B.

Tech 5th SEMESTER – CSE 2

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION &

ARCHITECTURE
CHAPTER – 01
BASIC concepts and BASIC STRUCTURES OF
COMPUTERS
Prepared By:
Prof. Smita Dash ( Asst. Professor, Dept. of CSE)
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What are the 2 fundamental entities of a
computer system?

1. Hardware

2. Software

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE) 2

1. Hardware : The hardware of the computer consists of all the electronic
components that comprise the physical entity of the device.
Example – the computer , the mouse , the keyboard, etc.

2. Software: The computer software consists of the instructions and

the data that the computer manipulates to perform various data –
processing tasks. It enables the user to interact with the computer.
Example – An internet browser software without which one would not
be able to surf the internet.

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE) 3

 Software (2 types)

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE) 4

 OPERATING SYSTEM
• An Operating system (OS) is a system software which acts as an
interface between the end user and computer hardware, and controls
the execution of programs.

• The operating system (OS) manages all of the software and hardware
on the computer. It performs basic tasks such as file, memory and
process management, handling input and output, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

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PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)
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PROGRAM: A computer program is a collection of instructions
that can be executed by a computer to perform a specific task.

DATA: Data are numbers and encoded characters that are used as
operands by the instructions.

MEMORY ACCESS TIME: Memory access time is how long it

takes for a character in RAM to be transferred to or from the CPU. Fast
RAM chips have an access time of 10 nanoseconds (ns) or less.

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REGISTERS: When operands are brought in to the processor, they
are stored in high-speed storage elements called registers. Register is a
very fast computer memory, used to store data/instruction in-
execution.

BUS: A bus is a subsystem that is used to connect computer

components and transfer data between them. In computer
architecture, a bus is a communication system that transfers data
between components inside a computer, or between computers.
For example, an internal bus connects computer internals to the
motherboard.

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)

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COMPILER: Compiler is a computer program that translates
computer code written in one programming language (the source
language) into another language (the target language). The name
"compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code
from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g.,
object code, or machine code) to create an executable program.

CLOCK: Processor signals are controlled by a timing signal called

clock.

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)

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Difference between how stack and queue are
implemented?
• STACK: One end of stack is fixed while the other end rises and falls
as data is pushed and popped. A single pointer is needed to point to
the top of the stack at any given time. A stack is a container of objects
that are inserted and removed according to the last-in first-out (LIFO)
principle.

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)

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• QUEUE: A Queue is a linear structure which follows First In First
Out (FIFO) order to perform operations. Both ends of a queue move
to higher addresses as the data are added at the rear (back) and
removed from the front. So 2 pointers are needed to keep track of the
two ends of the queue.

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)

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• STACK POINTER: A processor register is used to keep track of the
addresses of the elements of the stack that is at the top at any given
time. This register is called the stack pointer.

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)

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 OPERATIONS OF A COMPUTER
• Computer accepts information – form of program – input device –

stored in memory.

• Information fetched – under program control – ALU – processing.

• Processed information leaves – output device

• Control unit – directs all activities.

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BASIC STRUCTURES OF
COMPUTERS

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE) 15

UNDERSTANDING COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
Architecture describes what the
computer does.
Computer Architecture is concerned
with the way hardware components are
connected together to form a computer
system.
Computer Architecture helps us to
understand the functionalities of a
system.
A programmer can view architecture in
terms of instructions, addressing modes
and registers.
While designing a computer system
architecture is considered first.
Architecture involves Logic (Instruction
sets, Addressing modes, Data types,
Cache optimization)
PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)
ORGANIZATION AND COMPUTER
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
Organization describes how it does it.
Computer Organization is concerned
with the structure and behaviour of a
computer system as seen by the user.
Computer Organization tells us how
exactly all the units in the system are
arranged and interconnected.
Whereas Organization expresses the
realization of architecture.
An organization is done on the basis of
architecture.
Organization involves Physical
Components (Circuit design, Adders,
Signals, Peripherals)
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 PROGRAM COUNTER
• A program counter is a register in a computer processor that contains
the address (location) of the instruction being executed at the current
time. As each instruction gets fetched, the program counter increases
its stored value by 1. After each instruction is fetched, the program
counter points to the next instruction in the sequence. When the
computer restarts or is reset, the program counter normally reverts to
0.

