Naval Guns and Mountings (Website Capture) WW

Definitions and Information about Naval Guns - Part 1
Definitions and Information about Naval Guns

Part 1 - Weapons and Mountings
By Tony DiGiulian
Updated: 10 July 2006
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Ammunition,
Mounting /
Gun Gun Fuze and Miscellaneous
Turret
Nomenclature Definitions Projectile Definitions
Definitions
Definitions
Gun Nomenclature
General
Naval Guns are usually classified by "caliber" (diameter of the bore), "calibers" (length of the barrel described in multiples of the diameter of the bore)
and usually a "Model" or "Reference" designation and occasionally a modification indicator.
For example, the description: USN 16"/50 Mark 7 Mod 0
Means that the gun was developed by the Navy of the United States of America, has a bore 16 inches (40.64 cm) in diameter, a barrel length of 16 x 50
inches = 800 inches (20.320 m) long and is the seventh version of the 16 inch gun with no modifications to the original Mark 7 design.
The way barrel length is measured may differ between nations and sometimes gun types. Please see "Barrel Length / Bore Length" below. Generally
speaking, the longer the barrel, the more powerful is the gun.
Gun and Mounting Designations of the Major Naval Powers
British Designations
In the latter half of the 19th century, British cannon designs made a gradual transition from muzzle loading rifles (MLR) to breach loading rifles (BLR).
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/Gun_Data.htm (1 of 23)7/20/2006 15:17:54
Any breech loader of that period which could fire faster than about two rounds per minute was known as a "quick fire" (QF) cannon, whether it used bag
ammunition or cartridge ammunition. However, by the early part of the twentieth century, the BL designation was given only to bag guns while the QF
designation was used only for cartridge guns. This separation into BL and QF categories was carried into the designation system, with BL and QF guns
of the same caliber being enumerated into different numeric series. Except in gun lists, QF guns were not usually subdivided into separate and fixed
ammunition types. Gun designations during this time were per the diameter of the bore in inches or, for smaller guns, by the nominal weight of the
projectile in pounds. A few guns, mainly those developed abroad, were designated by the manufacturer and the bore size in millimeters, such as the
Bofors 40 mm and the Oerlikon 20 mm. The bore size was followed by the BL or QF designation and a Mark number using Latin numbers, sometimes
followed with one or more asterisks or stars which indicated minor modifications to the original design. For example, the designation 4-in QF Mark XVI*
meant a cartridge gun firing a 4 inch (10.2 cm) projectile, with the design being the sixteenth gun in the 4 inch QF series and having had one minor
modification to the original design.
Many, but not all, larger-caliber weapons designed for the British Army were given mark numbers in the same series as naval guns of that caliber, a
practice which occasionally leaves a "hole" in the naval mark number series. I do not usually include a data page for such Army-only weapons, but
instead put a "Nomenclature Note" on an appropriate datapage to account for these "missing" mark numbers.
For guns with fractional inch bores, the British practice was to place the decimal point directly under the inch symbol followed by the tenth inch value, a
combination not readily reproducible with modern type fonts. Roughly, this would appear as 4."5 for a 4.5" (11.4 cm) gun. For clarity, I show all such
designations as 4.5" (11.4 cm).
Naval mountings had a separate designation, usually incorporating the type of mounting into the designation, and enumerated by the gun caliber. For
example, 4.7-in CP Mark XIV meant that the mounting was for 4.7-inch (12 cm) guns, was a "Center Pivot" type, and was the fourteenth mounting in the
CP series used for 4.7-inch (12 cm) guns. Similar to guns, asterisks were used to show modifications to the original design, with each additional asterisk
identifying a separate modification. A few smaller mountings were designated by their total weight. For example, the 12-pdr 18-cwt was a designation
given to a mounting for a 3-inch (7.62 cm) gun firing a 12-pound (5.4 kg) projectile and the gun and mounting together weighed 18-hundredweight or
about 2,016 lbs. (914 kg).
Up until shortly after the end of World War II, British weapons were almost always known by their gun designation and not by the designation of the
mountings in which they were used. For example, the designation of the famous 15-in Mark I was for the gun itself, not for its mounting. However, in
1950 the British weapon designation system was changed such that weapons were now known by the designation of the mounting that they were used in
and not by the designation of the gun itself. At this same time, Roman numerals were dropped in favor of Arabic numerals.
Some confusion was created under this new designation system as many older weapons were redesignated, even though the weapons and mountings
themselves did not change. For example, the weapons used on the Daring class destroyers of the late 1940s were 4.5-in Mark V guns and these were
used in 4.5-in Mark VI twin mountings. Under the old designation system, these weapons were referred to as being the 4.5-in Mark V, in other words,
by the designation of the gun itself. Under the new system, the guns and mountings together were now referred to as being the 4.5-in Mark 6, which had
previously been just the mounting designation. In an effort to reduce confusion, both the original and subsequent designations are given on my data
pages for these redesignated weapons, with the newer designations shown in parenthesis.
Under this new designation system, modifications were also now given arabic numerals rather than asterisks, although asterisks were brought forward
for those guns having additional modifications after being redesignated. For example, the 4.5-in Mark IV guns and 4.5-in Mark V mountings taken from
scrapped "C" class destroyers and then modified and reused on the Tribal class frigates (Type 81) built in the 1950s were now designated as 4.5-in
Mark 5* Mod 2 meaning that these mountings had been modified once prior to the change to arabic numbers and twice afterwards.

Guns designed post-war were now designated with an N (apparently for "Navy") such as the 6-in QF N5 used on the Tiger class cruisers in Mark 26 twin
mountings.
After Britain adopted the metric system in 1965, naval guns and mountings were reclassified in metric units, although English units are still commonly
used for many weapons even to the present day.
Note that none of these designation systems include barrel length (calibers) in the designation. For purposes of clarity, I have included barrel length for
all gun designations on my British data pages, but strictly speaking, it is incorrect to do so.
Additional information may be found in the Naval Technical Board essay Pounders!
French Designations
Individual guns are identified by the bore in millimeters, the length in calibers of the bore and the year design was started. For example, the designation
380 mm/45 M1935 meant a gun whose design was started in 1935, firing a 38 cm (14.96-inch) projectile and whose bore length was 38 x 45 cm long -
17.100 m (673 inches). Mountings were designated with the Model Year, for example, M1932.
Some USA weapons were in French service for a brief period following World War II, but most have been produced by France and follow the above
designation system.
German Designations
The methodology of German Naval Gun designations changed three times in the first half of the 20th century. In the period before and during World War
I, German guns were designated by their bore diameter in centimeters, "SK" meaning naval cannon, and their nominal overall length. So, for example,
the designation 30.5 cm SK L/50 meant a naval gun firing 30.5 cm (12.008-inch) projectiles with a barrel whose overall length was 30.5 x 50 cm long -
1525.0 cm (600.4 inches). The second method was for guns designed in the 1920s through 1940 where the length figure was dropped in favor of the
Construction Year (Model Year). Under this system, the guns carried by the Bismarck were designated as 38 cm SK C/34 meaning that these were
naval guns firing 38 cm (14.96-inch) projectiles whose design was started in 1934. The third method was adopted in 1940 and under this system guns
were designated by their bore in centimeters, "KM" meaning naval cannon and the design year. For example, the designation 10.5 cm KM44 was for a
10.5 cm (4.1-inch) naval gun designed in 1944.
Note that neither of these last two systems included barrel length (calibers) in the designation. For purposes of clarity, I have included barrel length for
all gun designations on my German weapons data pages, but strictly speaking, it is incorrect to do so for weapons designed after 1918.
Gun Mountings were designated with the type of mounting and the year of design. For example, the designation Drh Tr C/25 was for a turret mounting
whose design was started in 1925.
Many postwar guns are foreign designs and are commonly known by the designation given by the producing nation.

