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UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOG
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER
ENGINEERING
COMMUNICATION STREAM
THESIS TITLE: - PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF
CDMA2000 NETWORK
By:
FULL NAME ID NO
1. MANAYE MULUALEM 00729/09
2. LIJAEM ENDALE 00703/09
3. BIRHANU ENGEDAW 05053/11
4. WALEBELAY AZENE 01168/09
Advisor: Mr. Mekashaw D.
Submitted to university of Gondar in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Bachelor of Science Electrical and computer Engineering [communication
Engineering].
Submission date: - July, 2013 E.C

Gondar, Ethiopia
Performance Analysis of CDMA2000 Networks 2013
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UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOG
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER
ENGINEERING
COMMUNICATION STREAM
THESIS TITLE: - PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF CDMA
2000 NETWORKS.
By
FULL NAME ID NO
1.MANAYE MULUALEM 00729/09
2.LIJAEM ENDALE 00703/09
3.BIRHANU ENGEDAW 05053/11
4.WALEBELAY AZENE 01168/09
Advisor: MEKASHAW DESALEGN
Approval by Committee
The undersigned certify that the above candidate/s has fulfilled the condition of the
project paper in partial fulfillment of the course B.Sc. final Thesis report.
___________________ _________________ ________________

Chairman, Dept. Head Signature Date
___________________ _________________ __________________
Advisor Signature Date
_________________ _________________ ___________________
Examiner 1 Signature Date
_________________ _________________ ___________________
Examiner 2 Signature Date
UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

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Declaration
We, students of university of Gondar Institute of technology studying Electrical
and computer engineering, in Communication stream, are declaring that this
thesis project is our original work. We hereby confirm that all the source
materials used while preparing this thesis are referenced and acknowledged
properly by our signatures:
Name signature
Manaye Mulualem _____________________
Lijalem Endalew _____________________
Birhanu Engedaw _____________________
Walbelay Azene _____________________
Gondar, Ethiopia
Date of submission: 18/11/2013 E.C
This project has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university
advisor.
_________________________ __________________
Advisor's name signature
UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

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Acknowledgement
First of all, we would like to thank the almighty GOD for giving us the patience
to start and finalize this project. Thank be to Holly Virgin Marry, and His saints
too, for helping us during those remarkable times, and secondly, we would like
to thank our Advisor Mrs. Mekashaw Desalegn for his expert, sincere and
valuable guidance and encouragement. We are thankful for his aspiring guidance,
invaluably constructive criticism and friendly advice during the project work. We
are sincerely grateful to his for sharing his truthful and illuminating views on a
number of issues related to the project. Finally, thanks should also be addressed
to the faculty members of Electrical and Computer Engineering for their help and
encouragement in our educational endeavors and student, who have given us their
personal computer, and his valuable comments and suggestions. Peoples and who
had helped us to complete and gain a good skill in our project.
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Abstract
In digital communication system, selection of the most appropriate access
method is a challenging task. To meet this challenge, we have to be familiar with
the technologies and system architectures on the CDMA digital cellular system.
The demand for high-speed mobile wireless communications is rapidly growing.
CDMA plays the best competitive role for achieving the high data capacity and
spectral efficiency requirements for communication systems. This paper
represents the performance analysis of CDMA in a Fading & AWGN Channel.
It also concerned with how well CDMA performs when transmitted over an
Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel or both AWGN and the fading
channels. In order to investigate this, a simulation model created and
implemented using MATLAB. The Modulated signal transmitted over the
fading, AWGN, or both channels for various signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) values.
To evaluate the performance, for each SNR level, the received signal
demodulated and the received data compared to the original information. The
result of the simulation is shown in a plot of the bit error rate (BER)/error
probability versus SNR, which provides the information about the systems
performance.
Code-division multiple access is a channel access method used by
various radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple
accesses, where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a
single communication channel. This thesis investigates the performance of
CDMA using binary phase shift keying, quaternary phase shift keying, and M-
QAM. The numerical results obtained by MATLAB Simulation are then
demonstrated on Bit Error Rate and signal to noise ratio graphs. Additive white
Gaussian noise and Rayleigh fading models are also used to determine the
performance of CDMA network in presence of noise and fading.
Keywords: AWGN, CDMA, DS-CDMA, BER, SNR, BPSK, QPSK, Eb/No
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................... i
Abstract ..........................................................................................................................ii
List of figures ................................................................................................................. v
List of tables .................................................................................................................. vi
List of abbreviations.....................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background of the Project.................................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of the problem .................................................................................... 2
1.3 Objectives of the thesis ........................................................................................ 2
1.3.1 General Objective ......................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ....................................................................................... 2
1.4 Methodology of the project .................................................................................. 3
1.5 Scope of the thesis................................................................................................ 3
1.6 limitation of the thesis .......................................................................................... 3
1.7 Thesis outline ....................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................... 4
2. Literature review ........................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................ 6
3. Design parameters and simulation's ........................................................................... 6
3.1 system model........................................................................................................ 6
3.2 Coverage and Capacity limiting Factors .............................................................. 7
3.3 Uplink and Downlink Coverage limited Scenarios.............................................. 7
3.4 Uplink Capacity limited Scenarios ...................................................................... 9
3.4.1. Insufficient Uplink Power ............................................................................ 9
3.4.2 Uplink Cell Load Limitation ......................................................................... 9
3.5 Downlink Capacity-limited Scenarios ......................................................... 11
3.5.1 Cell Power Limitation ................................................................................. 11
3.5.2 CDMA at the Transmitter and Receiver ..................................................... 12
3.6 Modulation Schemes in CDMA ......................................................................... 15
3.6.1 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) ..................................................... 15
3.6.2 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) ..................................... 16
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3.6.3 Bit Rate and Symbol Rate ........................................................................... 18

3.6.4 Bit Error Rate (BER)................................................................................... 19
3.6.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) ...................................................................... 19
3.7 Noise and Interference ....................................................................................... 20
3.7.1 Additive White Noise Gaussian .................................................................. 20
3.7.2 Rayleigh Fading .......................................................................................... 21
3.8 Channel Model ................................................................................................... 22
3.8.1 AWGN ........................................................................................................ 22
3.8.2 Rayleigh Fading .......................................................................................... 23
3.9 Scrambling code ................................................................................................. 23
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 27
4. Simulation result analysis and discussion ................................................................ 27
4.1 MATLAB simulation parameters ...................................................................... 27
4.1.1 MATLAB out puts of the thesis .................................................................. 27
CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................... 35
5. Conclusion and Recommendation ........................................................................... 35
5.1 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 35
5.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................... 35
REFFERNCES ............................................................................................................. 36
APPENDIX A .............................................................................................................. 38
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List of figures
Figure 1. 1 Methodology of the thesis ........................................................................... 3
Figure 3. 1 system model of the thesis .......................................................................... 6
Figure 3. 2 General Scheme of a CDMA system [3]. ................................................... 8
Figure 3. 3 CDMA Transmitter[5] .............................................................................. 12
Figure 3. 4 CDMA Receiver[5]. .................................................................................. 13
Figure 3. 5 BPSK signal spreading (CDMA)Model [7]. ............................................. 13
Figure 3. 6 Front end of the BPSK demodulator Model [7]. ...................................... 14
Figure 3. 7 Constellation Diagram of a QPSK System [6] ......................................... 16
Figure 3. 8: Constellation diagram of a 16-QAM system [6] ...................................... 17
Figure 3. 9: relationships between spreading and scrambling .................................... 23
Figure 3. 10: multi-path propagation channels [4]....................................................... 24
Figure 3. 11: Handover operation and cell selection [6]. ............................................. 25
Figure 4. 2:Re-obtain symbol and receiving information as digital signal after M-
QAM demodulation ..................................................................................................... 28
Figure 4. 3: BPSK modulation and demodulation ....................................................... 28
Figure 4. 4:QPSK information before transmitting ..................................................... 29
Figure 4. 5:QPSK of Inpahse and quadrature components .......................................... 29
Figure 4. 7:BPSK BER VS SNR with AWGN ............................................................ 30
Figure 4. 8: QPSK BER VS SNR with AWGN........................................................... 31
Figure 4. 9: SNR vs BER BPSK modulation in Rayleigh channel .............................. 32
Figure 4. 10:SNR vs BER QPSK modulation in Rayleigh channel ............................ 32
Figure 4. 11: M-QAM BER Vs SNR ........................................................................... 33
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List of tables
Table 3. 1 PN Sequence generator [6]........................................................... 14
Table 3. 2 parameters of Analog filter design [7]......................................... 15
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List of abbreviations
3G Third generation
8PSK 8-Phase Shift Keying
AMC Adaptive modulation and coding
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise
BER Bit error rate
BPSK Binary phase shift keying
BTS Base transceiver station
CDMA Code-division multiple access
CPICH Common Pilot Channel
CPICH RSCP Common Pilot Channel,
Received Signal Code Power
DL Direct load
DS-CDMA Direct Sequence Code
Division Multiple Access
DSSS Direct sequence spreading
spectrum
EDGE Enhance Data Rate for the
GSM Evolution
EMR Electromagnetic radiation
EVDO Evolution-Data Optimized
Release 0
FCS Fast cell selection
FDMA Frequency division multiple
access
GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift
Keying
GMSK Gaussian minimum-shift keying
GPRS General Packet Radio Services
GSM Global System for Mobile
Communication
HARQ Hybrid automatic repeat request
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HSCSD High-Speed Circuit Switched

