Differentiation

Function:
Let us consider the following question:
To fence a rectangular region with a wire of length 100 , what is the relation between
the length and the width of the rectangle?

x
Figure: A rectangle
Refer to Figure, Let the rectangular region has length and width . Then

And so

changes according to , and a value of will determine a value of . For example, if ,

then ; if , then .
We note that since is the length of a rectangle, . It is also clear that . Hence, for

this particular case, the value of is restricted to the interval . Similarly, is also

restricted to the interval .

The relation exhibits the concept of a function.

Definition: If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines
exactly one value of y, then we say that y is a function of x.
Definition: A function f from set to set , written as , is a rule that assigns, to
each element in , a unique element in . is called the domain of f, and the co-domain of
f.

f
A B

Figure: The function

1
In the above example, the function involved is

Concept of limit:
Many are puzzled by the phrase “ approaches 0 but ”. The following example gives you
an idea of what the phrase means.
Suppose one wishes to travel from to , where is 100m on the right of .

First he reaches the midpoint of .

Then he reaches the midpoint of .

He travels in this way that he always reaches the midpoint of where he is and . In other words,
if represents the distance between him and , then approaches 0 but . Can u think of
another way?

The symbol means that when approaches but , then the function value

approaches .

Definition: If the values of f(x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking values of x
sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a), then we write
, which is read “the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L.

Example.

2
Intuitively, when is close to 1, approaches 1 (say , then ; if

, then ), so approaches 1.

Example: Find

Solution: =l

Example: Find

Solution:

Continuity: A moving object cannot vanish at some point and reappear someplace else to
continue its motion. Thus, we perceive the path of a moving object as an unbroken curve, without
gaps, breaks or holes.
Definition: A function f is said to be continuous at x = a provided the following conditions are
satisfied
(i) f(a) is defined
(ii) exists

(iii)
Example: Determine whether the following functions are continuous at x = 2.

Solution: In all the cases the functions are identical, except at x = 2, and hence all three have the
same limit at x = 2, namely

The function f is undefined at x = 2, and hence is not continuous at x = 2. The function g is

defined at x = 2, but its value there is g(2) = 3 which is not same as the limit as x approaches 2,
hence g is also not continuous at x = 2. The value of the function h at x = 2 is h(2) = 4, which is
same as the limit as x approaches 2, hence h is continuous at x = 2.
Derivative:

3
Suppose a particle travels along the -axis. Its position as time is given by

.
When , ; when , ; when , ; etc.

position of particle when

position of particle when position of particle when

The average velocity of the particle between and is 4 while the average velocity of
the particle between and is 10.
We see that the average velocity is increasing when increases. This shows that the velocity of
the particle changes from time to time.
Suppose and are two different times, then the average velocity between time and

is .

If we let approaches 0, it is reasonable that

is the “instantaneous velocity” of the particle at time .

4
The gradient (slope) of a curve is the gradient of the tangent:

Gradient of chord:

= = =

Gradient of tangent:

5
Differentiation from first principles:

Definition: . Let . The derivative of at is the limit

If this limit exists, is said to be differentiable at .

Remarks

1. We use the symbol to denote the derivative of at , i.e.

6
Techniques of differentiation
**

Example1. Let f(x)=5, then

** Let be a positive integer and . Then .

Example:

**

Example(i):

(ii)

**

Example:

Parametric differentiation:

Implicit differentiation:

Logarithmic differentiation:

The product rule:

7
Example: Find if

Solution:

=
The quotient rule:

Example: Differentiate:

Solution:

The chain rule:

(function of a function)

y is a function of u and u is a function of x

Example: Differentiate (i) ,(ii)

8
Solution (i) Let

.3=

(ii) Let

Chain Rule:
If g is differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the composition is differentiable
at x. Moreover,

Alternatively, if then, y = f (u) and

Example : If , find

Solution. We first find f and g such that h = .

If then

Using Chain rule,

Alternatively, let y = h(x) and let

By the form of the chain rule

Example: If , find .

Solution:

9
Example: If , find .

Solution:

Example: Evaluate the derivatives of the following functions:

Solution:

(b) By the product and chain rules:

(c) By the Quotient rule:

Implicit differentiation:
Example: Find if xy = 1
Solution: Differentiating implicitly yields
, from which it follows that

Example: Find the slope of the curve at the points (2,-1) and (2,1).
Solution: Differentiating implicitly yields

10
We have accumulated the following formulae:

(a constant) 0

11
 Coshx

Sinhx

Derivative of Logarithmic and exponential function:

Example: Find

Solution: =

Example: Find

Solution: =

Example: Differentiate
Solution: Let

Differentiating both sides w. r. to x,

Example: Find if
Solution: On rationalizing the denominator,

12
Example: If find

Solution: Putting

Differentiations of parametric equations:

When x and y are given in terms of a parameter, say , then by the function of a function rule of
differentiation

Example: Find if

Solution:

Higher (successive) derivatives:

Now, is denoted by (i.e. 2nd derivative of y with respect to x)

Similarly, ,(i.e. 3nd derivative of y with respect to x) is here 6.