Additional information may be found in German Ammunition, Guns and Mountings Definitions.
Italian Designations
Prior to the 1920s, most large caliber guns and many smaller caliber guns were imported from Britain. For that reason, most of these guns were
designated in inches. Guns developed in Italy after that time were identified by their bore in millimeters, the length in calibers of the bore and the year
design was started either on the gun itself or on the mounting. For example, 135 mm/45 Model 1938 was the designation given to the guns used on the
"Capitani Romani" class small cruisers and these were used in Model 1938 turrets. Often the manufacturer's name was also included as part of the
designation. Mountings designed by the Italian Navy rather than by a manufacturer were given an RM designation, which stood for "Regia
Marina" (Royal Navy).
Some USA weapons were in Italian service following World War II, but most post-war guns have been produced by Italian armament firms and generally
follow the above designation system.
It should be noted that many Italian-produced naval guns even to the present day have been to English measurement units, not metric. For example, the
main guns on the Littorio class battleships had a bore of 381 mm (15.00 inches), not 380 mm (14.96 inches) as did their French and German
contemporaries. Likewise, the modern-day 76 mm Compact has an actual bore of 76.2 mm (3.00 inches).
Japanese Designations
The formal gun designation dating from the beginnings of the Imperial Japanese Navy was made up of the barrel or bore length in calibers (kôkei), a type
year (shiki) based upon when the design of the breech mechanism was begun, the bore diameter and finally the suffix hô (gun). For example, the
designation 40 caliber 14 cm 11 Year Type Gun would mean a 14 cm/40 (5.5") gun whose breech design was in the 11th year of the Taishô regnal era
(1922 A.D.). Imported weapons had an additional designation to indicate the manufacturer.
Following the methodology of their British mentors, bore length was measured starting from the top of the mushroom head (vent axial) of the breech
block for bag guns and starting from the inner breech face for cartridge guns. For a few guns, the bore length designation was actually the overall length
of the barrel.
Prior to 5 October 1917, the bore diameter was measured in English units. Guns with fractional inch bores followed British practice and were designated
such as 4 in 7 (4.7 inch - 12 cm) and 5 in 5 (5.5 inch - 14 cm). For clarity, I list these as decimal values, in these instances as 4.7" (12 cm) and 5.5" (14
cm). On 5 October 1917, the Japanese Navy converted to the metric system and most naval guns were then designated with the bore diameter rounded
up or down to a whole centimeter number, but not necessarily to the nearest value. For example, 8 cm rather than 7.62 cm for 3.0-inch guns, but 30 cm
rather than 31 cm for 12.0-inch guns.
The shiki designations (Type Year, which can be considered as the Model Year) are quite complicated. On 25 December 1908, which was the 41st year
of the Meiji regnal era, the designations of all guns in service in the Imperial Navy were modified. Weapons that had been manufactured by the
Japanese were designated as 41 shiki hô (41 Type gun or Model 1908) even though most of them had been designed and produced prior to 1906.
After this time, the Type Year was based upon when the design of the breech mechanism was begun. Two different calendar systems were used to
define the Type Year. Between 1908 and 1927, the Type Year was based upon the year of the current regnal era, followed by the suffix nen (year), such
as 11 nen shiki (11 Year Type or Model 1922). Those guns produced between 1927 and 1939 were assigned Type Years using the last two digits of the
Imperial Calendar year, which dated from the start of the reign of Emperor Jimmu in 660 B.C., with 1927 A.D. being Imperial Calendar Year 2587.
Finally, under the Imperial Calendar system, weapons designed between 2600 and 2605 (1940-45) were designated by using just the last digit of the
Imperial year. All of these Type Years should be used with caution, as there are cases where the breech mechanism design is much older than the
design of the rest of the gun. So, guns with the same Type Year designation may actually have been developed many years apart.
It should also be noted that these Japanese Year Type designations do not translate well into English. For example, although a literal translation of 11
nen shiki hô would be 11 Year Type Gun, this sounds "wrong" to English-speakers. For that reason, most English translations of this designation
would show it as either 11th Year Type or as Type 11. Neither of these are literally correct translations, but sound "better" to English-speakers. On my
data pages, Japanese designations are shown such as 11th Year Type for regnal-era guns and such as Type 94 for Imperial Calendar-era weapons.
As noted, these are not literally correct, but I believe them to be more easily understandable by English speakers.
As examples of Japanese designations for naval guns:
● Under the regnal era and metric systems, the Japanese-built main guns carried by the Kongo class were formally redesignated on 5 October 1917
as 45 caliber 41 Type 36 cm - 36 cm/45 Model 1908 - even though the bore size was actually 35.56 cm (14.0-inch), the original design by Vickers
dated from 1910 and no guns were produced in Japan before at least 1912.
● Under the Imperial Calendar system, the AA guns carried by the Agano class cruisers were designated as 60 caliber 98 Type 8 cm - 8 cm/60
(3.15-inch) Model 1938. However, these guns actually had a bore size of 7.62 cm (3.0-inch).
● The British 2-pdr gun made by Vickers and exported to Japan in the 1930s was designated as 62 caliber 91 Type 40 mm "HI" - 40 mm/62 "HI"
Model 1931, where "HI" (also translated as "BI") was the designation meaning Vickers. This designation is notable for using the overall barrel
length rather than the more common Japanese method of being per the bore length, which was 39 calibers, identical to other Vickers 2-pdr. guns.
Weapon systems other than naval guns were primarily designated as to when they entered service. For example, the famous Zero fighter plane of
World War II derived its name from its designation, Type 0 carrier-based fighter, as its service introduction was in the Imperial Calendar year 2600
(1940).
It should be noted that the Japanese Model number system became chaotic towards the end of World War II. New weapons were assigned Model years
that had no relationship to the actual Type year, with some apparently chosen simply to fill in missing years in the series. As John Campbell put it, "such
are the pitfalls of Japanese ordnance [nomenclature]."
On my data pages, the Type Year in A.D. is always noted and all known designations that a weapon had during its service life are listed.
Postwar guns are primarily foreign designs and are commonly known by the designation given by the producing nation.
Additional information may be found in Japanese Ammunition, Guns and Mountings Definitions.
Russia / USSR Designations
Prior to 1917, designations included the bore size, overall barrel length and the Obrazets - Pattern (Model) Year. Guns were designated either by their
caliber in inches if it was a whole number or in millimeters for all others. The Pattern Year was the date the weapon was accepted into service. After
1917, a project number was added and all calibers were designated only in millimeters. As an example of the post-1917 designation system is 130
mm/50 B13 Pattern 1936, which meant that this was a weapon firing 130 mm (5.1-inch) projectiles, had a barrel 50 calibers long, was designed at the
"Bol'shevik" plant as Project 13 and which entered service in 1936.
United States of America Designations
Up until just after World War II, each caliber of USN guns was identified by a mark number, its length in calibers and a modification number, the original
modification designation being "Mod 0". For example, 16"/50 Mark 7 Mod 0 meant a gun firing 16-inch (40.64 cm) projectiles with a barrel 16 x 50 = 800
inches (20.320 m) long, was the seventh gun in the 16-inch (40.64 cm) series and was built to the original design with no modifications. A few smaller
guns built or purchased mainly in the latter part of the 19th century were known by the weight of their projectiles; the 1-pounder through 6-pounder.
Roman numerals were used for many designations until about 1920 when arabic numerals were substituted.
Gun Mod numbers generally indicated changes to the original design for new guns or a change made to a finished gun. For example, a change in the
rifling pattern from the original design might be designated as Mod 1 and new guns built with this rifling would be so designated. Mod 0 guns being
relined with this new pattern would also then be designated as Mod 1.
Mountings originally had a similar designation, being of the form 12" Mark 8 Mod 0 for a mounting using a 12-inch (30.5 cm) weapon. By 1930, the Mark
number mounting designation had been dropped for weapons larger than 5 inches (12.7 cm) and new mountings were then known by the ship class they
were used on. For example, the 16"/50 (40.64 cm) guns used on the Iowa class battleships were designated as Mark 7, but the mountings for them were
designated as 16-inch three-gun mountings Iowa class. Mountings for 5 inch and smaller guns continued to have Mark numbers assigned to them.
Similar to Britain, shortly after World War II the USN designation system was changed from being based upon the gun classification to being based upon
the mounting classification. So, a modern designation such as 5"/54 Mark 45 is really the designation of the gun mount, not the weapon itself.
Furthermore, starting with the 5"/54 Mark 42, almost all naval guns are now classified into a single "Mark" series, regardless of their caliber. For
example, modern guns such as the 5" Mark 45, the 76 mm Mark 75 and the 57 mm Mark 110 are all in the same numeric Mark series.
Additional information may be found in USN Naval Gun Designations.
Gun Definitions
AA - Anti-Aircraft.
AAA - Anti-Aircraft Artillery. Refers to larger caliber guns used as anti-aircraft weapons, usually any AA gun larger than about 2.5 in (6.4 cm).
AA/Su - Anti-aircraft/Surface. British designation used to denote dual-purpose weapons or fire control systems. This replaced the previous "HA/LA"
designation in 1947.
Autofrettage - A process in which a favorable distribution of initial or residual stress in a tube is induced, as in the manufacturing of gun barrels. Literally
means "self-hooping" and the process involves expanding a partially machined barrel or liner by applying hydraulic pressure to the interior surface. The
metal of the bore is the first to be stretched beyond the elastic limit. The process is continued until the metal at the outer surface just reaches its elastic
limit. At this point, the increase of hydraulic pressure in the bore is halted and soon afterwards the pressure is reduced to zero. Since the metal at the
bore has received a certain amount of plastic deformation, it would, if left free to do so, retain all of this "set." However, since the metal at the outer
surface has received no permanent set, but only a strain within the elastic limit, it attempts to return to its original diameter. The metal between the bore
and the outer surface has received some plastic deformation, decreasing outward. The final result is that the bore is forced back to a diameter
somewhere between the original diameter and that which was attained under the maximum hydraulic pressure. Thus, the bore has received a certain
amount of tangential tension, exactly as in the case of a built-up gun, but with the difference that the autofrettage process results in a indefinite number of
layers, each infinitesimal in thickness, and having varying stresses which result in producing the maximum possible strength in the finished gun. This
process allows steels with low alloy content to be used to make gun barrels. During the 1920s and 1930s, the US Navy termed this process
"manufacture by radial expansion."
Bag Guns - Weapons that used powder bags rather than a cartridge to hold the propellant. This was the most common ammunition type of the twentieth
century for 6 inch (15.2 cm) and larger guns. Guns using powder bags were designated as "Separate Loading" in the USN, a reference to the normal
procedure for bag guns of first ramming the projectile and then the powder bags. Smaller calibers generally use a single bag while larger calibers may
have as many as six bags. See "Bag Ammunition" on the Ammunition Definitions data page for additional information.
Bayonet Joint - An interrupted-thread method of attaching the gun