Data
HSDPA High Speed Downlink Packet
Access
IGA Improved Gaussian
Approximation
ISI Inter-symbol Interference
KPI Key Performance Indicators
LPF Low pass filter
MAI Multi Access Interference
MIMO Multiple input multiple output
M-QAM M-ary Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
OVSF Orthogonal Variable Spreading
Factor
PN Pseudo node
PSK Phase shift keying
QoS Quality of service
QPSK Quaternary phase shift keying
RAN Radio Access Network
RBSs Radio base stations
RF Radio frequency
RRM Radio resource management
RTT Radio Transmission Technology
SGA Standard Gaussian Approximation
SHO Soft/softer handover
SIGA Simplified IGA
SNR Signal-to-noise ratio
TC Tele command
TDMA Time division multiple access
UE User equipment
UMTS Universal mobile telecommunication
system
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WCDMA Wideband CDMA

W-CDMA Wideband Code-division multiple access
WLANs Wireless Local Area Networks
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CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the Project
Development of the 3G systems, such as code division multiple access including
2000 series that utilizes CDMA as an underlying channel access method provided
connectivity to packet data networks via cellular systems while increasing voice
capacity. As one would expect, many of the rapidly growing internet applications
and services are finding their way into the mobile wireless domain and taking
advantage of the 3G system. Services such as real time streaming video and
music, and online interactive gaming are just a few examples of services whose
popularity is growing beyond expectations. Hence, services of this nature have
challenged 3G networks standardization capable of providing increase data
throughput. The 3G networks may also be referred to as UMTS. It is possible to
achieve significant capacity improvements in existing networks without
deploying additional carrier and base stations or drafting new standards. By
following proper RF network planning and optimization techniques; CDMA
operators would see immediate benefits on their network capacity. CDMA is a
digital cellular technology that uses spread-spectrum techniques. Optimization of
the radio coverage and capacity entails operating the network to its optimum
(best) output state. M-ary modulation schemes are one of most efficient digital
data transmission systems as it achieves better bandwidth efficiency than other
modulation techniques and give higher data rate. In order to improve the
performance of M-ary modulation techniques, always a need of studying and
analyzing the unwanted effects caused by different factors on their characteristics
exists. QAM is the encoding of the information into a carrier wave by variation
of the amplitude of both the carrier wave and a “quadrature” carrier that is 90°
out of phase with the main carrier in accordance with two input signals. That is,
the amplitude and the phase of the carrier wave are simultaneously changed
according to the information needed to transmit. It is such a class of non-constant
envelope schemes that can achieve higher bandwidth efficiency than M-PSK
with the same average signal power. Code Division Multiple Access is a digital
cellular technology used for mobile communication. CDMA is the base on which
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access methods such as CDMA One, CDMA2000, and WCDMA are built.
CDMA cellular systems are deemed superior to FDMA and TDMA, which is
why CDMA plays a critical role in building efficient, robust, and secure radio
communication systems. With new wireless communication technologies and the
increasing size of radio networks, the tasks of network planning and optimization
are becoming more and more challenging. This is firstly because the radio
resource is scarce these days due to the increasing number of subscribers and the
many different types of networks operating within the limited frequency
spectrum. Secondly, deploying and operating a large network is expensive and
therefore requires careful network dimensioning to ensure high resource
utilization. As a consequence, manual network design and tuning for improving
radio resource allocation are most likely to fail in current and future networks.
1.2. Statement of the problem
The scarcity of radio spectrum in wireless network and the ever increase in the network
users leaves the communication channels so crowded. The CDMA system performance
degrades with an increase in the number of users. This introduces interference in the
entire communication system thereby degrading the system capacity. Therefore, there
is the need to examine the possible options for increasing the capacity of the available
radio frequency by reducing interferences that exist in the system.
1.3 Objectives of the thesis
1.3.1 General Objective
To study performance analysis of CDMA2000 network.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
✓ To analyze the performance analysis of CDMA using different modulation
schemes.
✓ To investigate the BER and SNR obtained by using different modulation
schemes and channels.
✓ To simulate modulation techniques and bit rate with in SNR of network with
the help of MATLAB simulation.

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1.4 Methodology of the project
Select Collection System model

Start title of data design and
simulation
Analysis and
Simulation
End interpretation of
outputs
the result
Figure 1. 1 Methodology of the thesis
1.5 Scope of the thesis

Modulations are some of techniques used to overcome the performance of the CDMA
network. In this thesis work the performance of the CDMA network will be evaluated
in different digital modulation schemes such as BPSK, QPSK, M-QAM. MATLAB
software is a tool to evaluate CDMA radio network using the performance metrics
such as BER, SNR and constellation points of modulations that is its graphical
representation also described.
1.6 limitation of the thesis
We are limited to do simulation modulation techniques over rician channel.
Performance analysis of CDMA network applied by various methods, but we
consider only by modulation techniques.
1.7 Thesis outline
The structure of this thesis is organized as follows. Chapter one presents
introduction and key features of CDMA network. Chapter two presents’ details
of CDMA network literature review. The details description of performance
analysis of CDMA cellular mobile radio network design is depicted in chapter 3.
The simulation result of a simplified performance analysis of cdma2000
networks in BPSK, QPSK and M-QAM modulation scheme is mainly focus of
chapter four. Finally, chapter five represents conclusion of this thesis.

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CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature review
The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide. CDMA networks use a scheme
called soft handoff, which minimizes signal breakup as a handset passes from one cell
to another. The combination of digital and spread spectrum modes supports several
times as many signals per unit of bandwidth as analog modes. CDMA is compatible
with other cellular technologies; this enables nationwide roaming. The original CDMA
standard, also known as CDMA One, offers a transmission speed of only up to 14.4
kilobits per second in its single channel form and up to 115 Kbps in an eight-channel
form. CDMA2000 and Wideband CDMA deliver data many times faster. The
CDMA2000 family of standards includes single-carrier Radio Transmission
Technology (1xRTT), EVDO Revision A and EVDO Rev. B. People often confuse
CDMA2000, which is a family of standards supported by Verizon and Sprint, with
CDMA, which is the physical layer multiplexing scheme [1].
Optimization is needed, both in the planning stage to optimize the network
configuration for investment saving as well as after the deployment of the network to
satisfy growing service demand. There is some published research regarding various
methods and algorithms for the individual control of base station parameters such as
CPICH power and antenna down tilt settings, which are the two most common
optimization parameters that have significant influence on network capacity [2].
In different algorithms are researched and evaluated on two different network scenarios
and planning tools. The evaluation of the network is done by looking at the KPI of the
RAN in the output of the network simulator. Careful configuration of the many network
and cell parameters is required and crucial to the network operator, because they
determine the capability to provide services, influence the quality of service (QoS), and
account for a major portion of the total network deployment and maintenance costs [3].
March 2013, Samiallah Shahid and Mohammad Saqib, “Designing of CDMA-
Advanced Downlink Transceiver on a Physical Layer”, Blekinge Institute of
Technology. The evolved version of Long Term Evolution is CDMA-Advanced which
is being developed by the Third Generation Partnership Project. CDMA-Advanced
will meet or go beyond the requirements of the International Telecommunication
Union for the fourth generation radio communication standard known as IMT-

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Advanced. CDMA-Advanced is primarily considered as a part of Release 10 of 3GPP

specifications [4].
September 2017, H. Mousavi, Iraj S. Amiri, M.A. Mostafavi and C.Y. Choon, “CDMA
physical layer: Performance analysis and evaluation”, King Saud University. 3GPP
LTE was proposed by cooperation between groups of telecommunications consortiums
named as 3rd Generation Partnership Project to improve the UMTS standard. It
supports up to 300 Mbps of data transmission in downlink using the Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing modulation as well as up to 75 Mbps throughput for
uplink using SC-FDMA modulation schemes. In this paper, the study of LTE physical
layer performance evaluation is conducted for downlink transmission utilizing Single-
Input and Single-Output and Multi-Input and Multi-Output techniques. He presents a
comprehensive investigation of the CDMA performance analysis, where the Bit Error
Rate, Block Error Rate and throughput performance results of CDMA physical layer
provided [7].
Love et al. in demonstrated that a rule-based optimization technique for setting pilot
power levels significantly outperforms a manually-designed solution in terms of
network cost. In, Zhu et al. studied by simulations load balancing by controlling CPICH
power and proposed a set of key performance indicators (KPIs), among which are
network throughput, DL load factor, DL call success rate, and DL bad quality call ratio,
which have to be monitored when adjusting CPICH power. [8]
In, Valkealahti et al. presented a cost minimization approach that was implemented in
a network simulation tool and studied by simulations. A CPICH transmit power tuning
algorithm for equalizing cell load while ensuring sufficient coverage in an irregular
macro cellular system was proposed by Ying et al. in. Another approach for load
balancing based on the simulated annealing optimization technique was presented by
Garcia-Lozano et al. in [10].