If y = f (x), the successive derivatives are also denoted by

13
D stand for the symbol .

##The derivatives of some special functions

(a constant) 0

Sin(ax+b)

Cos(ax+b)

Example: If show that

Solution : Given
Differentiating

Differentiating again,

Example: If

find

Solution:

14
Let

Multiplying both sides by , we get,

Putting x = 0,-3,2 successively on both sides, we get

Applications of differentiations:

Example: A particle P moves along the x-axis in such a way that its position at time t is given by
ft.
(a) Find the velocity and acceleration of P at time t.
(b) In which direction and how fast is P moving at 2 s? Is it speeding up or slowing down at
that time?
(c) When is P instantaneously at rest? When is its speed instantaneously not changing?
Solution:
(a) The velocity and acceleration of P at time t are
ft/s

ft/s2
(b) At t = 2, we have v = -12 and a = -6. Thus, P is moving to the left with speed 12 ft/s, and,
since the velocity and acceleration are both negative, its speed is increasing.
(c) P is at rest when v = 0, that is, when t = 1 or t = 4 s. Its speed is unchanging when a =0,
that is, at t = 5/2 s.

Example: Determine the rate of change of voltage, given volts when t = 0.2s.
Solution: Rate of change of voltage is

When t = 0.2,
Example: The luminous intensity I candelas of a lamp at varying voltage V is given by
Determine the voltage at which the length is increasing at a rate of 0.6 candelas
per volt.
Solution: The rate of change of light with respect to voltage is given by .
Since

When the light is increasing at 0.6 candelas per volt then

15
Example: Newton’s law of cooling is given by where the excess of temperature at
zero time is Determine the rate of change of temperature after 40 s, given that

Solution: The rate of change of temperature is

When

Example: The distance x metres moved by a car in a time t seconds is given by

Determine the velocity and acceleration when (a) t = 0 and (b) t = 1.5 s.
Solution: Velocity

Acceleration

(a) When time t = 0,

(b) When time t = 1.5,

Ex: A car is travelling at 72 km/h. At a certain instant its brakes are applied to produce a constant
deceleration of 0.8 m/s2. How far does the car travel before coming to a stop?
Solution: Let s(t) be the distance the car travels in the t seconds after the brakes are applied.
Then so the velocity at any time t is given by

We have c1 = 20. Thus,

When the car has stopped, its velocity will be 0.

The distance travelled during deceleration is

Ex: Suppose that a spring with an attached mass is stretched 3 cm beyond its rest position
and released at time t = 0. Assuming that the position function of the top of the attached
mass is

where s is in centimeters and t is in seconds, find the velocity and discuss the motion of
the attached mass.

16
Solution:

The velocity function is

The position function tells us that the top of the mass oscillates between a low point of s = -3 and
a high point of s = 3 with the complete oscillation occurring every seconds. The top of the
mass is moving up when v is positive, is moving down when v is negative, and is at a high or low
point when v = 0. Thus, for example, the top of the mass moves up from time t = 0 to time t =
at which time it reaches the high point s = 3 and the moves down until the time t = , at
which it reaches the low point of s = -3. The motion then repeats periodically.

Partial Differentiation

Area of a rectangle depends upon its length and breadth, hence we can say that area is the
function of two variables, i.e., its length and breadth.
z is called a function of two variables x and y if z has one definite value for every pair of x and y.
Symbolically, it is written as
z = f (x,y).
The variables x and y are called independent variables while z is called the dependent variable.
Similarly, we can define z as a function of more than two variables.

Partial derivatives: Let z = f(x,y) be function of two independent variables x and y. If we keep y
constant and x varies then z becomes a function of x only. The derivative of z with respect of x,
keeping, y as constant is called partial derivatives of z, w.r.to x and is denoted by the symbols
etc. Then

Similarly,

Notation:

Example: If find

Solution: (a)To find , y is kept constant

(b)To find , x is kept constant

Example: If show that

Solution: , since y is kept constant

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 , since x is kept constant

Hence .

Application: Error determination

is known as absolute error in x

is known as the relative error in x

is known as percentage error in x.

Example: Pressure p of a mass of a gas is given by , where m and R are constants, V
is the volume and T the temperature. Find expressions for .

Solution: Since then

Hence V is kept constant.

T is kept constant.

Example: The power dissipated in a resistor is given by . Using calculus, find the
approximate percentage change in P when E is increased by 3% and R is decreased by 2%.
Solution:
On differentiating we get,

Percentage change in P = 8.

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Partial derivatives of higher order:

Let z = f (x,y), then being the functions of x and y can be further differentiated partially
w.r. to x and y.
Symbolically

Example: Prove that satisfies

, where f and g are assumed to be at least twice differentiable and a is any

constant.
Solution: --------------(1)
Differentiating (1) w.r. to x partially we get

Differentiating (1) w.r. to t partially we get

Example: If find the value of

Solution:

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 Extremum problem (Maxima and Minima):

One application of the derivative is to determine the maximum and minimum of a differentiable
function. We shall give examples of this application.
Local maximum or local minimum is generally known as local extremum . Look at the graph of
in the figure and note that
(i) is a local maximum,
(ii) is a local minimum,
(iii) is a minimum on
(iv) is a local maximum on and it is also maximum on ,
(v) f(a) is not a local minimum on [a,b]
(vi) is a maximum on
(vii) is a minimum on
Theorem: If f(c) is a local extremum and f if differentiable at c, then

Turning points:
(Stationary points)

20
P is a maximum Q is a minimum

At a turning point: ;

Max if : Min if :

Inflexion point if:

Definition: A number is called a critical number of if or is not

differentiable at .