barrel to the housing in order to make for easier barrel replacements.
For many USN guns designed for case ammunition, the housing took
the place of the yoke and screw-box liner used on bag guns. This
construction method allowed the elimination of the slide cylinder in
some weapons.
Barrel Length / Bore Length - One of the more confusing items about gun designations is that the way that the length (calibers) of a gun barrel is
measured differs from nation to nation. The USA measured starting from the inner breech face for both bag and cartridge guns. Austria-Hungary
(Skoda), Germany and Russia measured the length of the entire barrel. Britain, France, Italy, Japan and Sweden (Bofors) measured starting from the
top of the mushroom head (vent axial) of the breech block for bag guns and starting from the inner breech face for cartridge guns. These differing
methods have often resulted in errors in reference works. For example, the 38 cm SK C/34 guns on the German battleship Bismarck are often noted as
being 47 calibers long. Per the German method - overall barrel length - these guns were 51.66 calibers long and per the British/USA method - measured
from the inner breech face - they were 48.3 calibers long. As every German document I have seen refers to these guns as being the equivalent of either
51.66 or 52 calibers long, I am not certain why so many authors refer to these guns as being 47 calibers long. My thanks to M.J. Whitley, whose series
of books on German Warships of World War II first enlightened me on how the German methods differed from those of other nations. On my webpages,
"Gun Length oa" refers to the overall barrel length. "Bore length" is per each nation's specification except where noted.
BL - British designation meaning Breech Loading cannon. In the 1800s the the British used the designation BLR where the "R" stood for Rifle, but after
about 1890 the "R" was dropped from new gun designations. By the early part of the twentieth century, BL had become to be used only for bag
ammunition guns.
BM - Breech Mechanism.
BMG - Browning Machine Gun. These were recoil-operated machine guns of various calibers originally designed by the USA inventor John Moses
Browning (1855 - 1926), the most famous being the "fifty-caliber." The modern version is the 0.50" (12.7 mm) BMG M2HB, with M2HB meaning Mark 2
Heavy Barrel. The M2 designation is why this weapon is often known as the Ma Deuce.
Bolt - The mechanism that positions the cartridge in breechloading guns, closes the breech, and ejects the spent cartridge.
Bolt Open or Open Bolt - Refers to automatic or semi-automatic weapons that are designed such that the gun bolt is normally held to the rear of the
weapon, leaving the breech open. Only after the trigger is activated is the next round pushed into the firing chamber and the breech closed. This design
reduces the chances of an accidental "cook off" as no bullet is in the firing chamber until after the trigger is activated.
Bolt Closed or Closed Bolt - Refers to weapons that are designed to hold a bullet in the firing chamber with the bolt closed prior to activating the trigger.
Bore - Inner Diameter (ID) of the barrel. This is measured from land surface to diametrically opposed land surface. For example, the USN 16"/50 (40.64
cm) guns used on the Iowa class battleships had a new gun land to land diameter of 16.00 inches (40.64 cm) while the diameter as measured from the
bottom of the groove to the opposite bottom of the groove was 16.30 inches (41.40 cm). "Bore" is also used as a shorthand reference for "Bore Length" -
see "Barrel Length / Bore Length" above.
Breech - The rear of the gun. In most 20th century guns, where the shell goes in, hence the name "Breech Loader."
Breech Block, Breech Mechanism or Breech Plug - This is the

mechanism at the rear of the gun which closes the bore against the force
of the firing charge. For large weapons, such as a battleship's main guns,
these are usually of an interrupted-screw construction, which gives a very
strong seal. For rapid fire guns, a sliding breech-block is commonly used
which may open and close automatically as the gun is fired.