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CHAPTER THREE
3. Design parameters and simulation's
3.1 system model
Input signal
CDMA signal
BPSK QPSK M-QAM modulation

schemes
channels
AWGN Rayleigh
BER SNR Constellation performance

metrics
Figure 3. 1 system model of the thesis

From the above figure we can decide that the inputs are CDMA signal and these
signals are modulated by the modulating signals (BPSK, QPSK, M-QAM) and
the channel that modulated by the channels only. those are AWGN and Rayleigh.
These channels are concerned with BER vs SNR.

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3.2 Coverage and Capacity limiting Factors

Unlike GSM, the coverage and capacity improvement methods cannot be
separated anymore in the CDMA system. There is always a tradeoff between
coverage and capacity. Some of the improvement methods enhance the coverage
at the cost of capacity, while others improve capacity, but at the same time the
coverage decreases.
In CDMA the network coverage and capacity can be either uplink or downlink
limited. It is generally accepted that service coverage is uplink limited. However,
system capacity may be either uplink or downlink limited depending upon the
system configuration and the traffic profile. In rural environments, where the
network is normally planned with relatively low uplink load, the scenario is
typically capacity limited in the uplink. A downlink capacity limited scenario is
more likely in an urban scenario, where the network is planned for higher uplink
load to increase the system capacity.
When a cell’s capacity limitation is reached, additional users cannot be admitted
to the system and, therefore, they are put to “outage”. Out aged users are within
the coverage of the cell, but not able to access the network services. Thus, as the
number of users at outage increases, the network capacity decreases. The outage
problems can be managed by RRM and optimization of the base station
parameters. Therefore, understanding and identifying the limitations is important
for the development of optimization strategies for increasing coverage and
capacity effectively.
3.3 Uplink and Downlink Coverage limited Scenarios
The majority of existing literature makes the assumption that service coverage is
uplink limited. In general, this is true; though it is fairly easy to identify scenarios
where service coverage is downlink limited, for example when the data rate is
asymmetric with more data in the downlink combined with a limited base station
transmit power capability. The simplest method for studying service coverage
performance is using a link budget. For the identification, which parameters need
to be improved to enhance service coverage performance, the link budget is also
very useful. Techniques, which require additional investments for improving the
service coverage are active antennas, mast head amplifiers, higher order receiver

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diversity, increased sectorization, repeaters and smart antennas. Some of these

techniques improve coverage, but at the cost of capacity. However, other
techniques like smart antennas simultaneously improve both coverage and
capacity.
Link budgets for a CDMA system follow the same principles as those for GSM.
The main differences are the inclusion of processing gain, 𝐸𝑏⁄𝑁𝑡 requirement, soft
handover gain, target uplink cell loading and a headroom to accommodate the
fast power control loop. In the link budget the target loading is the main capacity
related parameter. A low value for the target loading corresponds to a larger cell
range, but a lower cell capacity. Improving any of the parameters in the link
budget will lead to an improvement in service coverage performance. However,
improving service coverage leads to a greater average base station transmit power
requirement per downlink connection.
If the system capacity is uplink limited, then this is of no consequence. Although,
if the system capacity is downlink limited, then improving service coverage will
lead to a loss in system capacity. A different approach would be to improve the
𝐸𝑏⁄𝑁𝑡 performance. Then, it is possible to simultaneously enhance both service
coverage and system capacity.
Figure 3. 2 General Scheme of a CDMA system [3].

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3.4 Uplink Capacity limited Scenarios

In the uplink, there are two possible limiting factors for uplink capacity limited
systems. One reason could be that the mobile doesn’t have enough transmit
power to achieve the required bit energy to interference plus noise density ratio
(𝐸𝑏⁄𝑁𝑡) to access the network services. An uplink capacity limited scenario can
also occur when the maximum uplink load is reached and therefore no additional
users can be accepted in the system. The traffic associated with an uplink capacity
limited scenario is generally relatively symmetric.
3.4.1. Insufficient Uplink Power
The maximum allowed transmit power of a mobile must be enough to fulfill the
𝐸𝑏⁄𝑁𝑡 requirement at the base station in order to access the network services. The
transmit power 𝑃𝑇𝑋, 𝑀𝑆 needed for the mobile is calculated using Equation (3.0)
and compared to the maximum allowed.
N0.Lp
PTX,MS = W (3.0)
v.(1−ηUL).(1+R.ρ.V)
Where 𝑁𝑂 is the background noise, 𝐿𝑃 is the propagation loss between the mobile
and the base station, R, ν and ρ are the bit rate, service activity and uplink 𝐸𝑏⁄𝑁𝑡
requirement of the chosen service respectively, W is the CDMA chip rate and 𝜂𝑈𝐿
is the uplink loading. Hence, if the mobile fails to fulfill the required 𝐸𝑏⁄𝑁𝑡, the
RNC commands the mobile to increase it transmit power through the closed loop
power control algorithm, which is based on the received power measured at the
base station. If this is not possible, because the maximum transmit power of the
mobile is achieved, the mobile is put to outage. From Equation (3.0) we can see
that the required transmit power of a mobile is directly proportional to the path
loss. Consequently, this power level could be reduced by decreasing the path loss,
3.4.2 Uplink Cell Load Limitation
An uplink capacity limited scenario is likely to occur in environments where the
capacity requirements are relatively low and the network has been planned with
a low uplink cell load to maximize cell range and thus reduce the requirements
for the sites. The maximum permissible level of uplink cell load 𝜂𝑈𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑
determines the interference margin that appears in any link budget calculation.
The greater the cell loading, the greater the required number of sites, as well as

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the higher potential capacity per site. The traffic in an uplink capacity limited
scenario is generally relatively symmetric. The uplink load equation is defined as
Equation (3.1)
1
ηuL = ∑Kn
k=1 w . (1 + i) (3.1)
(1+ )
ρk.Rk
Where 𝐾𝑛 is the number of mobiles connected to base station N. 𝑅𝑘 and 𝜌𝑘 are the
bit rate and 𝐸𝑏⁄𝑁𝑡 requirement from the user k of the chosen service, respectively.
W is the CDMA chip rate and 𝑖 is the other-to-own cell received power ratio.
In an uplink capacity limited system, the capacity per cell is directly proportional
to the maximum permissible level of uplink cell load. Each mobile which
establishes a connection with the same 𝐸𝑏⁄𝑁𝑡 requirement and activity factor,
increases the cell load by the same amount. Doubling the maximum cell load 𝜂𝑈𝐿
𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 results in doubling the cell capacity for an uplink limited scenario. The
impact upon cell range is dependent upon the absolute levels of the cell load. The
relationship between the cell load and the maximum allowed propagation loss is
exponential. In Equation (3.2) the relationship between the uplink cell load 𝜂𝑈𝐿
and the resulting increase in receiver interference floor L is shown.
𝐿 = 10 · log10 (1 − 𝜂𝑈𝐿) (3.2)
As 𝜂𝑈𝐿 achieves 100 %, the receiver interference floor increases without limit.
However, this condition in practice can never occur, because the mobiles have a
finite transmit power capability. When the maximum uplink load of a cell is
reached, 𝜂𝑈𝐿 ≥ 𝜂𝑈𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 (where 𝜂𝑈𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 is the planned maximum
permissible level of uplink cell load), any additional users will be set to outage
even though the users would have enough transmitted power to access the
network services. In the following list, the reasons why the maximum uplink cell
load is reached are summarized:
✓ The network is planned with a too low uplink cell load 𝜂𝑈𝐿.
✓ High base station transmits power capability.
✓ Relatively symmetric traffic (e.g., speech users).
For a uplink capacity limited scenario, more users can be admitted into the system
by shrinking the planned service coverage area of the cells (by the use of down
tilting the antenna) so that the mobiles at the cell boundaries handover to adjacent