21
 Determination of Maxima and Minima:

Example: Find the extremum of .

Solution: Since is continuous on , the Extremum Theorem tells us that has a

maximum and a minimum.

Or, x = 0 or 4/3

So, the critical numbers of are and 6 (observe that 0 and 6 are critical numbers of

because is not differentiable at 0 or 6).

Thus, 151 is the maximum and is the minimum.

Let us note the following result which is useful in determining whether a local extremum occurs
at a critical point.

Example: Find the extremum of

Solution: Since sin and cos are periodic functions with period , it is enough to look at the
problem for .

and to find the critical number we let . Then we get

or

Critical numbers of are and . ( 0 and are critical numbers because is not

differentiable at and when we restrict the domain to ). is continuous on

, thus has a maximum and a myinimum. They occur at the critical numbers.

22
Comparing , and , we see that

is the maximum and is the minimum.

Second derivative test: If c is a point the interval in which the function f (x) is defined and if
and the f(c) is a maximum if is negative and a minimum if
is positive.

Example: Find for what values of x, the following expression is maximum and minimum
respectively:
, find also the maximum and minimum values of the expression.

Solution: Let

Which exists for all values of x.

Now, when f(x) is a maximum or a minimum,

Now, when x =1, , which is negative

When x = 6, , which is positive
Hence the given expression is maximum for x = 1, and minimum for x = 6.
The maximum and minimum values of the given expression are respectively f(1), i.e. -3 and
f(6), i.e. -128.
Example: Examine whether possesses a maximum or a minimum and determine the
same.
Let

Differentiating (1) w. r . to x,

When x = e, , which is negative

Therefore, for x = e, the function is a maximum, and the maximum value is .

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Example: A liquid form of penicillin manufactured by a pharmaceutical firm is sold in bulk at a
price of RM 200 per unit. If the total production cost for x units is

And if the production capacity of the firm is at most 30,000 units in a specified time, how many
units of penicillin must be manufactured and sold in that time to maximize the profit?
Solution: Since the total revenue for selling x units is , the profit P(x) on x units
will be
---(1)
Since the production capacity is at most 30,000 units, x must lie in the interval [0,30,000].
From (1)

Setting

Since the critical number lies in the interval [0,30,000], the maximum profit must occur at one of
the values x = 0, x = 20,000 or, x = 30,000.

Therefore the maximum profit P= 700,000 occurs when x = 20,000 units manufactured and sold
in the spefied times.

Example: An object is hurled upward from the roof of a building 10 m high. It rises and then falls
back; its height above ground t s after it is thrown is
m,
until it strikes the ground. What is the maximum height above the ground that the object attains?
With what speed does the object strike the ground?

Solution: The vertical velocity at time t during flight is

m/s.
The object is rising when v>0, that is, when and is falling for t > 8/9.8. Thus, the
object is at its maximum height at time t = 8/9.8 s, and this maximum height is

m.

The time t at which the object strikes the ground is the positive root of the quadratic equation
obtained by setting y = 0,
Namely,

s.
The velocity at this time is v = -(9.8)(2.462)+8 =16.12. Thus, the object strikes the ground with
a speed of about 16.12 m/s.

24
Example: A boat sails 30miles to the east from a point , then it changes direction and sails to
the south. If this boat is sailing at a constant speed of 10miles/hr, at what rate is its distance from
the point increasing

(i) 2hours after it leaves the point

(ii) 7 hours after it leaves the point ?

Solution:
(i) Since the constant speed of the boat is 10miles/hr, so 2hrs after it leaves the point ,
it has traveled 20 miles and it is still sailing east. Thus the rate of its distance from the
point is increasing at 10miles/hr.
(ii) 7hrs after it leaves , it has sailed east 30 miles in 3hrs and south 40 miles in 4hrs.
Let its distance from at time t after it starts sailing be , where hrs, and be
the distance traveled along the south direction.

Then

So

When Then

Thus the rate of its distance from the point is increasing at 8miles/hr.

Example: A d.c supply has e.m.f E = 12 V and internal resistance . Prove using
calculus that the power transferred to a load resistor R is a maximum when

[Hints: The power, P, in the load is given by ]

Solution: The power, P, in the load is given by

Substituting E = 12 and r = 1 we find

(2)

For maximum power transfer to the load we require

(2)
Now,

25
 (4)

Which show that he turning point, 1, is a maximum. Hence maximum power is

transferred to the load when R = r. (2)

Integration

Definition: If , then is the derivative of and is called

an antiderivative (integral or indefinite integral) of on .
Again, If F (x) is an integral of f(x), and x = a and x = b be two given values of x, the quantity
F(b) – F(a) is defined as the definite integral of f(x), denoted by the symbol
.

a b
Constant of integration: It may be noted that
then we also have where C is an arbitrary

constant. Thus, a general value of the indefinite integral .