Breech, Four-Motion - Early screw breech design invented by the French where all of the threads were at the same level. Usually there were five or six
threaded sections separated by equal width non-threaded sections. These breech blocks were comparatively long as half of the thread was cut away to
allow withdrawal, thus reducing their capacity to withstand firing stresses. This type of breech mechanism required that the block be first withdrawn
straight back from the gun barrel before it could be moved out of the way of the reloading process and some had to be disconnected entirely from the
gun. Closing the breech was a complicated operation, involving four motions: swing the carrier so that the screw could enter the breech, slide the entire
breech mechanism forward so as to seat it, turn the screw through part of a turn until the threads meshed with those in the breech, and then lock the
mechanism.
Breech, Pure-Couple - British Welin Breeches of the early 1900s that used a long, manually operated lever to operate the breech screw. See "Breech,
Welin" below.
Breech, Single-Motion - See "Breech Mechanism, Smith-Asbury" below.
Breech, Three-Motion - Similar to a Four-Motion Breech, except that the breech was withdrawn into a hinged carrier ring. This meant that the motions
were reduced to unlocking, withdrawal and then swinging out of the way.
Breech, Welin - A stepped-thread breech developed during the 1890s

and named after the inventor, Axel Welin, a Swedish Ammunition
Engineer then residing in London. A Welin breech block has only one
third or one quarter of the threads removed, which means that a
shorter screw length can be used to obtain the same strength as a
four-motion breech mechanism. See the "breech plug" in the
illustration above for a typical Welin design. Unlike the four-motion
breech, a Welin breech allows the mechanism to be simply unscrewed
and swung out of the way, it does not have to be withdrawn straight
back from the gun barrel. Variations of the Welin Breech design were
used on most bag ammunition guns of the twentieth century.

Breech Block, Vertical Sliding-Wedge - Used on many cartridge guns, this sort of breech mechanism slides vertically in grooves cut in the housing.
After the cartridge is inserted, the breech block slides up with the sloping part of the forward face wedging the cartridge case home in the chamber. An
extractor mechanism catches the cartridge rim as the breechblock drops after firing, pulling the expended cartridge out of the gun. A few guns use a
similar design, but with the breechblock sliding horizontally. These, of course, are known as "Horizontally Sliding-Wedge" breechblocks.
Breech Mechanism, Smith-Asbury - Introduced in 1916 and named after its inventors, Lt. Cmdr. George Leonard Smith, USN and Draftsman Dorsey
Frost Asbury, both of the Naval Gun Factory at the Washington Navy Yard. This mechanism used gearing to fully open a Welin breech by linking the
unscrewing, withdrawing and swinging clear movements into one continuous action and for that reason is sometimes known as a "single motion" breech
mechanism. The breech threads are undercut at the start so as to allow the block to swing into position.
Built-up Construction - Guns that are manufactured from multiple hoops (tubes) which are joined together with locking rings and overlapping sections
to make longer and/or thicker sections. This was the most common process for manufacturing almost all guns until the 1920s when monobloc
techniques were introduced for guns smaller than about 6 inches (15.2 cm). See "Monobloc" and "Wire-Wound" below.

Caliber and Calibers - "Caliber" refers to the bore diameter of the gun barrel or to the diameter of the projectiles fired. "Calibers" refers to the length of
the gun barrel in multiples of the projectile diameter.
Cartridge Guns - Weapons in which a metallic container, usually brass or steel, is used to hold the propellant. Most commonly used for "Quick Firing"
and automatic weapons.
Chamber - Part of the gun in which the propellant charge is placed. In a bag gun, that space between the obturator or breechblock and the forcing
cone. In fixed or semi-fixed ammunition, the space occupied by the cartridge case.
Chamber Size - Space available for gas expansion when the projectile is seated in position; measured from the face of the closed breech block, around
the base of the projectile, to the rear of the rotating band (or obturator). In fixed ammunition, it is the volume of the cartridge case behind the projectile.
Chrome Plating - In the 1930s, the USN started to chrome plate the bores of most guns to a depth of 0.0005 inches (0.013 mm). This was "hard
chrome," which is not the kind that you find on your father's Oldsmobile. This plating increased barrel life by as much as 25%. The plating generally
extended over the length of the rifling and shot seating. Chrome plating has also been found to reduce copper deposits.
CIGS - Close In Gun System. A weapon system designed to combat small boats at short ranges - the "Boghammer" threat.
CIWS - Close In Weapons System. A weapon system designed to combat anti-ship missiles or aircraft at short ranges.
Cup Obturation - I cannot possibly improve upon Mr. Ruffell's description (Off-Site at Royal New Zealand Artillery Comrades Association).
cwt - Hundredweight. British unit of measurement that was used to designate smaller weapons by the weight of the gun and mounting. One
hundredweight is 112 pounds (50.8024 kg).
DP - Dual Purpose. These guns are intended to be used against both surface and aircraft targets. Maximum elevation of these guns is usually greater
than 50 degrees.
De Bange Obturator System - See "Obturator" below.
DEF - Direct Electric Firing, usually abbreviated as "E." British gun prefix designation meaning that the gun was fired by electric arcing.
EMF - Electro Mechanical Firing, usually abbreviated as "F." British gun prefix designation meaning that the gun was fired by electromotive force, i.e., a
solenoid activating a striker pin.
EFC or ESR - A means of estimating the remaining accuracy life of a weapon. Accuracy life for a gun or liner is usually expressed as "EFC" meaning
Equivalent Full Charges or as "ESR" for Equivalent Service Rounds. On my webpages, this is the number specified. A gun or liner has reached the end
of its accuracy life when the projectiles and propellant charges assigned for its use give range patterns that exceed an arbitrarily adopted size, generally
something like 10 percent larger than those with a new barrel. For large caliber guns, life is roughly the same as the number of AP shells that can be
fired with full charges before the barrel needs to be replaced or relined. Compared to rounds fired with full charges, Practice Rounds and shells fired with
reduced charges enerally cause less wear, while proof charges and super charges cause more wear. The amount of wear immediately forward of the
origin of the rifling is the most important value used in determining the remaining life.
FER - Fatigue Equivalent Rounds. The mechanical fatigue life of a gun barrel or liner expressed as the number of mechanical cycles the gun barrel or
liner can withstand before needing to be replaced. This has replaced EFC/ESR for some modern weapons.
Firing Lock or Primer Chamber - A feature of the breech mechanism used for bag guns, this is a small enclosure into which the igniter or primer is
inserted. See "Primer vent or vent axial" below.
FLAK - FliegerAbwehrKanone. German designation for AA weapons (FLAK guns). Literally means "Flier Defense Cannon." During World War I, this
term was used by Allied airmen to describe the shell bursts from such weapons, which has become the current accepted meaning of the term.
Forcing Cone or Seat - The forward end of the gun chamber where it necks down to the start of the rifled portion of the barrel. This guides the projectile
as it is being rammed.
GAU - US Military designation for airborne guns and gun systems.

