BIOPLASTICPRODUCTION

Introduction

Bioplasticsareplasticmaterialsproducedfromrenewablebiomasssources,suchasvegetable
fatsandoils,cornstarch,straw,woodchips,sawdust,recycledfoodwaste,etc.Somebioplastics
areobtainedbyprocessingdirectlyfromnaturalbiopolymersincludingpolysaccharides(e.g.
starch,cellulose,chitosanandalginate)andproteins(e.g.soyprotein,glutenandgelatin),while
othersarechemicallysynthesisedfromsugarderivatives(e.g.lacticacid)andlipids(oilsandfats)
fromeitherplantsoranimals,orbiologicallygeneratedbyfermentationofsugarsorlipids.In
contrast,commonplastics,suchasfossil-fuelplastics(alsocalledpetro-basedpolymers)are
derivedfrompetroleumornaturalgas.

Itisestimatedthatsincethe1950s,approximately1billiontonsofplasticshavebeendiscarded
andsomeofthatmaterialmightpersistforcenturiesorevensignificantlylonger,asitis
demonstratedbythepersistenceofnaturalmaterialssuchasamber.
Oneofthebiggestadvantagesofplastics,theirdurability,islikewiseoneoftheirbiggest
problems:Therateofdegradation(biodegradation)doesnotmatchtheirintendedservicelife,
andbuildupintheenvironmentoccurs.Recyclingofwasteplastics,inprinciple,ameaningful
approach,canfollowdifferentroutes:
1.Reuseoftheproduct(eg,abag).
2.Materialrecycling(collection,sorting,andreprocessing).
3.Feedstockrecycling(depolymerizationtocapturethemonomers).
4.Thermalrecycling(useoftheenergycontentinwasteincineration,steelworks,orcement
kilns).Recyclingplasticsisnotalwaysfeasible,anditcanhaveanegativeeco-balanceduetothe
effortsforcollecting,sorting,andprocessingthem.Inmostcases,theyneedtobewashed,and
wastegrindingandprocessingareenergyconsuming.Therecyclingrateofplasticsdiffersfrom
countrytocountry;therearealsodifferencesintheplasticsconcerned.IntheUnitedStates,the
recyclingrateforpolyethyleneterephthalate(PET)packaging(bottles)was31.2%in2013.PET
hasthehighestvalueofcommodityplasticsandisusedmainlyfordrinkingbottles;hence,efforts
aremadetocollectit.Recycledplasticsgothroughdifferentprocessingstepssuchassorting
andmeltfiltration.Theycanoftenonlybeusedinlowergradeproducts,typicallynotwithdirect
foodcontactorhighperformanceapplications.A‘‘usagecascade’’canbecreated,endingin
thermalrecycling(combustion:incinerationorpyrolysis).Tosummarize,theextensiveuseof
plasticshasbecomeaprobleminmanyaspects.Therefore,growinginterestin‘‘bioplastics’’is
observed(forreuseandrecyclingofbioplastics,anunsolvedissue,Theterm‘‘bioplastics’’stands
for‘‘biobasedpolymers.’’AccordingtoIUPAC,abioplasticisderivedfrom‘‘biomassor
monomersderivedfromthebiomassandwhich,atsomestageinitsprocessingintofinished
products,canbeshapedbyflow.Intheareaofbioplastics,severaltermsareusedvaguely,
ambiguously,orwrongly.Hence,someimportantdefinitionsareprovidedasfollows
Plastics(plasticmaterials)ingeneralareahugerangeoforganicsolidsthataremalleable(pliable,
moldable).Malleabilityisamaterial’sabilitytodeformundercompressivestress.Plasticsusually
consistoforganicpolymerswithhighmolecularweightandothersubstances(fillers,colors,and
additives).Theyaretypicallysyntheticallyproduced.Theterm‘‘naturalplastics’’issome-times
usedintheindustryforunfilledanduncoloredplastics,asopposedtocompounds.Often,the
expressionbioplasticsisusedtomakeadistinctionfrompolymersderivedfromfossilresources (monomers).