Integration is differentiation in reverse:

26
differentiating. gives

integrating reverses this and we get back

c can be any number – c is an arbitrary constant

is called an Indefinite Integral.

Example: Find

Solution: Let . Then . Thus is an antiderivative

of . Therefore

(You will see later that where is the logarithmic function with base
.)

Example: Determine:
Solution: Let 3x+7=u
Then

Therefore

Example: Find where is a rational number and .

Solution: Let , then and .

Fundamental Integrals:

27
Techniques and applications of Integration:

Example: Find
Solution: Let , then

Example: Find

Solution: Let , then and

Example: Determine

Solution: can be written as

Hence =4x+

=4x+

Example: Determine (a)

Solution: Rearranging into standard integral form gives:

Example: Find the indefinite integrals:

28
 Solution:

(a)
, Let

(b)

, Let

(c)
, Let

Example: Find
Solution:

Example: Find
Solution: Let , then .

29
Example: Find .

Solution: Let .

Example: Find

Solution: Let

Example: Find

Solution: Let , then

Integration by parts:
Sometimes it is written as
This is known as the formula of integration by parts.

30
Example: Find
Solution:

Example: Find

Solution: We let and , then and .

To find , let , then

Putting this into (1), we get

31
 .

Example: Find
Solution:

Put this into (1), then

So thus

Example: Evaluate:

Solution: =

Example: Find .

Solution: Let , then and

32
Refer to the figure, since ,

Thus

Example: Find

Solution: Let , then .

Since , we have ,

thus

Example: Find

Solution: Let , then .

Partial fraction:
Find

33
Solution: , writing it in the partial fraction, we have

Example: Find

Solution: First we shall express as a partial fraction.

Then

To find , we let , then

Similarly,

THEOREM (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)

Suppose
(i) is integrable on
(ii) is continuous on and on

Then

34
Definite integral: Definite integrals are those in which limits are applied.

Example: Evaluate (a) and (b)

Solution: (a)

(b)

Example: Evaluate

Solution:

Example: Evaluate:
Solution:

Example: Find

Solution: We know that is an antiderivative of

Now is continuous on and on

is continuous on and is integrable on .

By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,

Remark
is often written as to emphasize on the variable .

35
 Example: Find

Solution: is continuous on , so it is integrable on . We need to

find one antiderivative of .

We need only one antiderivative of , we choose

Thus

Example: Evaluate:

Solution: Let

Thus

Example:
Solution:

36
Example:

Solution: Putting

When x =0,

Example:
Solution:Put
When x =0,

General properties of definite Integral:

if f(x) is odd function, , if f(x) is even

function
Cor: A function f(x) is said to be an odd function of x, if f(-x)= - f(x). e.g x, sinx
A function f(x) is said to be an even function of x, if f(-x)= f(x). e.g

Example: Show that

Solution:

37
Example: Show that

Solution:

Example: A car is travelling at 72 km/h. At a certain instant its brakes are applied to produce a
constant deceleration of 0.8 m/s2. How far does the car travel before coming to a stop?

Solution: Let s(t) be the distance the car travels in the t seconds after the breaks are applied. Then
so the velocity at time t is given by
m/s.
Since km/h = 20 m/s, we have . Thus,

38
And

Since s(0) = 0, we have and When the car has stopped, its velocity
will be 0. Hence, the stopping time is the solution t of the equation

That is, t = 25 s. The distance travelled during deceleration is s(25) = 250 m.

Applications of integration:

Let us look at a few applications of integration. We shall see how the integral can be used to find
the length of a curve, the area of a surface of revolution and the volume of a solid of a revolution.

Length of a curve:

The length of the curve is defined as

The length of the line segment joining and is given by

If is a function with continuous first order derivative on the interval , then the length of
the curve is defined by the integral

Example: Find the length of the curve from (1,1) to .

Solution:

The required arc length

, Let

39
Example: Find the length of the curve from to

Solution: Let , then

and

The length of the curve

Example: Determine the length of an arc of the cycloid ,

measured from the vertex (i.e., the origin)

Solution: Here

Also at the origin .

Hence the required length, from to any point is
.
Areas of a plane curves:
The definite integral represents the area bounded by the curves y =
f(x), the x-axis and the two fixed ordinates x = a and x =b.
Example: Find the area of the quadrant of the ellipse

between the major and minor axes.

Solution: The required area is

, for the curve

y= putting

40
=

Example: Find the area A of the plane region lying above the x-axis and under the curve

Solution:
We need to find the points where the curve meets the x-axis. These are solutions of
the equation

The only roots are x = 0 and 3. Hence, the area of the region is given by

square units.

Example: Find the area under the curve above y = 0 from x = 0 to

Solution: The required area is

square units.