Grooves - See "Rifling," below.
GWS - Gun Weapon System.
HA - High Angle. British designation used to denote DP or AAA guns or directors. Meant that the gun could be elevated past about 50 degrees or that
the director was intended for AA use. Replaced by "AA" in 1947.
HA/LA - High Angle/Low Angle. British designation of World War II equivalent to DP. Meant that a gun or director was intended for use against both
surface and aircraft targets. This designation was replaced by AA/Su (anti-aircraft/surface) in 1947.
Hoop or Tube - A section of the gun barrel. See "Built-up Construction," "Monobloc Construction" and "Wire-wound Construction."
Hornrings - Rings shrunk onto German heavy guns to which the piston rods of the recoil and run-out cylinders were attached.
IV - Initial Velocity. Velocity of the projectile upon leaving the barrel of the gun. Equivalent to "Muzzle Velocity."
KM - Kanone Marine. German for "Naval Cannon." Usually followed by the model year. For example, KM42 meant a naval gun designed in 1942. This
designation system was used for some guns designed between 1940 and 1945.
LA - Low Angle. British designation used to denote SP guns or directors. Means that they are intended for use solely against surface targets. Replaced
by "Su" for surface in 1947.
Lands - The bore surface between rifling grooves inside the gun barrel. See "Rifling," below.
Life - See "EFC or ESR," above.

Liner - A replaceable tube within the gun barrel. The useful life of a gun is measured by how much rifling remains. By having the rifling milled into a
replaceable liner, the life of the gun barrel itself is increased by many times. A "Loose Liner" or "Loose Barrel Construction" means that the gun was built
with a small clearance between the outer diameter of the liner and the inner diameter of the next outer part. When firing, the gas pressure elastically
expands the liner but otherwise the clearance remains. This method of construction makes it easy to replace the liner after removal of the locking
devices. The replacement method for standard liners is much more complicated. The USN used a "gun pit" into which the barrel was lowered. Heat
was then applied to the outside of the barrel while cold air was pumped through the bore. The result was that the barrel expanded while the liner
contracted, thus opening a small clearance around the liner. The liner could then be extracted from the barrel. Liners are usually coated with graphite in
an effort to ease assembly and disassembly.
Locking Ring - A short cylindrical casting used for joining gun barrel tubes together. See "Hoop" above.
MG - Machine Gun.
MK or Mk - Abbreviation for "Mark."
MLR - British designation meaning Muzzle Loading Rifle.
Monobloc Construction - A gun built from a single tube apart from the breech-ring and breech mechanism rather than a multi-tube built-up design.
During the 1920’s, when centrifugal spun castings came into being, it became possible to make cylindrical castings with a precise wall thickness and
density with no cracks. The inside diameter of these spun castings could be controlled to the point where very little machining had to be done to true-up
the inside diameter. The general process was to make three tubes; the gun barrel itself, the breech ring and a liner, which together made up the gun
barrel. These three tubes were assembled onto each other, usually by autofretting techniques, with the breech ring making a thicker and thus stronger
section at the breech end of the gun. Later designs for guns smaller than about 6 inches (15.2 cm) further simplified the manufacturing process by
eliminating the separate liner. Monobloc construction makes for a straighter, stronger barrel than does built-up construction and overcomes some of the
problems with having to make one solid casting with a thickening at the breech. This older style of casting had cooling problems due to the uneven wall
thickness which could lead to cracks developing.
Mushroom head - A component of Welin breech-blocks, this is the forward part of the breech-block, between the chamber and the obturator. See the
diagrams for the "Breech-block" and "Obturator."
Muzzle - The fore or "Business End" of the gun. Where the shell comes out.
Muzzle Bell or Swell - Many guns have a barrel thickening at the muzzle. This is meant to strengthen the gun barrel at the muzzle and so prevent the
guns from splitting. This feature is also known as the muzzle "tulip", "lilly" or "flare." Modern weapons use higher quality steel and so lack a bell, or
instead have lugs, which are utilized when the liner is replaced (the lugs serve to anchor the tool used for pulling the liner out).
Muzzle Brake - A device on the muzzle which diverts part of the propellant gasses to the sides or rear in order to reduce the recoil force.
Muzzle Droop - As in any unsupported structure, a gun barrel bends due to the action of gravity. The vertical distance that the muzzle end of a
gunbarrel moves from its "ideal" position is called droop. Gun barrels are usually orientated in their mountings in the direction that produces the least
amount of droop.

MV - Muzzle Velocity. The velocity of the projectile as it leaves the gun barrel. Equivalent to "Initial Velocity."
Nendo Shiki - Japanese for "Year Type." See "Japanese Designations," above.
Obturator - For breech loading guns, this is a device for making the breech gas-tight,
preventing any escape of propellant gas while the breech is closed. For bag guns using Welin
breech blocks, the De Bange obturator system (named after Captain de Bange of the French
Army, who invented it in 1872) was commonly used. The De Bange obturator system consists
of a doughnut-shaped washer pad, also known as a "gas check pad," that is located between
the mushroom head and the screw breech. See the breech illustrations for details. When the
breech is closed, rotating the screw squeezes the pad against a conical section of the gun
barrel. When the gun is fired, the mushroom head is driven back against the pad which forces
it tighter into the conical seating and thus seals the barrel. For guns using cartridge
ammunition, the cartridge itself becomes part of the obturator system. Generally speaking,
both the cartridge lip and cartridge mouth are used to seal the barrel. The cartridge lip is
forced tightly against the breech when closed while the chamber of the gun is designed such
that the expansion of the mouth of the cartridge when the gun fires helps to seal the barrel.
Also see "Obturator" under Projectile Definitions.
Pdr. - A way designating weapons in terms of the weight of the projectile they fired. For example, the British 2-pdr. AA gun fired a shell weighing about
two pounds (0.9 kg). For reasons that can only be described as traditional, the British, alone of all modern nations, clung to this method of designation
well into the twentieth century, long after other nations had switched to designating weapons by their bore diameter.
Pom-pom - This term originated with the British 1-pdr. used during the Boer War and was later applied to the 2-pdrs. of World War I and II. Reportedly,
this was the sound made by large automatic guns when firing.
Primer Channel - See "Firing Lock" above.
Primer Vent or Vent Axial - A feature of the breech mechanism used for bag guns, this is a hollow tube running from the firing lock or primer chamber
through the stem to the front of the mushroom head. When the igniter or primer is fired, it generates a flame which travels through this tube into the
propellant charges. See the above obturator illustration.
Probertised - A gun barrel where the rifling grooves near the muzzle gradually disappear until the last section of the barrel becomes smoothbored.
When a projectile travels through this section, its driving bands get flattened against the shell body, giving the projectile a smoother shape and thus
improving its aerodynamics. Named after the inventor, British Colonel Probert of the Woolwich Arsenal.
QF - British designation meaning Quick Firing cannon. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, this term was used to define any gun that could be fired
several times per minute whether it used bag or cartridge ammunition. By the 1920s this designation was given only to guns that used metallic cartridge
cases.