Bioplasticscanreducecarbondioxideemissionsby30–70%comparedwithconventional
plastics.‘‘Greenchemistry’’(orsustainablechemistry)canbeunderstoodasthedesignof
chemicalproductsandprocessesthatreduceoreliminatetheuseorgenerationofsubstances
thatarehazardoustohumans,animals,plants,andtheenvironment,whereenergyefficiency
shouldbehighandthewastetargetiszero;asaconsequence,costsshouldalsobelow.A‘‘green
polymer’’isonethatconformstotheconceptofgreenchemistry.Note,however,thatagreen
polymerdoesnotnecessarilymean‘‘environment-friendlypolymer’’or‘‘biobasedpolymer.’’Sothe
motivationforbioplasticsissustainability.Theprincipleforsustain-abilityissimplyexplained:
Whatevermanneedsforsurvivalandwell-beingdirectlyandindirectlycomesfromournatural
environment.Sustainableactionisonethatmaintainsconditionsunderwhichhumansandnature coexistharmoni-
ouslyandwheresocial,economic,andenvironmentalrequirementsofpresent andfuturegenerationsaremet.

ResourceefficiencyBio-basedchemicals
bioplastics1920x480 Bioplasticsproduction
Renewablematerialsusedtoproducechemicals,fuelsandplasticsareontheriseaswemove
awayfromfossilfeedstocks.Inthetransitiontoacirculareconomy,chemicalsandmaterials
producedfrombiomasswillplayakeyrole.Biobasedchemicals,fuelsandplasticproductionis expectedtogrow.

Twomaintypesofbioplastics
Therearetwomaintypesofbioplasticsshowingpotentialintheindustry.Themostfrequently
usedisPLA,orpolylacticacid.Thisismadebyextractingsugarfromplantslikesugarcaneand
fieldcornandisoftenseeninplasticbottles,utensils,andtextiles.Thealternativeproductionis
PHA,orpolyhydroxyalkanoates.Thiscanbeusedinabroaderrangeofapplications.

*PLA*
UnlikePHAplastic,PLAbioplasticisnotproducedwithinthebacteriacell.Instead,itis
synthesisedusingadifferentfermentationandseparationmethod.Thebacteriaactasacatalyst
duringthefermentationprocessbeforeitisseparatedfromthemainwatersolution.Thelactose
acidfoundinthissolutionisthenpolymerizedtoformthefinishedproduct.

*PHA*
PHAisproducedbyfermentingnaturalrawmaterialsuchassugarorlipids.First,bacteriaare
fermentedtogrowabiopolymerwithintheircasing.Oncethedesiredyieldisreached,the
bacteriaareharvestedfromthefermentationbrothtoincreasetheconcentration.Thebiopolymer
isthenextractedfromthebacteriacell,whichcanbedonephysicallyorchemicallydependingon
eachproductionspecifications.Finally,thelysateisextractedtoformthebioplastic.PHAisoften
moreadaptableandlesselasticthanotherplastics,makingitamuchmoreversatileoptionto produce.