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cells that have lower traffic density to achieve load balancing within the network.
As a result, the overall network capacity will be improved.
3.5 Downlink Capacity-limited Scenarios
A downlink capacity limited scenario occurs due to several reasons: the
maximum transmit power of the base station is reached, OVSF code utilization
reaches its limitation, or the requested code power for a mobile is higher than the
permitted level. Downlink capacity limited scenarios are likely to occur in
suburban or urban environments, where the network has been planned to a
relatively high uplink cell loading. The traffic associated with a downlink
capacity limited scenario is generally asymmetric, with a greater amount of traffic
in the downlink.
3.5.1 Cell Power Limitation
Downlink capacity limited scenarios due to maximum cell power are likely to
occur where the network has been configured with low base station transmit
power capability, which may have been done in some circumstances to reduce
the requirement for power amplifier modules. In Equation (3.3) the total required
transmit power from the serving base station is shown.
PT=∑Kn
k=1 P TX, n + Pcommon (3.3)
In Equation (3.4) 𝑃𝑇𝑋, 𝑛 is the required code power for the connected user n, and
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 is the overall transmit power of the common channels. In general,
approximately 20% of the maximum cell power 𝑃𝑇𝑋, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is assigned to the pilot
and common control channels. The remaining 80% is available to support traffic
channel capacity. When the base station reaches its maximum transmit power
level, 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑇𝑋, (where 𝑃𝑇𝑋,𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum base station transmitting power
capability), it cannot allocate extra power to an additional user even if the cell is
not highly loaded. In this case, additional users cannot be added without
modifying the base station configuration. All active users belonging to a cell,
including those mobiles connected by soft handover share the total transmit
power 𝑃𝑇. Hence, a lower average code power requirement.
1
PTX(PTX=n ∑nt=1 PTX, n) results in a higher cell capacity. Furthermore, it is
possible to increase the number of served users by reducing the soft handover
overhead. Soft handover links only occur at the cell border, which experience

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maximum path loss and therefore require higher code power. The capacity
offered by each transmit power configuration 𝑃𝑇𝑋, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is a function of the traffic
profile as well as the maximum propagation loss defining the cell range. The
greater the propagation loss, the greater the average code power 𝑃𝑇𝑋 and the lower
the cell capacity. In other words, we can say that the smaller the cell size the
lower 𝑃𝑇𝑋 and the higher the cell capacity. As we can see from Equation (3.3),
a part of the total transmit power of the base station is assigned to the common
pilot channel (CPICH) and the other common channels. Consequently, by
reducing the CPICH power and the powers of the other common channels, more
power will be available to support the traffic channel capacity.
In the following list the reasons, why the maximum transmits power 𝑃𝑇𝑋, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 of a
base station is reached, are summarized:
✓ The network is planned with a too high uplink cell load 𝜂𝑈𝐿.
✓ Low base station transmits power capability.
✓ Greater traffic on the downlink (asymmetric traffic, e.g., data users).
3.5.2 CDMA at the Transmitter and Receiver
CDMA Transmitter
Information Channel BPSK

source coding Modulation channel
PN
Sequence
Figure 3. 3 CDMA Transmitter[5]

Signal transmission consists of the following steps:
1. A pseudo-random code is generated, different for each channel and each
Successive connection.
2. The Information data modulates the pseudo-random code (the
Information data is “spread”).
3. The resulting signal modulates a carrier.
4. The modulated carrier is broadcasted.

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CDMA receiver
Integrate Demodulator Decoder

channel
PNSequence
Figure 3. 4 CDMA Receiver[5].

Signal reception consists of the following steps:
1. The local carrier is generated.
2. The received signal is mixed with a local carrier to recover the spread digital
Signal.
3. A pseudo-random code is generated, matching the anticipated signal.
4. The receiver acquires the received code and phase locks its own code to it.
5. The received signal is correlated with the generated code, extracting the
Information data.
BPSK/CDMA receiver system
Figure 3. 5 BPSK signal spreading (CDMA)Model [7].

Fig (3.5) shows how to generate CDMA signal’s signal is produced by spreading
the spectrum of BPSK signal, so the spectrum will be wider. Therefore, PN
sequence generator block is used to spread signal. Table (3.1) below shows the
selected parameter for PN sequence generator block followed by discussion for
these values.

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Table 3. 1 PN Sequence generator [6].
Generator polynomial [1 0 0 1 1]
Initial state [0 0 1 1]
Sample time 5e-5/31
Generator polynomial parameter determines the shift register feedback
connections. In this case it is choose to give the maximal length sequence. (i.e.
primitive polynomial) with period equal to N=2n -1=25 -1=31 where n is the
number of shift register stages, N is the length of the maximal sequence
.• Initial stage parameter defines the initial states (contents) of the shift registers
(all initial states are selected except all zeros state).
• Sample time parameter defines the period of each element of the output signal.
As known that each bit time of the user signal is equal to 31 chips time of the PN
sequence, hence the sample time of the PN sequence is equal to 5e-5/31. In case
of more than one user the BPSK spreading signals (CDMA signals) must be
added before entering the channel, this is done via use of Adder block.
BPSK demodulator model:
BPSK demodulator consist mainly of a bandpass filter followed by multiplying
the bandlimited signal by a perfectly coherent sine wave carrier signal, this is
called a front end of the BPSK demodulator. The back end of the BPSK
demodulator is called a correlator. At the front-end part, the incoming signal is
first band limited by a band pass filter which has a bandwidth of (2/T) about the
carrier, i.e. Hence the 30 lower band pass filter edge frequency will be
fc− 1
=50000−
1
=40000HZ
(3.4)
2T 2∗5∗10−5
Similarly the upper band pass filter edge will be

fc+ 1
=50000+
1
=60000HZ
(3.5)
2T 2∗5∗10−5
Figure 3. 6 Front end of the BPSK demodulator Model [7].

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Table (3.2) below shows the selected parameter for Analog filter design (Band
pass filter) block followed by discussion for this value.
Table 3. 2 parameters of Analog filter design [7].
Design Method Butterworth

Filter type Bandpass
Filter order 8
Low band pass edge frequency 2*pi*40e3
(rad/sec)
• The choice of the design method and filter order is made according to the need
for a sharp enough signal so as to produce a better demodulation for BPSK signal.
• There are many design methods such as Butterworth; Chebyshev type I,
Chebyshev type II, or Elliptic. The design method parameter is selected to be
Butterworth because the magnitude response of a Butterworth filter is maximally
flat in the passband and monotonic overall.
• The filter order parameter represents the order of the filter, for band pass and
band stop configurations; the order of the final filter is twice this value. As the
filter order becomes larger as the number of passive elements increases (i.e. the
filter becomes more complex).
3.6 Modulation Schemes in CDMA
3.6.1 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
QPSK is one example of M-ary PSK modulation technique (M = 4) where it transmits
2 bits per symbol. The phase carrier takes on one of four equally spaced values, such
as 0, π/2, π and 3π/2, where each value of phase corresponds to a unique pair of
messages. The basis signal for QPSK can be expressed as
π π
SQPSK(t)={√Escos [i − 1 2 ] ϕ1(t) − √Essin [(i − 1) 2 ] ϕ2(t)}
i=1,2,3 .(3.6)

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Figure 3. 7 Constellation Diagram of a QPSK System [6]

Special characteristics of QPSK are twice data can be sent in the same bandwidth
compared to Binary PSK and QPSK has identical bit error probability to that of
BPSK. When QPSK is compared to that of BPSK, QPSK provides twice the
spectral efficiency with the same energy efficiency. Furthermore, similar to
BPSK, QPSK can be differentially encoded to allow non-coherent detection.
Due to these advantages of QPSK, it has been employed as the modulation
technique in UMTS 3G wireless cellular networks where the following data rate
can be achieved depending on the channel quality.
a) 144 kbps for high mobility.
b) 384 kbps for low mobility.
c) 2 Mbps for indoor or static environment.
3.6.2 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
QAM is a modulation technique where its amplitude is allowed to vary with phase.
QAM signaling can be viewed as a combination of Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) as
well as Phase Shift Keying (PSK). Also, it can be viewed as ASK in two dimensions.