QFC - Quick Firing, Converted. Early British Bag guns modified to use cartridge cases.
Receiver - The main portion of the weapon, to which the barrel and operating mechanism are attached.
Rifling - The bores of most gun barrels have grooves milled into them in a spiral pattern. These grooves engage the Driving Bands on the projectiles
and thus impart a spin to them as they leave the barrel. Spinning the projectiles makes them more stable in flight which greatly increases their accuracy
and range. It also makes them more likely to land nose first, which is very important for an armor-piercing shell. The way the grooves are milled varies
greatly. Some manufacturers prefer a uniform pattern, others prefer grooves that vary in depth and width as they progress through the weapon. See
"Twist" below.
RF - Rapid Fire. USN term equivalent to QF during the end of the 19th century and first half of the twentieth century. At the end of World War II, this
term was used to describe large caliber guns with automatic shell-handling equipment such as those carried by the USS Newport News class heavy
cruisers.
Screw box liner - The barrel sectional casting to which a screw breech block screws into when closing. Known as the "breech bush" in British weapons.
Sear - Holds the firing pin in a cocked position against the compression of a spring until the trigger is activated, which allows the spring to drive the firing
pin into the primer.
Separate Loading - See "Bag Guns" above.
SF - Slow Firing. This may not have been an official designation, but instead may simply have been a way of designating those guns that were not "QF"
or "RF" types.
SK - Schnelladekanone or Schnellfeurkanone. German for "Fast Firing Cannon," equivalent to QF or RF. Also listed as being for "Schiffskanone" or
"Ship Cannon." See "German Designations" above.
Slide cylinder - The part of the gun forward of the rear cylinder which fits in the slide and moves through it during recoil. Keys are usually inserted
between the slide and the slide cylinder to prevent rotation of the gun due to the reaction of the projectile on the rifling.
Smoothbore - A gun barrel or gun barrel section that does not have any rifling.
SP - Single Purpose. Means that the weapon is intended for use only against surface targets. Maximum elevation of these guns is usually less than 45
degrees.
STAAG - Stabilized Tachymetric Anti-Aircraft Gun.
Su - Surface. British designation for SP guns. This replaced the previous "LA" in 1947.
Stabilized - When a mounting is referred to as "stabilized," it means that it contains some method for correcting for the deck inclination caused by the
rolling and pitching of the ship. Usually, this involves more than two axis of motion (traverse, elevation) and requires gyroscopes.

Striker Gear - The firing pin and associated mechanisms used in percussion firing.
Tampion or Tompion - A plug that goes into the muzzle of the gun. Keeps the sea spray out of the barrel. In the USN, pronounced "tom-kin."
Taper wound or Taper winding - British method of wire-wound gun construction in which a single length of wire is used rather than multiple lengths.
Introduced following World War I. See "Wire-wound Construction" below.
TBK - Torpedoboots Kanone. German for "Torpedo Boat Cannon." Also shown as Tbts K.
Trunnion - The cylinders upon which the gun barrel pivots up and down.
Tube - Gun barrel section. See "Built-up Construction," "Monobloc Construction" and "Wire-wound Construction."
Twist - Rifling grooves make a spiral towards the gun muzzle. The length of the barrel necessary for the grooves to make one complete revolution is
called "Twist." This is usually expressed in calibers but sometimes appears in measurement units (inches or meters). On my data pages, Twist is
specified in calibers, with "RH 1 in 25" meaning that, when looking at the top of the barrel from the breech end of the gun, that the spiral goes in a right-
hand direction and that it takes 25 calibers for the grooves to make one complete revolution. Depending upon the internal ballistics desired, the spiral
may be of a uniform pattern or it may be of a parabolic pattern with the twist increasing as it nears the muzzle. The steepness of the twist is related to
the length and weight of the projectiles fired. Generally speaking, a longer, heavier projectile must spin faster than a shorter, lighter projectile in order to
remain stable in flight. Because of gyroscopic and corolis effects, a shell fired from a gun with RH twist will drift to the right while one fired from a gun
with LH twist will drift to the left. The closer a gun is to the earth's poles the greater, or wider, the drift and, when fired at the equator, the drift would be
zero. The amount of drift is also affected by the direction of fire. Fire control systems have settings for the ship's latitude and the direction of fire so as to
correct for these effects. As a rule of thumb, at the muzzle a large-caliber projectile spins at about 90% of the rate determined by the muzzle velocity
divided by the twist length. For example, for a 16 inch (40.64 cm) gun with a 1 in 25 twist, the twist length would be 33.33 feet (10.16 m). Nominally, this
would mean that a projectile with a muzzle velocity of 2,500 fps (762 mps) would be rotating as it left the muzzle at about 75 RPS or 4,500 RPM, but
because of slippage it is actually rotating at about 67.5 RPS or 4,050 RPM. Note: I have never found a naval cannon with LH twist, they all have RH
twist. I have found a few small-arms that use LH twist, including the famous Colt black-powder pistols of the mid-1800s, but most small-arms use RH
twist.
UBK - Untersee-Boots Kanone. German for "U-boat Cannon." Also shown as "Ubts K."
Water-cooled - A weapon which uses a water-jacket around the gun barrel. These are used on machine guns and rapid-fire weapons in order to keep
the barrel from softening or melting during prolonged firings. The development of higher-quality alloys in recent years has reduced or eliminated the
need for water jackets on many newer weapons.
Wire-wound Construction - A method of strengthening built-up gun barrels by using long lengths of wire wrapped around an inner tube. This method of
construction was used extensively by the British roughly between 1880 and 1925. However, few nations other than Japan adopted it as it greatly
complicated the manufacturing process. The wire was about 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) thick and had a rectangular cross-section or was sometimes ribbon-
shaped. The wire was quite strong with tensile strengths of up to 200,000 psi (14,000 kg/cm2) and very long lengths of wire were used. For example,
the British 15-in/42 Mark I used about 170 miles (274 km) of wire on top of the "A" tube. A "B" tube was then shrunk on overtop the wire-wound section.
It should be noted that wire-winding strengthened the gun barrel only in regards to resisting the gas pressure generated by the burning propellant. There