*AdvantagesofBioplastics:*
Lessoilisusedtoproducepetrochemical(oil-based)plasticswhichposeagreatrisktothe environment.
Thecommonbioplasticscanbeinjectionmoldedandshapedtotakethesameformas
traditionalthermoplastics.Insomecases,thebioplasticsarestrongerandlighter,too,sotheyare
notnecessarilyonlysuitableforverynicheapplications.
Bioplasticsaremoremarketable,forexample,theirusagemayimprovethevalue-addofa
productthroughagreenmarketingcampaign.Afterall,studieshaveshownthat‘80%ofEuropean
customerswanttobuyproductswithaminimalimpactontheenvironment,’sobioplasticsmay
representausefulargumentforbrands.
Lessplasticlitterisneeded.IntheUK,itwasfoundthat90%oflitteronbeacheswasplastic.
Usingbioplasticalternativeswhichbreakdownnaturallybycompostingorbiodegradingwill
naturallynegatethechanceforthemtobecomeyetanotherpieceofthat90%.
Manybioplasticpolymersarenaturallyoccurringanddon’thavethecarbonfootprintofoil-based
plasticsbecausetheydon’trequiretherefinementofoiltoproduce.Therefinementofoilto
createthepetrochemicalbuildingblocksforoil-basedplasticsusesalotofenergyandreleasesa
lotofCO2duringproduction,perhapsasmuchas500milliontonnesofCO2peryear.
Commonbioplastics,suchasstarch-basedPLAandPHB,arenon-toxicandof‘nohealthconcern’.
Thismakesthemusefulforfoodpackaging,astheydon’ttaintfoodwithanytaste,norleech
chemicals(e.g.BPAs)likesomeoil-basedplastics.

*Disadvantagesofbioplastics*
First,bioplasticsaregenerallyNOTcost-competitivecomparedtotheiroil-basedcounterparts.
Theyaregenerallytwoorthreetimesmoreexpensivethanthemajorconventionalplasticssuch
asPEorPET,andtheirproductionisplaguedbylowyieldsandbeingexpensive.This
disadvantageshouldbelessacutewhenmanufacturingplantsbecomelargerandbenefitfrom
economiesofscale.AgoodexampleisBraskem’s200,000-tonnebiopolyethyleneplant
(equivalenttoabout20%oftheworld’scurrentbioplasticsproduction).
Thereisaconcernthatbioplasticsbasedonterrestrialcropscouldharmfoodsupplies;however,
newinnovationsusingfoodwastecouldbehelpfulinthisregardandtheconcernswouldseemto
beunfoundedas:‘Perhaps300,000hectaresareusedtogrowthecropswhichtheindustry
processesintoplastics.Forcomparison,thisisabout0.02%oftheworld’stotalnaturallyirrigated
areaavailableforcultivation.Evenifhalftheworld’splasticsweremadefromcropsgrownon
foodland,theindustrywouldonlyrequire3%oftheworld’scultivatedacreage.’
Crop-basedbioplasticsrequirefertileland,water,fertilizers,andarereliantonweatherconditions.
Thismeansthatthesupplyofrawmaterialsforbioplasticsareatriskofnaturalphenomena, suchasdrought.
Somebioplasticshaveashorterlifetimethanoil-basedplasticsduetoweakermechanical
properties;suchasgreaterwatervapourpermeabilitythanstandardplastic,beingeasytotear
liketissuepaper,orbeingverybrittle.Forinstance,somealgae-basedbioplasticswillbreakdown
inamatterofhourswheninthewater–thismakesthemverybiodegradable,butalsofragile.
Beingcompostableandbiodegradablesoundsgreat,butmanybioplasticsmustfollowaspecific
disposalprocedureandrequireindustrialcompostinginordertoavoidbeingincineratedorgoing
tolandfill.Iflocalauthoritieslackthisfacility,the‘green’bioplasticmayendupbeingdisposedof
withnormaltrashandwheninlandfilldonotbreakdownmucheasierthanregularnonbiodegradableplasticsinsome
cases.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are biodegradable polymers produced by microbes to overcome

environmental stress. Commercial production of PHAs is limited by the high cost of production compared to
conventional plastics. Another hindrance is the brittle nature and low strength of polyhydroxybutyrate
(PHB), the most widely studied PHA. The needs are to produce PHAs, which have better elastomeric
properties suitable for biomedical applications, preferably from inexpensive renewable sources to reduce
cost. Certain unique properties of Bacillus subtilis such as lack of the toxic lipo-polysaccharides, expression
of self-lysing genes on completion of PHA biosynthetic process – for easy and timely recovery, usage of
biowastes as feed enable it to compete as potential candidate for commercial production of PHA.