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Figure 3. 8: Constellation diagram of a 16-QAM system [6]

Figure 3.3 shows the constellation diagram of 16-ary QAM (16-QAM). The
constellation consists of a square lattice of signal points. The general form of an M-ary
signal can be defined as
2Emin 2Emin
Si(t)=√ aicos(2πfct) + √ bisin(2πfct) (3.7)
Ts Ts
0≤ t ≤ T, i=1, 2…M
Where Emin is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude and ai and bi are a pair
of independent integers chosen according to the location of the particular signal point.
Theoretically, higher order of M-ray QAM enables data to be transmitted in a much
smaller spectrum. However, the symbols are easily subjected to errors due to noise and
interference because the symbols are located very closed together in the constellation
diagram. Thus, such signal has to transmit extra power so that the symbol can be spread
out more and this reduces power efficiency as compared to simpler modulation scheme.
Also, the radio equipment is more complex. The evolution objective of wireless cellular
technology from 1G to 3G is capable of delivering high data rate signal so that it can
transmit high bit rate multimedia content in cellular mobile communication. Thus, it
has driven many researches into the application of higher order modulations [5]-[10].
The pervious second-generation Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM)
system provides data services with 14.4 kbps for circuit-switched data and up to 22.8
kbps for packet data. HSCSD and General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) with multi-
slot operation can only slightly increase the data rate due to the GMSK modulation,
which they are using. Enhance Data Rate for the GSM Evolution (EDGE) is proposed
as a transition to 3G as a new TDMA based radio access using the current (800, 900,
1800 and 1900 MHz) frequency bands. EDGE enables significantly higher peak rates

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and approximately triples the spectral efficiency by employing 8-Phase Shift Keying
(8PSK) modulation.
W-CDMA is another 3G-system operation in 5MHz bandwidth to support both high-
rate packet data and circuit-switched data. High Speed Downlink Packet Access
(HSDPA) is currently being developed as the evolution of W-CDMA systems to
considerably increase the data rate by using AMC, hybrid automatic repeat request
(HARQ), fast cell selection (FCS) and multiple input multiple output (MIMO) antenna
processing [8].
In cellular system, different users have different channel qualities in terms of signal to
noise ratio due to differences in distance to the base station, fading and interference.
Link quality control adapts the data protection according to the channel quality so that
an optimal bit rate is obtained for all the channel qualities [5-8]. Thus, the system adopts
AMC to suit the link quality. W-CDMA systems can employ the high order modulation
(8PSK or M-QAM) to increase the transmission data rate with the link quality control.
However, there is a trade off in employing bandwidth efficient M-QAM modulation
scheme. The complexity of the receiver increases linearly with M (number of
orthogonal sequences) and exponentially with the number of bits per symbol. The
achievable bandwidth efficiency of the system is limited by the maximum possible
number of orthogonal sequences and by acceptable complexity of the receiver [6].
To minimize ISI, noise and channel fading, a wireless system needs to have a robust
system to minimize, if not to eliminate, these unfavorable effects. A typical W-CDMA
transmitter system consists of bit generator, TC encoder, rate matcher, inter leaver,
spreader, modulator, scrambler, and pulse shaper. On the other hand, a receiver consists
of a matched filter, channel estimator, rake receiver, despreader, and demodulator,
deinter leaver, and TC decoder. Maximal ratio combining of rake results amplitude
boost is very favorable for M-PSK demodulation due to its greater separation of the
received symbol constellation. However, it is not the case for the MQAM. For an
amplitude-modulated signal (M-QAM), amplitude change could produce incorrect
symbol detection [5].
3.6.3 Bit Rate and Symbol Rate
To understand and compare different modulation format efficiencies, it is
important to understand the difference between bit rate and symbol rate. The

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signal bandwidth for the communications channel depends on the symbol rate or
also known as band rate.
symbol rate
Bit rate = Numbers of bits trasmitter per symbol (3.8)
Bit rate is the sampling frequency multiplied by the number of bits per sample.
For example, a radio with an 8-bit sampler is sampled at 10 kHz for voice. The
bit rate, the basic bit stream rate in the radio, would be 8 bits multiplied by 10k
samples per second giving 80 kbps. In this example, extra bits required for
synchronization, error correction, etc are ignored for simplicity. In GMSK, only
one bit can be transmitted for each symbol. Thus, the symbol rate for this
modulation technique is 80 kbps. However, high data rate like 8-PSK, as it will
be reviewed in the next section, can transmit 3 bits per symbol. Thus, the symbol
rate, if this modulation scheme is employed, is 26.7 kbps. The symbol rate for
8-PSK is three times smaller than that of GMSK. In other words, 8-PSK or any
high order (M) modulation scheme can transmit same information over a
narrower piece of RF spectrum.
3.6.4 Bit Error Rate (BER)
BER is a performance measurement that specifies the number of bit corrupted
or destroyed as they are transmitted from its source to its destination. Several
factors that affect BER include bandwidth, SNR, transmission speed and
transmission medium.
3.6.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
SNR is defined as the ratio of a signal power to noise power and it is normally
expressed in decibel (dB). The mathematical expression of SNR is
signal power
SNR=10log10 ( Noise power )dB (3.9)

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3.7 Noise and Interference

3.7.1 Additive White Noise Gaussian
The term thermal noise refers to unwanted electrical signals that are always present in
electrical systems [11]. The term additive means the noise is superimposed or added to
the signal where it will limit the receiver ability to make correct symbol decisions and
limit the rate of information. Thus, AWGN is the effect of thermal noise generated by
thermal motion of electron in all dissipative electrical components i.e., resistors, wires
and so on [11]. Mathematically, thermal noise is described by a zero-mean Gaussian
random process where the random signal is a sum of Gaussian noise random variable
and a dc signal that is
z = a +n (3.10)
Where pdf for Gaussian noise can be represented as follows where σ2 is the
variance of n.
1 1 z−a 2
p(z)=σ√2πexp [-2 { }] (3.11)
σ
A simple model for thermal noise assumes that its power spectral density Gn(f )
is a flat for all frequencies and is denoted as
N0
Gn(f) = 2 (3.12)
Where the factor of 2 to indicate that Gn(f) is a two-sided power spectral density. When
noise power has such a uniform spectral density, it is referred as white noise. The
adjective "white" is used in the same sense as it is with white light, which contains equal
amounts of all frequencies within the visible band of electromagnetic (EM) radiation.
Since thermal noise is present in all communication systems and is a prominent noise
source for most system, the thermal noise characteristics that are additive, white and
Gaussian are most often used to model the noise in communication systems.

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3.7.2 Rayleigh Fading

Since signal propagation takes place in the atmosphere and near the ground, apart from
the effect of free path loss, Ls, the most notable effect of signal degradation is multipath
propagation. The effect can cause fluctuations in the received signal's amplitude, phase
and angle of arrival, giving rise to terminology multipath fading. Generally, there are
two fading effects in mobile communications: large-scale and small-scale fading.
Large-scale fading represents the average signal power attenuation or path loss due to
shadowing effects when moving over large areas. On the other hand, small-scale fading
refers to the dramatic changes in signal amplitude and phase that can be experienced as
a result of small changes (as small as a half-wavelength) in the spatial separation
between a receiver and transmitter. Small-scale fading is also called Rice fading
because the envelope of received signal can be represented by a Rice pdf. The received
signal consists of large number of multiple reflective paths and there is no line of-sight
signal component. When there is a dominant non-fading signal component present, such
as a line-of-sight propagation path, the small-scale fading envelope is described by a
Rician pdf.
The Doppler spread is a measure of the spectral expansion due to the time rate of change
(time variant) of the channel parameters. Figure 3.4 shows a Doppler power spectral
density, S(v), plotted as a function of Doppler-frequency shift, v based on dense-
scattered channel model. For the case of the dense-scattered model, a vertical receive
antenna with constant azimuthally gain, a uniform distribution of signals arriving at all
arrival angles throughout the range (0,2p), and an un modulated continuous wave (CW)
signal, the signal spectrum at the antenna terminals is
1
s(v)= v
(3.13)
πfd√1−[ ]2
fd
Where fd is Doppler Spread and fc carrier frequency. The largest magnitude

(infinite) of S(v) occurs when the scattered is directly ahead of the moving
antenna platform or directly behind it. Thus, from this situation, the magnitude
of the frequency shift is given by
v
fd = (3.14)
λ
Where V is the velocity of waves in the medium and λ is the signal wavelength.
fd is positive when the transmitter and receiver move towards each other, and

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negative when moving away from each other. Equation 7 describes the Doppler
frequency shift. In a typical multipath environment, the received signal arrives
from several reflected paths with different path distances and different angles of
arrival, and the Doppler shift of each arriving path is generally different from
that of another path. The effect on the received signal is seen as a Doppler
spreading or spectral broadening of the transmitted signal frequency, rather than
a shift. The Doppler power spectral density is infinite for Doppler components
that arrive at exactly 0D and 180D. Thus, the angle of arrival is continuously
distributed and the probability of components arriving at exactly these angles is
zero.
3.8 Channel Model
3.8.1 AWGN
The transmitted signal for BPSK modulation is subjected to AWGN process n(t),
N0
that has two-sided power spectral density and Ak = 1, k=1, …., K. Ak is
2
independent, Rayleigh distributed and account for the fading channel

attenuation of all signal. The first order of probability density function (pdf) is
given by
−a2
PAk (a)=ae I[0, ∞](a) (3.15)
2
Due to the fact that SGA considers an average variance value for Multi Access
Interference or in other words, the first moment of ζ, the IGA exploits
knowledge of all moments of ζ. It was shown in [12] that the BER for an AWGN
channel obtained from IGA is significantly more accurate than the BER obtained
from the SGA especially for small number of users, k.
Thus, by applying SIGA, overall BER can be represented as [11].
1 N 1 N 1 N
PeSIGA ≈ 3 [1 − ] + 12 [1 − ] + 12 [1 − ]
√μζ+N2 √μζ+√3σζ+N2 √μζ−√3σζ+N2
(3.16)
where μζandσζ2 are given by
2N
μζ = (K − 1
3
Where μζ and σζ2 are given and