is some controversy as to whether or not this type of construction weakened the overall barrel strength and increased the amount of muzzle droop. The
British gradually replaced wire-winding construction with monobloc and built-up construction techniques and by 1930 no longer used it all. However, the
Japanese still used wire-winding for the 46 cm Type 94 guns used on the Yamato class battleships.
Working Pressure - The pressure generated inside the barrel by the burning propellant. This pressure is measured at the breech of the gun. Because
of the pressure gradient in the barrel, the peak pressure at the base of the projectile is at a smaller value. A reasonable rule of thumb is that the pressure
at the breech is between 1.16 to 1.2 times greater than the pressure seen at the base of the projectile. It should be noted that the pressure values found
in reference works for older guns are not particularly accurate. Pressure was measured by the size of a copper cylinder that was crushed when the gun
was fired. The size of the cylinder crushed was converted to "copper units of pressure (CUP)." Historically, the chamber pressure for U.S. Naval guns
has been specified in long tons copper per square inch (tsi). To convert to true pressure, the copper tsi is multiplied by 2.688 to get pounds per square
inch (psi). The copper cylinder method has been made obsolete by the invention of piezoelectric strain gauges which have made pressure
measurements much more precise. Copper tubes are still used by both the US Army and Navy for tests where only peak pressure testing is required,
such as for barrel proof or ammunition lot acceptance. Modern smaller caliber guns are usually rated in terms of psi (pounds per square inch) or MPa
(megapascals).
Yoke - The large ring surrounding the breech end of the barrel which provides a connection between the barrel and the recoil system. Shoulders on the
gun prevent movement between the barrel and the yoke. In guns designed for case ammunition, the yoke is replaced by a housing.
Mounting / Turret Definitions
AB - Armstrong Broadside. Inclined ramp type mounting used for British 6" (15.2 cm) guns of the 1880s.
B - British designation for "Barbette" which at one time was used to denote a turret mounting.
Balanced Turret - Most turreted gun mountings of the 19th century were "unbalanced," that is, the center of rotation was not the same as the center of
mass. Thus, when they were trained abeam, they induced a list on the ship, some so badly that the gun muzzles actually went into the water when the
ship rolled in even moderate seas. By about the 1890s, "balanced" designs began to be introduced which did have the center of mass and rotation at the
same or nearly the same point.
Barbette - The fixed armored ring around the trunk of the mounting. This usually extends from the gunhouse down to the armored or protective deck.
Base Ring - US designation. The entire gun mounting turns on a bearing race which for larger guns is big enough such that there is a space in the
center where ammunition can be fed to the gun. All of the fully enclosed and most of the open mountings for the 5"/38 (12. 7 cm) were base ring types.
Mountings for many smaller guns developed during World War II, such as the quad 40 mm Bofors, were base ring types as this design distributed the
weight of the gun and mounting better than did a pedestal type.
BD - Between Decks. British designation for gun mountings that extended down into the ship while the guns themselves were above the deck. Before
World War I, all British Capital ships had secondary guns that mounted directly on the weather deck with nothing piercing that deck down into the ship
below. In the 1930s, new gun mounts were developed where the bulk of the mounting was below the weather deck. The term "BD" was used to
distinguish this sort of mounting from the previous ones. See "UD" below.
Blast Bags, Bloomers or Gun Bucklers - Canvas, rubber or neoprene covers around the barrel of a gun where it enters the gun port. Gun ports by
their nature represent holes in the glacis plate of a turret. When the guns are fired, these holes can allow overpressure or "blast" to enter the the turret,
which can disrupt the operation of the turret and injure the gun crew. These holes may also permit water to enter the mounting. The use of blast bags
over the gun ports provide some measure of protection from these hazards. Also see "Gun Port Shield" below.
Bogie or Shell Bogie - A wheeled device for moving projectiles around a gun mounting, usually moving on rails. A typical application was for moving
projectiles from the fixed portion of the ship onto the rotating turret stalk.
BSG - Bettungschiess-Gerüst. German for "platform firing framework." These were mountings for large caliber guns used as coastal artillery and
resembled a railway mounting without the rail bogies. They were supported on a concrete platform by a central pivot and ball race with a roller or bogie
at the rear running on a circular arc.
CADAM - Cadence Améliorée. French for "improved firing." An improvement program for French guns such as the 100 mm/55 Model 1968.
Casemate - An armored enclosure containing a gun mounting. Unlike a turret, this enclosure does not rotate.
CP - Centre Pivot. British designation for a gun mounting that has a central axis for rotation on the horizontal axis. These mountings generally used a
circular mounting plate bolted to the deck and supported by a below-deck, ring-shaped bulkhead known as the "gun support," which was used mainly for
stowage. A lower roller path was machined on the base ring, with a similar upper roller path machined on the bottom of the turntable platform. Between
the two machine paths were a ring of horizontal rollers which carried the weight of the mounting and gun. At the center of the turntable was a light cage
which contained the vertical thrust rollers. This was the actual "center pivot" point. Electric cabling containing the fire control and illumination circuits ran
through the center pivot. This cabling had enough slack to allow the mounting to train to its limit stops. In the USN, this type of mounting was called a
"Pedestal" - see below.
Central Pivot - In the USN, this was a compact gun mounting with the center of rotation just below the gun barrel. A short "U" shaped bracket held the
trunnions with the base of the "U" mounted atop a small-diameter turntable.
Delay coil - When guns are mounted closely together in a turret, the shells may strike each other in flight or the individual airflow of one projectile may
disrupt the adjacent projectiles, causing obvious problems. Prior to World War II, the USN alleviated this problem on their three-gun and triple mountings
by installing a device which caused a brief delay, about 0.060 seconds, between when the outer guns fired and when the inner gun fired. Another
method was used by the British in their "Town" and "Colony" six-inch (15.2 cm) cruisers of World War II, where the center gun of each triple turret was
set back 30 inches (76.2 cm) from the outer two guns.
Dopp MPL - Doppelt Mittel-Pivot-Lafette. German for "Twin central pivot mounting."
DrhL - Drehscheiben-Lafette. German for "turntable mounting." Generally used for turret mountings.
Drh Tr - Drehturm. Another German abbreviation for "Turret."
Elevation - The angle to which a gun can be moved on the vertical axis past the horizontal. For instance, a gun with a 90 degree elevation would be
pointing straight up. A gun at 0 degree elevation would be pointing at the horizon. A gun with -10 degree elevation would be pointing below the horizon.
Gunhouse - The armored portion of the rotating structure extending above the barbette.
Gun Pit - A depression or opening on the gun deck into which the breech end of the weapon is lowered when the gun is raised to high elevations. This
allows the trunnions of the gun to be mounted lower, thus lowering the overall height of the mounting while still allowing for high gun elevations.
Gun Port Shield - Curved armor plate attached to a gun barrel such that it seals the gun port in the glacis plate, regardless of the elevation of the gun.
Gun ports are by their very nature weak points in the armor protection of a gun mounting or turret. Gun shields seal these openings and are intended to
provide at least some measure of protection from shell splinters. In addition, many gun shields are designed so as to keep water and weather out of the
interior of the mounting or turret. Some images of gun shields may be seen in these photographs of a USN 6"/47DP and a German 38 cm SK C/34.
Handling Room - Compartment just below the gun mounting where ammunition brought up from lower storage locations is loaded into hoists or scuttles
for transferring up to the guns.
Kenyon Doors - British shell-handling device replacing shell bogies in some large-caliber mountings. This was a tilting door between the shell rooms
and the turret stalk, essentially similar to what the USN called a "scuttle" in their mountings. Shells from stowage were placed onto the door and then the
door transferred them into the turret stalk. Named after the inventor, Thomas Kenyon. See this image of HIJMS Kongo from Vickers Photographic
Archive for a photograph of Kenyon Doors as used on that ship.
Kst.Drh.L - Küsten-Drehscheiben-Lafette. German for "coastal turntable (turret) mounting."
Magazine
1) For smaller weapons, this is a metal or plastic box which contains multiple rounds. This is attached to the weapon and supplies rounds into the firing
chamber.
2) Compartment on a ship where ammunition is stored.
MPL - Mittel-Pivot-Lafette. German for "central pivot mounting."
P - Pedestal. British designation for a compact gun mounting with the center of rotation just below the gun barrel. A short "U" shaped bracket held the
trunnions with the base of the "U" mounted atop a small-diameter turntable. Similar in design to a Central Pivot mounting as used in the USN.
Passing Box - A small container mounted between compartments with a flap or door on each end and used to provide a flash-tight method of moving
powder bags from one compartment to another. Usually there is a mechanical connection such that only one flap can be open at a time.
Pedestal - In the USN, this is a mounting where the entire gun carriage turns on a roller-race. The carriage is usually slab-sided with the sides running
all the way down to a platform whose bottom forms the top of the roller race.
Pintle - A flexible mounting where the gun is mounted at the top of a vertical post or rod.
Powder Room - A compartment where propellant charges are stored.