Polyhydroxyalkanote(s) (PHAs) are natural biopolymers. Many prokaryotic organisms accumulate PHAs as
reserve material when carbon © source is available in excess in the environment and there is a limitation of
nutrients essential for growth. It serves as a food source, which is mobilized by PHA depolymerase under
stressed environmental conditions . Although PHAs may generally account upto 90% of the dry cell weight
(DCW) of the microbes , however their production on industrial scale is still very costly in comparison to
petrochemical-based plastics . The other basic drawbacks which hinder their exploitation on industrial scale
are the highly crystalline nature and very low strength of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), the most well
studied PHA. In contrast to homopolymers of 3HB (PHBs), copolymers of small chain length C3-C5 hydroxy
acids (scl-HA) and medium chain length C6-C14 mcl-HA of PHA are more ductile, easier to mold and tough .
These copolymers have better film forming and mechanical properties quite similar to low-density
polyethylene. These features improve their strength and processability . Certain microbes can even produce
a natural-synthetic hybrid block copolymer of polyhydroxyoctanoate-diethylene glycol, which results in
significant changes in their physiochemical and material characteristics . Efforts are thus needed towards
improving product quality and efficiency of the recovery process, which will result in optimization of yields.
In order to reduce the cost of production, efforts are being made to search or develop (genetically
engineered) strains capable of producing PHAs from inexpensive renewable sources , or even develop
transgenic plants for this purpose . The purpose of this review is primarily to consolidate the features of
Bacillus subtilis as a potential candidate for producing biopolymers – PHAs.

The major limitations in the production of PHAs are special growth condition required, expensive raw
materials such as the producer microorganisms and substrate composition, cultures condition, fermentation
processes (batch, fed-batch, repeated batch, or fed-batch, and continuous modes) and high cost of their
recovery (Castilho et al. 2009). About 50% of the production costs of the PHAs is the cost of carbon source.
Agro-industrial wastes and by-products, such as olive oil mill effluents, sugarcane molasses, or paper mill
waste water could be used as the carbon source rather than refined organic substrates (Halami 2008).
Recycling of these wastes for polyhydroxyalkanoate production is not only crucial for waste management
but also in economizing and commercializing the polymer (Thomsen 2005).

B. subtilis is generally regarded as safe (GRAS) organism by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and thus
offers additional benefits. B. subtilis has been accorded the designation of industrial workhorse for being
among the most widely used Microbes for large scale production of recombinant proteins, amino acids and
fine chemicals . It will not be inappropriate to call them as “cell factory” since B. subtilis is already known for
production of valuable metabolites, bioremediation and generation of bioenergy

Various end uses of bioplastics have been accepted within the commercial sectors. While packaging and
bags take up a significant share of the bioplastic market, their usage in other industries has been growing
too.

Following is our list of top 5 commercial applications of biodegradable plastics.

1. Packaging and Bags

Various plastic packaging products are being manufactured using bioplastic sources. Some of these include
bioplastic packaging, bioplastic bags, bottles, biodegradable compost bags, disposable cutlery, and
tableware, etc.

Bioplastic packaging
The bioplastic materials used in the food packaging industry are good at maintaining quality. The food
contained within remains free of toxic chemicals while being able to maintain its freshness. Additionally,
mechanical properties can be controlled and changed as per the industry requirements.

Biodegradable shopping bags are another important application of these organic plastics. The additives used
in the plastics make them easy to biodegrade when exposed to air, light, or water.
Bioplastic shopping bags
Biodegradable bags can be made from starches (along with polyethylene and heavy metals) or starches
combined with biodegradable polymers like Polylactic Acid, PLA.

Another variety that’s gaining popularity is the oxo-biodegradable plastic bags which use certain additive
classes that breakdown the polymers at a faster speed.

