion will ensue. Once combustion has started, the present model is no longer
appropriate.