**Area between two curves

If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a,b] and if for all x in [a,b], then

the area of the region bounded above by y = f(x), below by y = g(x), on the left by x = a and on

the right by the line x = b is

Example: Find the area of the bounded, plane region R lying between the curves

and

Solution: First, we must find the intersections of the curves, so we solve the equations

simultaneously:

So x = 2 or x = -1

Since The area A of R is given by

41
= 9 square units.

Example: Find the area of the region bounded above by y = x+6, bounded below by , and

bounded on the sides by the lines x = 0 and x = 2.

Solution: The required area

Example . Find the area of the region bounded by the curves and
Solution: The two curves and meet when , i.e. which
gives or . Note that on the interval , the graph of lies above that of
. Thus the area of the region between and is

Surface of Revolution:
If is a continuously differentiable non-negative function on ,then the area of a
surface generated by revolving the curve , about the -axis is

42
 Suppose that a parametric curve in the upper half of the -plane defined by a pair of
continuously differentiable functions

Example: Find the surface area of a sphere with radius

Solution: The surface of a sphere can be generated by revolving a semicircle
, about the -axis.

Let , . Then

Volume of Revolution:
The Disc Method:
The volume of the solid of revolution generated by revolving about the -axis the region
bounded by the curve , where is continuous, and the -axis
from to is given by
.

Example: Find the volume of a sold ball having radius a.

Solution: The ball can be generated by rotating the half-disk, about
the x-axis. Therefore its volume is

cubic units.

Example: Find the volume of the solid of revolution when the region which is bounded by
the curves and is revolved about
(i) The -axis, (ii) The -axis

43
Solution: Let us first find the points of intersection between the two given curves. Solving
the two equations and , we have
i.e.
So, or , and the curves meet at and .

(i) The region bounded by the two curves (refer to the figure above) is revolved about the
-axis. Note that a small vertical slice of the solid which is perpendicular to the axis of
revolution is in the form of a washer with cross sectional area

The volume obtained by revolving about the -axis is

(ii) The region is revolved about the -axis. A small horizontal slice of the solid which is
perpendicular to the axis of revolution is in the form of a washer with cross sectional area

The volume obtained by revolving about the -axis is

The Shell Method:

44
The volume of the solid of revolution is

Example: Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by the
curve and the -axis between and about
(i) The -axis
(ii) The -axis
(iii) The line

Solution:
(i) The given region is revolved about the -axis. Subdivide the region into small strips
that are parallel to the axis of revolution, then each strip when revolved generates a
cylindrical shell. The volume of the solid of revolution about the -axis is

(ii)When the given region is revolved about the -axis, we subdivide the region into
small strips that are perpendicular to the axis of revolution. Each strip when revolved
generates a disc. The volume of the solid of revolution is

(iii)When the given region is revolved about the line , a vertical strip at coordinate
is at distance from the axis of revolution; and when revolved it generates a
cylindrical shell. The volume of solid of revolution is

45
Multiple Integrals: Multiple integral is a natural extension of a definite integral to a function of
two variables (double integral) or three variables (triple integral) or more variables. Double and
triple integrals are useful in evaluating are, volume, mass, centroid and moments of inertia of
plane and solid regions.

Double integral over region A may be evaluated by two successive integrations. If A is described
as

Then

a b

Partial definite integrals:

Example:

46
This two-stage of integration process is called iterated integration.

We introduce the following notation:

These integrals are called iterated integrals.

Example: Evaluate

Solution: (a)

Similarly,(b) 112

Example: Evaluate the double integral

over the rectangle

Solution:

Example: Evaluate

Solution: We have

= =

Example: Evaluate
Solution:

47
Example: Evaluate over the region in the positive quadrant for which .
Solution:

B(0,1)

x+y=1

O A(1,0) x

Solution: x+y=1 represents a straight line AB in the figure. The limits for y are 1 – x and 0.

Required integral =

Area in polar coordinate: Area =

Evaluate,

Solution:

Triple integral: Let V be a given three-dimensional domain in space, bounded by a closed

surface S. Let f(x,y,z) be a continuous function in V of the rectangular coordinates x,y,z. Then a
triple integral of f over the domain V is defined as
------------(1)
Volume: Volume of a solid contained in the domain V is given by the triple integral (1) with
f(x,y,z) = 1,
i.e. volume =

Evaluate:

Solution:

48
Example: Find the total mass of the region in the cube with density
at any point given by xyz.

Solution: Mass =

Complex numbers

For any real number x, x2 0 and therefore x2 + 1 1>0 for x R. Thus the equation
x2 + 1 = 0 has no solution in R. This equation has a solution in the complex number field.
Note that i, -i are the solutions of the equation x2 + 1 = 0. i = .

Definition: A number of the form a + ib is called a complex number when a and b are real
numbers and i = . We denote the set of all complex numbers by C. Two complex numbers z1
= (a1,b1) and z2 = (a2,b2) are equal if a1=a2 and b1=b2.
A pair of complex numbers a + ib and a – ib are said to be conjugate of each other.

