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concerning the relation between learning and develop- into in internal ones,” or “cooperative activity between
ment in children. One direct consequence is a change in a child and an adult or advanced peer” are
conclusions that may be drawn from diagnostic tests of complemented by quite concrete and well
development” (Vygotsky 1978, p. 87). operationalized nonambiguous content. One can find
The concept also introduces a radically innovative a lot of examples of the direct opposite, that is,
approach to assessing a child’s abilities: Instead of mea- a destructive instead of constructive implementation
suring the child’s actual capability to act alone directly, of the above-mentioned processes. The decisive point is
this heuristic calls for both the researcher and the not to appeal to the “mediation of higher mental func-
practitioner to evaluate the child’s potential capability tions by cultural tools” directly but to describe the kind
as displayed in active collaboration with adults or of mediation (the concrete psychological content
advanced peers. behind this process) and the characteristics of the cul-
With regard to the second reason why Vygotsky tural tools and the subject’s actions with them. It is not
introduced the term of the zone of proximal develop- difficult to find instances in which the cooperation of
ment – namely, to evaluate the efficacy of instructional a child with an adult produces not a progress but, on
practices – the past three decades have brought a veritable the contrary, a regress in the child’s development, and
deluge of high-quality fundamental and applied studies thus again the decisive point is not the “cooperative
demonstrating how this heuristic enriches and strategi- activity of a child and an adult or advanced peer” itself
cally changes learning and teaching processes in different but the kind of cooperative activity that takes place,
environments, first and foremost in the classroom how significant this activity and the collaborating adult
(Hedegaard 1996; Engeström 1987, 2009; Bransford (advanced peer) are for the child, the needs, age-
et al. 2000; Berger 2009; van Oers et al. 2008). related, and individual peculiarities of the child,
Not only did the heuristic of the zone of proximal etc. “Even the use of signs as instruments of mental
development provide a strong impetus for a wealth of activity and their ‘growing from the outside inwards’
both empirical and applied research, it also became (i.e., the use ‘for oneself ’ and ‘in one’s mind’), without
a solid and fertile background for the emergence of an explanation of what exactly took place in this place
a number of independent scientific schools and or how external activity and its external instruments
approaches in developmental and educational psychol- changed, were unable to alter the former view of mind”
ogy and the sciences of learning. Examples include the (Galperin 1992, p. 54).
theory of planned stage-by-stage formation of mental In working with the notion of the zone of proximal
actions and concepts introduced by P. Galperin and development (as well as with other key concepts of the
developed by him and his followers, which explains in cultural-historical theory of development and activity
a very explicit and detailed manner a system of psycho- theories of learning), one has to unambiguously clarify
logical conditions (usually organized for the child by an one’s expectations and limit oneself to general heuris-
adult) which must be fulfilled in order for the child to tics or find perspectives for real social (first of all
be provided with high-quality mental actions, con- educational) applications. The latter case requires
cepts, and representations; the theory of learning activ- a profound and expanded search followed by the
ity (D. Elkonin, V. Davydow), which represents highest possible operationalization and also an avoid-
a psychological specificity of this kind of human activ- ance of metaphors wherever possible.
ity as a leading activity of a school age child; and the
theory of developing instruction (developing education) Cross-References
(D. Elkonin, V. Davydow), which brought into exis- ▶ Activity Theories of Learning
tence Vygotsky’s famous slogan about the “good ▶ Cultural-Historical Theory of Development
instruction” that initiates childhood development. ▶ Internalization
At the same time, one has to clearly understand that ▶ Learning Activity
the heuristic power of this notion can only work if ▶ Learning and Training: Activity Approach
important metaphors (however, metaphors!) such as ▶ Mental Activities of Learning
“mediation of higher mental functions by cultural ▶ Scaffolding for Learning
tools,” “transformation of external forms of activity ▶ Vygotsky’s Philosophy of Learning
Zone of Reflective Capacity Z 3487
References
Galperin, P. (1992). The problem of activity in Soviet psychology. Zone of Reflective Capacity
Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, 30(4), 37–59.
van Oers, B., Wardekker, W., Elbers, E., & van der Veer, R. (2008). The
▶ Zone of Proximal Development
transformation of learning: Advances in cultural-historical activity
theory. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Z
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