Various product developers are now manufacturing biodegradable or bioplastic based bags for use in waste
collection, compositing as well as shopping purposes.

Being completely organic in nature, the polymers of these compostable plastics break down to eventually
release carbon dioxide, water and organic matter in the environment. The environmental impacts are hence
negligible as compared to conventional plastics.

2. Houseware and Kitchenware

Biodegradable plastics made from renewable resources have been slowly replacing the markets for

conventional plastics for disposable houseware and kitchen utilities. Things like storage utensils,
biodegradable cups, bio plastic bottles, hangers, plastic shelves, toys, bathroom utilities, etc.

Bioplastics- kitchenware
Additionally, food and hospitality industries have been making a shift towards biodegradable plastic items
like biobased cutlery and tableware. Their benefits, especially in comparison to conventional plastics are
significant.

3. Medical Equipment
Medical industry takes up a large share of the biodegradable plastic market. Various medical procedures use
bioplastics for their excellent properties.

Non-toxic versions of biodegradable plastics (made out of renewable resources) are used for sutures in heart
operations and other similar procedures. The sutures are easy to sterilize, give the required tensile strength
properties and get dissolved easily within the body.

Bioplastic medical equipment

Other biodegradable medical devices like orthopedic pins, dental implants, skin staplers, dissolvable medical
screws, etc are also highly used within the industry.

Biodegradable polymers like PolyActive and OctoDEX have been used for site-specific drug delivery. The
linear release and biodegradation properties of these polymers help in the controlled release of proteins for
local administration.

The overall applications of biodegradable and bioplastics in medical and pharmaceutical technologies have
hence been revolutionary.

4. Electronics
Consumer electronic goods take up a significant share of the plastics market. Plastics are being used to
produce circuit boards, casings, tablets, etc.

Bioplastics electronics
Bioplastics have now been introduced in the consumer electronics world which is a big contributor to plastic
waste.
Electronic items like touch screen computer casings, keyboards, earphones, mobile phones, loudspeakers,
laptops, game consoles, mobile casings, mouse, vacuum cleaners, etc are now being made out of bioplastics
and biodegradable plastics.

Optimized PLA compounds are largely being utilized within the consumer electronics market. PLA blends
provided added properties like impact resistance, water resistance, stability, high gloss finish, etc.

5. Automobile industry
The modern automotive industry has seen various revolutionary changes. In terms of reducing the overall
carbon footprint, various steps have been taken. Shifting to fuel-efficient vehicles to converting to greener
fuel systems have contributed positively towards environmental conservation efforts.

Plastic products have been an important part of the automotive sector. However, the concerns over the
recyclability and the growing plastic wastes emerging from this sector have been real.

This is perhaps the reason for the automobile industry to shift towards bioplastics. Various leading
automobile brands are now using bioplastics like bio polyester and bio polyamides. Besides being
significantly beneficial to the environment, these bioplastics exhibit great performance.

The excellent qualities, as well as the biodegradable nature of these materials, have made manufacturers
take notice. Automobile components like the dashboard, interior and exterior features, headliners, sun
visors, floor mats, seat cushion covers, etc.

Leading manufacturers like Toyota have been forerunners in using bioplastics for various automotive
components.

Various reports suggest that the global bioplastic markets will earn around $96,627 million by the end of the
year 2025. Challenging the dominance of plastics in various commercial applications, bioplastics are now
being preferred by multiple industries.

The bioplastics market is young and developing but with enormous potential. While it is true that bioplastics
currently represent only about one percent of the total plastics produced globally, the market has been
showing steady growth. The number of interested manufacturers and end-users has been increasing every
year.

Additionally, increasing consumer awareness and demand for sustainable products has created a surge in
the bioplastic demand graphs. With the growing understanding of ecology-related issues like pollution,
climate change, etc. consumers are showing increased acceptance of sustainable products like bioplastics.