Fundamental operations with complex numbers:

1. Addition: z1 + z2 = = (a1+a2, b1+b2)

2. Subtraction: z1 - z2 = = (a1-a2, b1-b2)
3. Multiplication:z1z2 = = (a1a2 – b1b2,
a1b2+a2b1)

4. Division:

Graphical representation of a complex number:

y
(a,b)

If z = (a,b), then a and b are the real and imaginary parts of the complex number z. The complex
numbers can be represented as points in R2 and we call the x-axis and y-axis to be the real and
imaginary axis respectively. The plane itself is called the Argand plane. Also one can think of a
complex number as a vector from the origin to the point (a,b).

49
Example: Let and . Then their sum is given by

And their difference is given by

Their product is given by

Example: We find the real and imaginary part of . Since

We have

And therefore

From these equation, we conclude that

And

Modulus of a complex number (Absolute value)

For any complex number is a nonnegative real number and therefore there is a
nonnegative square root for . This nonnegative square root of is the modulus of
the complex number. Note also that .

Definition: Let be a complex number. The nonnegative square root of is the

modulus (or the absolute value) of the number and is denoted by ; thus we have

50
Argument of a complex number (Polar form):

Definition: Let be any nonzero complex number. Let . The argument of a

nonzero complex number , denoted by , is the angle defined by the equations

y
(a,b)
b
x
a

The argument of a complex number is the angle between the real axis and the line segment
joining the origin to the point . We can write any nonzero complex number in the following
polar form

We write

And thus
=
R is called the modulus (or magnitude) of z and is called the argument (or amplitude) of z.

Example: Express the complex number in polar form.

Solution: Modulus or absolute value,

Amplitude or argument

Then =

Example: Let . Then

And the argument is given by

51
Clearly

Thus

Let . The modulus of is given by

And the argument is given by

Therefore,

And

Let . In this case, we have and the argument and therefore

Let . Then

And the argument is given by

Clearly,

Thus

Example: Convert (a) , (b) into Cartesian form.

Solution(a) Using trigonometric ratios,
Hence
(b) lies in the 3rd quadrant.
Angle
Hence
Hence

Example: Solve the complex equation

Solution: ,
Equating the real and imaginary parts gives:

De Moivre’s Theorem:

**Roots of a complex number:

52
Giving m the values of 0,1,2,…,n-1 successively, we get the required roots.

Example: Find the different values of

Solution:

Putting n = 0,1,2 we get 3 values

Applications of complex numbers:

The effect of multiplying a phasor by i is to rotate it in a positive direction (i.e. anticlockwise)

on an Argand diagram through without altering its length.. Similarly, multiplying a phasor
by – i rotates the phasor through - . These facts are used in a.c. theory since certain
quantities in the phasor diagrams lie at to each other. For example, in the R-L series circuit
leads i by and may be written as i . Thus
where is the inductive reactance, and
V = IZ (Z is the impedance) then
Similarly for the R – C circuit lags I by and

Example: Determine the resistance and series inductance (or capacitance) for each of the
following impedances, assuming a frequency of 50 Hz:

Solution: (a) Impedance , Z = , hence

Resistance = and reactance = 7.0 , since the imaginary part is positive, the reactance is
inductive, , then inductance,

or 22.3 mH

53
(b)Impedance , Z = , hence
Resistance = and reactance = 20 , since the imaginary part isnegative, the reactance is
capacitive, , then capacitance,

Exponential and circular functions of a complex number:

If then we define:

Hyperbolic functions:

54
We will study certain combinations of and , called hyperbolic functions.
The function can be expressed as the sum of an odd function and an even function:

The odd function is called the hyperbolic sine of x and the even function is called the hyperbolic
cosine of x. They are denoted by

Relation between circular and hyperbolic functions:

Derivatives of Hyperbolic functions:

Example:

Example: Differentiate the following hyperbolic functions

Solution: (a)

55
(b)

Vectors and Scalars

A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction, such as displacement, velocity, force
and acceleration.

56
Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow OP defining the direction, the magnitude of the
vector being indicated by the length of the arrow.
O

P
Analytically a vector is represented by a letter with an arrow over it, as and its magnitude is
denoted by or A.
A scalar is a quantity having magnitude but no direction, e.g. mass, length, time and any real
number.

Vector algebra:
1. Two vectors A and B are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction regardless
of the position of their initial points. Thus

2. A vector having direction opposite to that of vector but having the same magnitude is
denoted by - .

3. The sum or resultant of vectors and is a vector formed by placing the initial
point of on the terminal point of and then joining the initial point of to the
terminal point of , i.e. = + .

4. - = + (- ), the subtraction of from may be regarded as the addition

of - to . If = , then - is defined as the null or zero vector and is
represented by the symbol 0.
5. The product of a vector by a scalar m is a vector m with magnitude times
the magnitude of and with direction the same as or opposite to that of , according
as m is positive or negative.

Laws of vector Algebra:

1. + = + commutative law for addition

2. +( + )=( + )+ Associative law for addition

57
 3. m = m commutative law for multiplication
4. m(n )= (mn) Associative law for multiplication

Unit vector: A unit vector is a vector is a vector having unit magnitude, if is a vector with

magnitude , then is a unit vector having the same direction as .