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1 N−1
σ2ζ = (k − 1 ) [45 (43N2 − 18) + (K − 2) ] (3.17)
9
Where this method is extended by applying first and second moment for the
received power.
3.8.2 Rayleigh Fading
The output of a low pass filter (LPF) of a synchronous system
i.e.τ1 =τ2 =......=τk for user 1 can be represented as
y1= ∫T r(t) a (3.18)
0 1 cos(wc t) dt=s1+I1+n1
σ2 N (3.19)
n1=N0
4
N
Where n1 is a zero-mean Gaussian random variable with variance σ2n1=N0 ,S1
4
is the signal component S1= ± A1N, and the interference term I1 is given by
(k) T
I1= ∑KK−2 Ak b0 cos(ϕk ) ∫0 ak (t)a1 (t)dt (3.20)
3.9 Scrambling code

Scrambling code is uniquely assigned to different base stations in the network.
Also, each (UE) has its own scrambling code. It is used as an identification tag;
it separates the base stations (in downlink) and UEs (in uplink). Scrambling does
not spread any further the chip sequence generated by spreading, but only
scramble it by simple multiplication. In figure 3.10, relationship between
spreading and scrambling is shown:
Channelization code scrambling code
DATA Bit rate
chip rate chip rate

Figure 3. 9:relationships between spreading and scrambling
they are quasi-orthogonal random sequences: e.g. a scrambling code is a vector
q(n) of length 38400, where each vector entry of q(n) is a complex number of type
(±𝟏 ± 𝐢)/√𝟐.the scrambling code is constructed to approximate a random
sequence, that is,
𝟏 𝟏, 𝐦 = 𝟎
∑𝟑𝟖𝟑𝟗𝟗
𝐢=𝟎 𝐪(𝐧)𝐢.(q(n)(i-m) mod38400) n ={ } (3.21)
𝟑𝟖𝟒𝟎𝟎 ≈ 𝟎, 𝐦 ≠ 𝟎

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Observe that if m≠ 0 the correction is not equal to zero, but almost.

Symbols → Spreading → Scrambling → Transmit → Propagation Channel
Distortion → UE-reception
Also, pulse shaping is applied on the generated chips before transmission. In
WCDMA, standard root raised cosine pulse shape filter is used at the transmitter
and matched filter with the same filter is performed at the receiver.
The sent Xn are affected by the propagation channel. The propagation channel
will change the amplitude and phase of the chips. The received chips at the UE
can be modeled a
yn = ∑Li=1 h1 . xn−τ(l) + vn (3.22)
Figure 3. 10: multi-path propagation channels [4]
Where h(l) is a complex number modeling path l, and  (l) is the time delay
between the cell and the UE (time unit in chips) and n is the disturbance (noise)
from other cells transmission. Soft/softer handover is a function in which the
mobile terminal is connected to several RBSs at the same time. The decisions
about triggering soft/softer handover (SHO) are based on the received signal
strength or comparison of the 𝐶𝑃𝐼𝐶𝐻 𝐸𝑏/ 𝑁𝑡 values between RBSs as shown in
figure below. The soft handover (SHO) area can also be controlled by the strength
of the CPICH power. By reducing the CPICH power, the SHO areas will
decrease.

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(a) Two overlapping cells (smooth handover)
(a) Signal strength and hysteresis between two adjacent BSs.

Figure 3. 11: Handover operation and cell selection [6].
Let us now examine the factors that define the CPICH quality. According to the
definition of CPICH RSCP and 𝐶𝑃𝐼𝐶𝐻 Eb/ 𝑁𝑡 the list of the factors is as follows,
• CPICH transmit power,
• Attenuation between the antenna and user terminal,
• Interference on the same channel (total received signal power from own
and other cells),
• Noise and adjacent channel interference.
Attenuation and the amount of received noise and adjacent channel interference
depend on the environment and hardware. Downlink attenuation is also
dependent on antenna configuration which, however, can be considered fixed in
short-term planning. Interference on the same channel is mostly dependent on the

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amount of traffic since user traffic signals contribute to the total received signal
power more than control channels. As a result, the CPICH transmit power can be
viewed as an efficient and the only relatively autonomous factor for controlling
the received CPICH signal strength, especially in highly loaded networks with
constantly high interference.

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CHAPTER FOUR
4. Simulation result analysis and discussion
4.1 MATLAB simulation parameters
The simulation of the thesis is organized in two parts in first part of the simulation
is the coding and the second part of the simulation is use Simulink model to
perform the modulation techniques BPSK, QPSK, M-QAM.
4.1.1 MATLAB out puts of the thesis
We have first simulated the modulation technique.
Figure 4. 1: transmitting information with serial symbol of QAM.

According to symbolic information. Digital Transmission is the transmission of
signals that vary discretely with time between two values of some physical
quantity, one value representing the binary number 0 and the other representing
1.

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Figure 4. 2:Re-obtain symbol and receiving information as digital

signal after M-QAM demodulation
Figure 4. 3: BPSK modulation and demodulation

The tasks of carrier recovery and symbol-clock regeneration, which are usually
considered part of the demodulation process, are an essential part of any data
communication system. There are a number of different techniques for
accomplishing these tasks, and these techniques can be used across a wide range
of modulation formats and demodulation schemes. If we were to implement
every possible combination of demodulation algorithm, carrier-recovery
technique, and clock regeneration as a distinct model. Therefore, it is a common
practice to implement the demodulation, carrier recovery, and clock regeneration
as separate models that can be put together in any desired combination in a
simulation.

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Figure 4. 4:QPSK information before transmitting
Figure 4. 5:QPSK of Inpahse and quadrature components

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Figure 4. 6:QPSK information after transmitting

From the above figure 4.4, 4.5 and figure 4.6 results, we have recommended that
the information that is before transmitting and after transmitting is the same in
the modulation techniques of QPSK. which means that there is no loss of signal
between the sender and receiver of the modulation .and we can get the
combination of in phase component of QPSK and quadrature component of
QPSK as a result of the combination of the two.Those the above MATLAB out
puts are the modulation techniques of BPSK, QPSK M-QAM of the transmitting
and receiving signals. We can re-obtain the original signals by demodulation
mechanisms.
Figure 4. 7:BPSK BER VS SNR with AWGN

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Figure 4. 8: QPSK BER VS SNR with AWGN

From the above results of figure 4.7 and 4.8, it is evident that BPSK modulation
is preferred in cases where we need to consider small amounts of transmitting
energy. The main reason is that the BPSK offers acceptable BER while
transmitting signals of relatively low energy. Above graph shows the BER vs
SNR performance to AWGN channel, where BPSK and QPSK systems
performances are compared with the application of different pseudo code like
gold with the increase in transmitting bits.
The BPSK and QPSK offer almost same BER vs SNR performance under
different conditions. The bit error rate is improved from 10-1 to 10-5 with the
almost need of -24 dB of SNR for the hardware module.

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Figure 4. 9: SNR vs BER BPSK modulation in Rayleigh channel
Figure 4. 10:SNR vs BER QPSK modulation in Rayleigh channel

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As a result, from the above figure 4 .9 and 4.10, Based on data generated by
computer simulation of W-CDMA models, relationship for model using BPSK
and QPSK modulation techniques between BER as a function of the following
parameters are obtained. As the number of users is increased, the QPSK
modulation technique performs poorly in W-CDMA system. found when the
channel is subjected to multipath Rayleigh fading with Doppler shift In the figure
above shows performance analysis of BPSK and QPSK modulation technique
over Rayleigh fading channel. BPSK has lower BER than QPSK.
Figure 4. 11: M-QAM BER Vs SNR

. The results of the simulations were compared to the theoretical results obtained
from using the approximate average BER expression. The first point to note from
the comparison is the gap between the simulation and theory graphs for all four
modulation schemes. For purposes of clarity only the graphs for M = 16 and M =
128 are shown in figure 4.11. As seen in the graphs, there is a large difference (a
gap of up to 4 dB) between the average BER computation and the simulation for
128-QAM and there is even a shift of approximately 1 dB for 16-QAM. The gap
increases as M increases.

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The second point that can be observed from the study of the simulation results is the
inaccuracy of the thresholds derived for an adaptive M-QAM scheme using the
approximate BER expression.