• A program counter is also known as an instruction counter,

instruction pointer, instruction address register or sequence control
register.
PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)
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• INSTRUCTION REGISTER (IR): It is the part of a CPU's control unit
that holds the instruction currently being executed or decoded. In
simple processors, each instruction to be executed is loaded into the
instruction register, which holds it while it is decoded, prepared and
ultimately executed, which can take several steps.

• MEMORY ADDRESS REGISTER (MAR): It is the CPU register that

either stores the memory address from which data will be fetched to
the CPU, or the address to which data will be sent and stored.

• MEMORY BUFFER REGISTER (MBR) / MEMORY DATA REGISTER: It is

used to facilitate communication with memory and hold the data to
be written into the main memory from GPR or to read out the data
from main memory address location into the GPR.
PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)
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 FUNCTIONAL UNIT
• A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts:

➢Input Unit

➢Memory Unit

➢Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

➢Output Unit

➢Control Unit.
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PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)
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 Primary memory is also known as main memory or may also refer to “Internal memory.” and
primary storage. All those types of computer memories that are directly accessed by the
processor using data bus are called primary memory. That allows a processor to access stores
running programs and currently processed data that stored in a memory location.

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An example of Primary memory is RAM and ROM that store programs.

When you turn on the computer, Generally CPU searches for essential codes in RAM to get it.
Otherwise, it goes to ROM. Yes, they both chips collectively called primary memory in a computer
system.

RAM, or random access memory, consists of
one or more memory modules that
temporarily store data while a computer is
running. RAM is volatile memory, meaning it is
erased when the power is turned off.
Therefore, each time you start up your
computer, the operating system must be
loaded from secondary memory (such as a
hard drive) into the primary memory, or RAM.
Similarly, whenever you launch an application
on your computer, it is loaded into RAM.
The operating system and applications are
loaded into primary memory, since RAM can be
accessed much faster than storage devices. In
fact, the data can be transferred between CPU
and RAM more than a hundred times faster than
between the CPU and the hard drive. By loading
data into RAM, programs can run significantly
faster and are much more responsive than if
than constantly accessed data from secondary
memory.

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ROM stands for Read Only Memory. ROM is “Non-Volatile Memory” that retains data without the flow of
electricity. ROM is an essential chip with permanently written data or programs. It is similar to the RAM that is
accessed by the CPU. ROM comes with pre-written by the computer manufacturer to hold the instructions for
booting-up the computer.

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PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)
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 BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPT

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• Each instruction is executed in 4 sub-phases by
the CPU:

1. Fetch the instruction from the memory.

2. Decode the instruction.
3. Read the effective address from the memory.
4. Execute the instruction.

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• Program resides in the memory.
• Execution of a program starts when the PC is set to the 1st position of
the instruction counter.
• The contents of memory are sent to the MAR and a read control
signal is sent to the memory by the control unit.
• After the time required to access the memory the addressed word is
read out of the memory and loaded into MBR.
• Next, the contents of the MBR are transferred to the IR, & at this
point the instruction is ready to be decoded and executed.
• If the instructions involve the operation of ALU then it is necessary to
obtain the required operand inside the ALU.
PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)
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• If the operand placed in the memory, it has to be fetched by sending
its address to the MAR and initiating a read cycle.
• The operand has been read from the memory to the MDR then, it is
transferred from MDR to ALU.
• After 1 or more operands are fetched, in this way ALU perform the
desired operation.
• If the result of this operation is stored in the memory then the result
is sent to the MDR.
• The address of that location where the result is to be stored is sent to
the MAR and a write signal is generated by the control unit.

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CLOCK CYCLE: A clock cycle, or simply a "cycle," is a single electronic pulse of
a CPU. During each cycle, a CPU can perform a basic operation such as fetching an
instruction, accessing memory, or writing data. Since only simple commands can be
performed during each cycle, most CPU processes require multiple clock cycles.

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 BASIC PERFORMANCE EQUATION

𝑁𝑋𝑆
T=
𝑅
T : processing time required to execute a program
N: the actual no. of instruction execution, including some
repetitive instructions
S: average no. of basic steps required to execute one machine
instruction, where each basic step is completed in one cycle.
R: the clock rate

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 PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT

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MULTIPROCESSOR & MULTICOMPUTER

Multiprocessor supports parallel computing

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 Multicomputer supports distributed computing.

PROF. SMITA DASH (ASST. PROFESSOR., DEPT. OF CSE)

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THANK YOU

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