The rectangular unit vectors : An important set of unit vectors are those having the
directions of the positive x, y and z axes of a three dimensional rectangular coordinate system,
and are denoted respectively by and .

Components of a vector: Any vector in 3 dimensions can be represented with initial point at
the origin O of a rectangular coordinate system. Let be the rectangular coordinates
of the terminal point of vector with initial point at O. The vectors and are
called the component vectors of .
Vector , the magnitude of is
In particular, the position vector or radius vector from O to the point (x,y,z) is written
and has magnitude .
z

x Example: Given , find the magnitude of

Solution: (a)
(b)

Example: Find a unit vector parallel to the resultant of vectors

Solution: Resultant

Then a unit vector parallel to is .

Product of vectors:

Two vectors are multiplied in two manners, i.e., scalarly and vectorly.

58
The scalar or dot product: The dot product of vectors and is the scalar quantity
obtained by multiplying the product of the magnitudes of the vectors and the cosine of the angle
between them.
In symbols, , where is the angle between and .

The following laws are valid:

5.If

6.If , and and are not null vectors, then and are perpendicular.

The vector or cross product: The vector or cross product of two vectors and is a vector
. The magnitude of is defined as the product of the magnitudes of and
and the sine of the angle between them. The direction of the vector is
perpendicular to the plane and such that , and form a right-handed system.
In symbols, , where is a unit vector indicating the direction of
. If = , or if is parallel to then

The following laws are valid:

5.If

6.The magnitude of is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides and .

59
Triple product: The vector product of two vectors and is a vector quantity. So this
product may be multiplied scalarly or vectorially with a third vector to give two
triple products namely and . The former being a scalar quantity is
termed as scalar triple product or box product and the latter being a vector quantity is called a
vector triple product.

The following laws are valid:

= volume of the parallelepiped having and

as edges.
If

3.
4.

Example: Find the angle between and

Solution:

Example: Determine the value of a so that and are

perpendicular.
Solution:
If and are perpendicular then
Then
Example: Find the work done in moving an object along a vector if the
applied force is
Solution:

Work done =
Example: If and , find

Solution: (a)

60
(c)

Example: Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of and

Solution: is a vector perpendicular to the plane of and .

A unit vector perpendicular to is

Example: Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose three co-terminus edges are represented
by the vectors and
Solution: Volume of the required parallelepiped is scalar triple product of the vectors
and

61
 Matrices and Matrix Operations

The following rectangular array with three rows and seven columns might describe
the number of hours that a student spent studying three subjects during a certain week:

Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun Mon

Math 2 3 2 4 1 4 2
Engl 0 3 1 4 4 2 2
Che 4 1 3 1 0 0 2

If we suppress the headings, then we are left with the following rectangular array of numbers
with 3 rows and 7 columns called a “matrix”.

2 3 2 4 1 4 2
0 3 1 4 4 2 2
4 1 3 1 0 0 2

Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers.

Examples:
A general m n matrix might be written as

A matrix with only one row is called a row matrix and a matrix with only one column is called a
column matrix.
A matrix A with n rows and n columns is called a square matrix of order n and the entries a , a
,…., a are said to be main diagonal of A .

Operations on Matrices
Equality: Two matrices are defined to be equal if they have the same order and their
corresponding entries are equal.
Consider the matrices

If x = 5, then A = B. There is no value of x for which A=C since A & C have different orders.

62
Definition: If A and B are the matrices of the same order, then the A+B is the matrix obtained by
adding the entries of B to the corresponding entries of A, and the difference A-B is the matrix
obtained by subtracting the entries of B from the corresponding entries of A. Matrix of different
sizes cannot be added or subtracted.
Example:
Then

The expressions A+C, B+C, A-C and B-C are undefined.

Definition: If A is any matrix and c is any scalar, then the product cA is the matrix obtained by
multiplying each entry of the matrix A by c.
For the matrix

we have,

Definition:If A is an m r matrix and B is an r n matrix, then the product AB is the m n matrix

whose entries are determined as follows:
Multiply the corresponding entries from the row and column together and then add up the
resulting products.
Consider

The entry in row 1 and column 1 of AB is computed as follows:

(1.1) + (2.3) + (0.1) = 7
The computations for the remaining products are
(1.3)+ (2.2) + (0.1) = 7
…………………………

A B = AB
m r r n = m n
Transpose of a matrix: If A is an m n matrix, then the transpose of A,denoted byA is defined
to be the n m matrix that results from interchanging the rows and columns of A.
If

Trace: If A is a square matrix, then the trace of A, denoted by tr(A), is defined to be the sum of
the entries on the main diagonal of A.
If

63
Inverses; Rules of Matrix Arithmetic
Properties of Matrix Operations: for real numbers a and b always have ab = ba, which is called
commutative law for multiplication. Matrices, however, AB and BA need not be equal. It can
happen that the product AB is defined but BA is undefined.
Consider the matrices

Thus AB BA.