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CHAPTER FIVE
5. Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
CDMA is an example of multiple accesses, where several transmitters can send
information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several
users to share a band of frequencies. CDMA employs spread spectrum technology and
a special coding scheme where each transmitter is assigned a code. The results obtained
from these models were analyzed and are discussed in chapter 4 in which the
performance metric in terms of Bit Error Rate is investigated. Initially, we have used
the different M-Array QAM and QPSK modulation schemes. In which it is observed
that as the modulation order increases, the BER increases for the same range of SNR
values. This is due to the fact that enhancing complexities for higher order modulation
schemes, the BER will increase. Moreover, the Euclidean distances between the
symbols decrease for higher order QAM, hence higher order QAM which leads to
increase BER even for the little occurrence of noise.
5.2 Recommendation
1. In this thesis, several methods to analyze the capacity of CDMA systems in
simulation session were presented and they all showed that such systems are
interference limited and any reduction in interference results in an increase in
capacity. Therefore, using methods such as voice monitoring, sectorization, and
soft handoff will increase the capacity by reducing the amount of interference
seen by the BS.
2. Finally, in CDMA systems, there is a tradeoff between coverage and capacity
due to the limited power available for the user. So, as the interference increases,
the user has to increase his signal's power to keep the SNR at the desired value
and since the power is limited, the user will experience degradation in service
unless he gets closer to his BS.
3. Ethio Telecom must periodically optimize their networks to accommodate
traffic growth and performance degradation. For example, for selected BTS site
improving maximum cell load, re optimizing key BTS configuration parameters
and system parameters will improve network performance and quality of service

E.C
REFFERNCES
[1]. J. Laiho, A. Wacker, and T. Novosad, Radio Network Planning and
Performance for UMTS, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, 2002.
[2]. T. Baumgartner, Smart Antenna Strategies for the UMTS FDD Downlink,
PhD Thesis, Technische Universität Wien, Austria, August 2003.
[3]. A. Gerdenitsch, S. Jakl, M. Toeltsch and T. Neubauer,”Intelligent
Algorithms for System Capacity Optimization of UMTS FDD Networks”,
4th International Conference on 3G Mobile Communication Technologies,
London, United Kongdom, 2003.
[4]. R.T. Love, K.A. Beshir, D. Schaeffer, R.S. Nikides,”A Pilot Opimization
Technique for CDMA Cellular Systems”, Vehicular Technology conference,
1999. VTC 1999 - Fall. IEEE VTS 50th, pp.2238-2242, vol.4,1999.
[5]. Y.Y. Chong,”Local Algorithm for UMTS Radio Network Capacity
Optimisation”, Master Thesis, Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki,
June 2003.
[6]. S. C. Bundy,”Antenna Downtilt Effects on CDMA Cell-Site Capacity”,
Proceedings of Radio and Wireless Conference, RAWCON 99, pp. 99-102,
August 1-4, 1999.
[7]. J. Laiho-Steffens, A. Wacker and P. Aikio, ”The impact of the radio
network planning and site configuration on theWCDMA network capacity
and quality of service”, Proceedings of 51th IEEE Vehicular Technology
Conference, VTC 2000-Spring, vol. 2, pp. 1006-1010, Tokyo, Japan, May
1518, 2000.
[8]. K. Valkealathi, A. Höglund, J. Parkkinen and A. Hämäläinen,
”WCDMA Common Pilot Power Control for Load and Coverage Balancing”,
Proceedings of 13th IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and
Mobile Radio Communications, vol. 3, pp. 1412-1416, 2002.
[9]. J. Yang and J. Lin. Optimization of power management in a CDMA radio
network. In Proc. of the 52nd IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference
(VTC2000-Fall), pages 2642–2647, Sep. 2000.
[10]. S. Ying, F. Gunnarsson, and K. Hiltunen. CPICH power settings in
irregular WCDMA macro cellular networks. In Proc. of the 14th IEEE Intl.

E.C
Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications

(PIMRC 2003), pages 1176–1180, Sep. 2003
[11]. D. Kim, Y. Chang, and J. W. Lee. Pilot power control and service coverage
support in CDMA mobile systems. In Proc. of the 49th IEEE Vehicular
Technology Conference (VTC1999-Spring), July 1999.
[12]. S. Sesia, I. Toufik, M. Baker. LTE – The UMTS Long Term Evolution: From
Theory to Practice. First Edition West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons, 2009..
[13]. "Anmar Osman, “Low Complexity OFDM Transceiver Design for UMTSLTE”,
publication FTW-TH-2007-06,January 2007.".

E.C
APPENDIX A
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% BPSK BER Vs SNR with AWGN
clear all
clc
r=randint(1,10000);
for i=1:10000
if r(i)==0
s(i)=-1;
else
s(i)=1;
end
end
k=1;
for snrdb=1:1:10;
v=1/(10^(snrdb/10));
x=awgn(s,snrdb,'measured');
%n1=sqrt(v/2)*randn(1,10000);
%n2=sqrt(1/2)*randn(1,10000);
%n=sqrt(n1.*n1+n2.*n2);
y=x;
for j=1:10000
if y(j)>0
z(j)=1;
else
z(j)=0;
end
end
error=length(find(z~=r));
ber(k)=error/10000;
k=k+1;

E.C
end
snrdb=1:1:10;
snrlin=10.^(snrdb./10);
tber=0.5.*erfc(sqrt(snrlin));
semilogy(snrdb,ber,'-bo',snrdb,tber,'-mh')
grid on
title('BPSK with AWGN');
xlabel('Signal to noise ratio');
ylabel('Bit error rate');
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% QPSK BER Vs SNR WITH AWGN
clear all;
close all;
l=10000;
snrdb=1:1:10;
snrlin=10.^(snrdb/10);
for snrdb=1:1:10
si=2*(round(rand(1,l))-0.5);
sq=2*(round(rand(1,l))-0.5);
s=si+j*sq;
w=awgn(s,snrdb,'measured');
r=w;
si_=sign(real(r));
sq_=sign(imag(r));
ber1=(l-sum(si==si_))/l;
ber2=(l-sum(sq==sq_))/l;
ber(snrdb)=mean([ber1 ber2]);
end
%semilogy(snrdb, ber,'o-')
snrdb=1:1:10;
snrlin=10.^(snrdb./10);
tber=0.5.*erfc(sqrt(snrlin));

E.C
semilogy(snrdb,ber,'-bo',snrdb,tber,'-mh')
title('QPSK with AWGN');
xlabel('Signal to Noise Ratio');
ylabel('Bit Error Rate');
grid on;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
% MATLAB Script for computing the BER for BPSK modulation in a
% Rayleigh fading channel and compred to AWGN Channel
% Clear all the previously used variables
clear all;
format long;
% Frame Length
bit_count = 10000;
%Range of SNR over which to simulate
SNR = 0: 1: 40;
% Start the main calculation loop
for aa = 1: 1: length(SNR)
% Initiate variables
T_Errors = 0;
T_bits = 0;
% Keep going until you get 100 errors

while T_Errors < 100
% Generate some random bits

uncoded_bits = round(rand(1,bit_count));
% BPSK modulator
tx = -2*(uncoded_bits-0.5);

E.C
% Noise variance
N0 = 1/10^(SNR(aa)/10);
% Rayleigh channel fading

h = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(1,length(tx)) + j*randn(1,length(tx))];
% Send over Gaussian Link to the receiver
rx = h.*tx + sqrt(N0/2)*(randn(1,length(tx))+i*randn(1,length(tx)));
%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Equalization to remove fading effects. Ideal Equalization
% Considered
rx = rx./h;
% BPSK demodulator at the Receiver

rx2 = rx < 0;
% Calculate Bit Errors

diff = uncoded_bits - rx2;
T_Errors = T_Errors + sum(abs(diff));
T_bits = T_bits + length(uncoded_bits);
end
% Calculate Bit Error Rate
BER(aa) = T_Errors / T_bits;
disp(sprintf('bit error probability = %f',BER(aa)));
end
%------------------------------------------------------------
% Finally plot the BER Vs. SNR(dB) Curve on logarithmic scale
% Calculate BER through Simulation
% Rayleigh Theoretical BER
SNRLin = 10.^(SNR/10);

E.C
theoryBer = 0.5.*(1-sqrt(SNRLin./(SNRLin+1)));
% Start Plotting
figure(1);
semilogy(SNR,theoryBer,'-','LineWidth',2);
hold on;
% Simulated BER
figure(1);
semilogy(SNR,BER,'or','LineWidth',2);
hold on;
xlabel('SNR (dB)');
ylabel('BER');
title('SNR Vs BER plot for BPSK Modualtion in Rayleigh Channel');
% Theoretical BER
figure(1);
theoryBerAWGN = 0.5*erfc(sqrt(10.^(SNR/10)));
semilogy(SNR,theoryBerAWGN,'blad-','LineWidth',2);
legend('Rayleigh Theoretical','Rayleigh Simulated', 'AWGN Theoretical');
axis([0 40 10^-5 0.5]);
grid on;
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%%
% QPSK simulation with Gray coding and simple Rayleigh (no LOS) multipath
% and AWGN included.
% Clear all the previously used variables and close all figures
clear all;
close all;
format long;
% Frame Length
bit_count = 10000;