Properties of Matrix Arithmetic:

The following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid
(i)A + B = B + A (commutative law for addition)
(ii) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (Associative law for addition)
(iii) A(BC) = (AB)C (Associative law for multiplication)
(iv)A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left distributive law)
(v)(B + C)A = BA + CA (Right distributive law)

Zero matrix: A matrix, all of whose entries are zero, such as

is called zero matrix.

Identity Matrix: The n-square identity or matrix denoted by I is the n-square matrix with 1’s on
the diagonal and 0’s elsewhere.
Example:

Singular & Nonsingular matrices: If , then A is said to be nonsingular matrix;

otherwise it is said to be singular.
Thus
and are nonsingular and singular respectively.
The inverse of a matrix: Let A be a nonsingular matrix of order n. Let B be another square
matrix of the same order such that AB = BA = I, where I is the unit matrix of order n. Then B is
said to be the inverse of A which is written as A .
Thus A A = A A = I.

The matrix

is invertible if ad – bc 0, in which case the inverse is given by the formula

Example: Inverse of
is

64
 Example: Find the inverse of

Here =8
Cofactors of A are a11 = -1 a12 = -3 a13 = 7
a 21 = 3 a22 = 1 a23 = -5
a31 = 5 a32 = 7 a33 = -11

adjoint

Task: Find the inverse of the following matrices:

Using Row Operations to find the inverse of

Solution: We want to reduce A to the identity matrix by row operations and simultaneously apply
these operations on I to transform it into A . The computations are as follows:

Thus

65
Triangular Matrices: A square matrix in which all the entries below the main diagonal are zero
is called upper triangular and a square matrix in which all the entries above the main diagonal are
zero is called lower triangular. A matrix that is either upper triangular or lower triangular is
called triangular.

Examples:

upper triangular lower triangular

Orthogonal Matrices: A square matrix A with the property At = A-1 is said to be orthogonal
matrix.
It follows from this definition that a square matrix A is orthogonal if and only if
A At = AtA = I.
Example:
is orthogonal for all choices of , since

Rank of a matrix: The rank of a matrix A is equal to the order of the highest ordered
nonvanishing determinant in A. It follows, therefore, that for a nonsingular square matrix of order
n, the rank is equal to n.

Examples: A = , r (A) = 0 , since all elements are 0

A= , r (A) = 2, since

A= , r (A) = 1, since

Task: Find the rank of

Example: Solve by Cramer’s rule:

66
Solution:

Matrix Inversion Method:

Consider the system a11x1 + a12x2 + … + a1nxn = b1
a12x2 + a22x2 + … + a2nxn = b2
………………………………
an1x1 + an2 x2 + … + annxn = bn
The system can be written in the matrix form as
AX = B
where

AX = B

If A is known, then the solution vector X can be found out from the above matrix relation.
Example: Solve the equations 3x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 3
2x1 – 3x2 – x3 = -3
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 4
The given system can be written as
AX = B
Where

Here =8
Cofactors of A are a11 = -1 a12 = -3 a13 = 7
a 21 = 3 a22 = 1 a23 = -5
a31 = 5 a32 = 7 a33 = -11

adjoint

67
 It follows therefore

which gives x1 = 1, x2 = 2 and x3 = -1.

Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues:

Let

The images of u and v under multiplication by A are shown in figure.

In this section, we study equations such as Ax = 2x or Ax = -4x
and we look for vectors that are transformed by A into a scalar multiple of themselves.

Definition: An eigenvector of matrix A is a nonzero vector x such that Ax = x for some

scalar . A scalar  is called an eigenvalue of A if there is nontrivial solution x of Ax = x; such
an x is called an eigenvector corresponding to .
Example: Let

Are u and v eigenvectors of A ?

Solution:

Thus u is an eigenvector corresponding to an eigenvalue –4, but v is not an eigenvector of A ,

because Av is not a multiple of v.

To find the eigenvalues of an matrix we rewrite Ax = x as

Ax = Ix
Or equivalently (A - I)x = 0 …..(i)
For  to be an eigenvalue, there must be a nonzero solution of this equation.
However (i) has a nonzero solution if and only if
det(A - I) = 0
This is called the characteristic equation of A; the scalars satisfying this equation are the
eigenvalues of A. When expanded, the determinant det(A - I) is a polynomial p in  called the
characteristic polynomial of A.

68
Example: Find the eigenvalues and eigen vectors of

Solution: The eigen values2 are the roots of the characteristic equation

The two distinct eigenvalues are 4 and 6

Eigenvector corresponding to eigen value :

Eigenvector corresponding to eigen value :

Eigenvalues of 3 3 matrix: Find the eigenvalues of

Solution: The characteristic polynomial of A is det(A - I) =

= -3 + 82 - 17 + 4

The eigenvalues of A must satisfy the cubic equation -3 + 82 - 17 + 4 = 0
or 3 - 82 + 17 - 4 = 0
or ( - 4) (2 - 4 + 1) = 0
Therefore  = 4 ,

69
Theorem: If A is an n n triangular matrix (upper , lower or diagonal), then the eigenvalues of A
are the entries on the main diagonal of A.
Example: The eigenvalues of the lower triangular matrix

are  = 2 , 4 and 2.

70