E.C
% Range of SNR over which to simulate

Eb_No = -3: 1: 30;
% Convert Eb/No values to channel SNR
% Consult BERNARD SKLAR'S book 'Digital Communications'
SNR = Eb_No + 10*log10(2);
% Start the main calculation loop
for aa = 1: 1: length(SNR)
% Initiate variables
T_Errors = 0;
T_bits = 0;
% Keep going until you get 100 errors

while T_Errors < 100
% Generate some information bits

uncoded_bits = round(rand(1,bit_count));
% Split the stream into two streams, for Quadrature Carriers

B1 = uncoded_bits(1:2:end);
B2 = uncoded_bits(2:2:end);
% QPSK modulator set to pi/4 radians constellation

% If you want to change the constellation angles
% just change the angles. (Gray Coding)
qpsk_sig = ((B1==0).*(B2==0)*(exp(i*pi/4))+(B1==0).*(B2==1)...
*(exp(3*i*pi/4))+(B1==1).*(B2==1)*(exp(5*i*pi/4))...
+(B1==1).*(B2==0)*(exp(7*i*pi/4)));
% Variance = 0.5 - Tracks theoritical PDF closely

ray =
sqrt(0.5*((randn(1,length(qpsk_sig))).^2+(randn(1,length(qpsk_sig))).^2));

E.C
% Include The Multipath

rx = qpsk_sig.*ray;
% Noise variance
N0 = 1/10^(SNR(aa)/10);
% Send over Gaussian Link to the receiver

rx = rx +
sqrt(N0/2)*(randn(1,length(qpsk_sig))+i*randn(1,length(qpsk_sig)));
%---------------------------------------------------------------
% Equaliser
rx = rx./ray;
% QPSK demodulator at the Receiver
B4 = (real(rx)<0);
B3 = (imag(rx)<0);
uncoded_bits_rx = zeros(1,2*length(rx));
uncoded_bits_rx(1:2:end) = B3;
uncoded_bits_rx(2:2:end) = B4;
% Calculate Bit Errors

diff = uncoded_bits - uncoded_bits_rx;
T_Errors = T_Errors + sum(abs(diff));
T_bits = T_bits + length(uncoded_bits);
end
% Received data constellation
figure; clf;
plot(real(rx),imag(rx),'o'); % Scatter Plot
title(['constellation of received symbols for SNR = ', num2str(SNR(aa))]);
xlabel('Inphase Component'); ylabel('Quadrature Component');

E.C
% Calculate Bit Error Rate

BER(aa) = T_Errors / T_bits;
disp(sprintf('bit error probability = %f',BER(aa)));
end
%------------------------------------------------------------
% Finally plot the BER Vs. SNR(dB) Curve on logarithmic scale
% BER through Simulation
figure(1);
semilogy(SNR,BER,'or');
hold on;
xlabel('SNR (dB)');
ylabel('BER');
title('SNR Vs BER plot for QPSK Modualtion in Rayleigh Channel');
figure(1);
EbN0Lin = 10.^(Eb_No/10);
theoryBerRay = 0.5.*(1-sqrt(EbN0Lin./(EbN0Lin+1)));
semilogy(SNR,theoryBerRay);
grid on;
% Theoretical BER
figure(1);
theoryBerAWGN = 0.5*erfc(sqrt(10.^(Eb_No/10)));
semilogy(SNR,theoryBerAWGN,'g-+');
grid on;
legend('Simulated', 'Theoretical Raylegh', 'Theroretical AWGN');
axis([SNR(1,1) SNR(end-3) 0.00001 1]);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

E.C
%GENERAL M-QAM BER Vs SNR

clc;
clear all;
close all;
N = 4*10^3; % number of symbols
M = 16; % size
k = log2(M); % bits/symbol
% for 16-QAM
Re = [-(2*sqrt(M)/2-1):2:-1 1:2:2*sqrt(M)/2-1];
Im = [-(2*sqrt(M)/2-1):2:-1 1:2:2*sqrt(M)/2-1];
k_QAM = 1/sqrt(10);
bdB = 3:1:13; % SNR range
sdB = bdB + 10*log10(k);
% binary to gray code
a = [0:k-1];
map = bitxor(a,floor(a/2));
[tt ind] = sort(map);
for i = 1:length(bdB)
c = rand(1,N*k,1)>0.5; % random 1's and 0's
d = reshape(c,k,N).';
bd = ones(N,1)*(2.^((k/2-1):-1:0)) ; % conversion from binary to decimal
% real

E.C
cRe = d(:,(1:k/2));
e = sum(cRe.*bd,2);
f = bitxor(e,floor(e/2));
% imaginary
cIm = d(:,(k/2+1:k));
g = sum(cIm.*bd,2);
h = bitxor(g,floor(g/2));
% mapping the Gray coded symbols into constellation

modRe = Re(f+1);
modIm = Im(h+1);
% constellation
mod = modRe + 1i*modIm;

s = k_QAM*mod;
% noise
n = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(1,N) + 1i*randn(1,N)];
% reciever
r = s + 10^(-sdB(i)/20)*n;
% demodulation
r_re = real(r)/k_QAM;
r_im = imag(r)/k_QAM;
% rounding off

E.C
m = 2*floor(r_re/2)+1;
m(m>max(Re)) = max(Re);
m(m<min(Re)) = min(Re);
n= 2*floor(r_im/2)+1;
n(n>max(Im)) = max(Im);
n(n<min(Im)) = min(Im);
% To Decimal conversion
oRe = ind(floor((m+4)/2+1))-1;
oIm = ind(floor((n+4)/2+1))-1;
% To binary string
pRe = dec2bin(oRe,k/2);
pIm = dec2bin(oIm,k/2);
% binary string to number

pRe = pRe.';
pRe = pRe(1:end).';
pRe = reshape(str2num(pRe).',k/2,N).' ;
pIm = pIm.';
pIm = pIm(1:end).';
pIm = reshape(str2num(pIm).',k/2,N).' ;
% counting errors for real and imaginary

Err(i) = size(find([cRe- pRe]),1) + size(find([cIm - pIm]),1) ;
end
sBer = Err/(N*k);
tBer = (1/k)*3/2*erfc(sqrt(k*0.05*(10.^(bdB/10))));

E.C
% plot
figure
semilogy(bdB,tBer,'rs-','LineWidth',2);
hold on
semilogy(bdB,sBer,'kx-','LineWidth',2);
grid on
legend('theory', 'simulation');
xlabel('SNR dB')
ylabel('Bit Error Rate')
title('BER VS SNR')
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%%%%%

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UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

Submission date: - July, 2013 E.C

___________________ _________________ ________________

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Manaye Mulualem _____________________

Lijalem Endalew _____________________

Birhanu Engedaw _____________________

Walbelay Azene _____________________

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page i

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page ii

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page iii

3.6.3 Bit Rate and Symbol Rate ........................................................................... 18

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page iv

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page v

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page vi

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page vii

HSCSD High-Speed Circuit Switched

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page viii

WCDMA Wideband CDMA

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page ix

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 1

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 2

1.4 Methodology of the project

Select Collection System model

Figure 1. 1 Methodology of the thesis

1.5 Scope of the thesis

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 3

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 4

Advanced. CDMA-Advanced is primarily considered as a part of Release 10 of 3GPP

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 5

BPSK QPSK M-QAM modulation

BER SNR Constellation performance

Figure 3. 1 system model of the thesis

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 6

3.2 Coverage and Capacity limiting Factors

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 7

diversity, increased sectorization, repeaters and smart antennas. Some of these

Figure 3. 2 General Scheme of a CDMA system [3].

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 8

3.4 Uplink Capacity limited Scenarios

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 9

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 10

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 11

Information Channel BPSK

Figure 3. 3 CDMA Transmitter[5]

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 12

Integrate Demodulator Decoder

Figure 3. 4 CDMA Receiver[5].

Figure 3. 5 BPSK signal spreading (CDMA)Model [7].

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 13

Table 3. 1 PN Sequence generator [6].

Similarly the upper band pass filter edge will be

Figure 3. 6 Front end of the BPSK demodulator Model [7].

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 14

Design Method Butterworth

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 15

Figure 3. 7 Constellation Diagram of a QPSK System [6]

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 16

Figure 3. 8: Constellation diagram of a 16-QAM system [6]

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 17

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 18

UOG, IOT, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Page 19

___________ _ ________