Projectile or Shell Flat - Usually refers to that portion of a magazine directly adjacent to the rotating structure of a turret. May also be used to refer to
that portion of the rotating structure onto which projectiles are moved from their storage locations in the magazines.
ROF - Rate of Fire. Usually shown in terms of RPM - Rounds per Minute. ROF may be affected both positively and negatively by many different
elements, too numerous to list here. ROF figures given on my data pages for manually-operated guns represent nominal values and should not be
interpreted as being literally correct under all circumstances. ROF figures on my data pages for automatic weapons are usually the cyclic values, with
practical values given where possible. It should be noted that an air-cooled automatic or semi-automatic gun can be fired continuously at the maximum
cyclic rate only for short periods, otherwise the barrel will start to soften or melt. Automatic guns using a water jacket, especially those with a
recirculation method including a radiator, may fire continuously at their maximum cyclic rate for much longer periods, as the water helps to keep the
barrel below the melting point.
RP - Remote Power. World War II British designation for gun mounts equipped with RPC. Usually followed by a number which represented the type of
power control. The RP10 series were hydraulically operated while the RP50 series were electrically operated.
RPC - Remote Power Control. Also known as "Auto Control" in the USN. This is a subject in itself. In its barest essentials, this means that the gun
director and associated components automatically control the laying of the guns without manual intervention by the gun crew.
rpgpm - Rounds per gun per minute. Used for multiple mountings to distinguish between rounds per mounting and rounds per gun.
Scuttle - In the USN, a shell or powder handling device that allows a flash-tight transfer from one compartment to another, such as from a handling room
up to a gunhouse. Commonly, this was a handle-operated rotating hollow drum with an opening on one side, with the opening accessible from only one
compartment at a time. For example, a scuttle going between a handling room and a gunhouse would be loaded on the handling room side with a
powder bag. Moving the handle rotated the opening in the drum over to the gunhouse on the other side, thus keeping the two compartments isolated
from one another. An image of a scuttle used for transferring 16-inch powder bags on an Iowa class battleship from a magazine onto a propellant hoist
may be found here.
Sighting port - An opening for a gun-sight in the front of the gun-shield or turret.
Sighting hood - Armored cover protecting the gun-sights protruding through the roof of a gunhouse or turret. On British capital ships of the World War I-
era, superfiring turrets could not fire within 30 degrees of the axis because the blast effects would have penetrated into the lower turrets through the
sighting hoods. These hoods also represented a weak point in the protection of the turret and acted as shell traps. Several ships were damaged during
World War I when German shells hit these ports, perhaps most notably on Q turret of HMS Tiger during the Battle of Jutland (Skagerrak) in 1915.
Shell Ring - On US battleships built in the 1930s-40s most of the projectiles were stored on fixed and rotating rings which were part of the upper and
lower shell flats. Each storage flat was sub-divided into three concentric rings. The outer, or fixed ring, is attached to the stool and does not rotate. The
center ring, or shell-handling platform, is part of the rotating structure including the gunhouse and contains the projectile hoists. It also mounts the
parbuckling gear for moving the projectiles from their storage locations and onto the hoists. No projectiles are stored on this ring. The inner, or rotating
ring, is a power driven platform resting on rollers which can be rotated in either direction and is supported by the rotating structure. The inner ring may
be locked to the rotating structure (center ring) or to the stool as needed. Normally, the shells on this ring are the ones fed to the guns while those on the
outer ring are moved only during non-firing periods.

Sleeving - In a multi-gun turret, if each individual gun can be raised independently of the other guns, then the guns are said to be individually sleeved.
Guns that are not individually sleeved are said to share a "cradle" (UK usage) or a "slide" (USA usage). See "Turret Definitions," below.
Stabilized mounting - A type of mounting which keeps the weapon at a constant point of aim regardless of the movement of the ship. May use as many
as four different axes of motion; elevation, train, crosswise tilt (roll correction) and lateral tilt (pitch correction).
Stalk - That portion of the rotating structure of a turret that extends down into the ship.
Stool - The fixed circular foundation bulkhead that supports the rotating elements of the gun house.
Superfiring - A gun mounted such that it can fire overtop another mounting without elevating its gun barrels from the horizontal is said to be superfiring.
For example, on most ships with two forward turrets mounted on the centerline, the second turret from the bow is mounted higher than the first turret
such that it may fire forward at almost any elevation. The second turret is thus superfiring.
Train - The angle to which a gun or turret can be rotated on the horizontal axis. For instance, a bow gun or turret pointing directly forward is said to be
trained to 0 degrees. If it could rotate to point directly astern, then it would be trained to 180 degrees.
Transferable Mounting - A British term used in the early part of the twentieth century, meaning that the gun mounting was simply bolted to the deck with
no other connections and so could be easily removed and used elsewhere. Replaced by "UD" (see below) in most official publications.
Turret - There is always a controversy about whether a particular rotating enclosed gun emplacement should be called a "Turret" or a "Mount." In the
USN, the difference between a turret and a mount is that a "Turret" is built into the ship, has a stalk that extends well below the weather deck and
includes a barbette, while a "Mount" is not part of the ship's structure and does not include a barbette. As a general rule, 5 inch (12.7 cm) and smaller
guns are in "Mounts" while 6 inch (15.2 cm) and larger guns are in "Turrets." Other navies had similar distinctions.
Turret Definitions - In the USN, when multi-gun turrets are described as "two-gun" or "three-gun" it means that their guns are individually sleeved and
that each gun can elevate independently of the others. When the mounting is described as "twin" or "triple" it means that all guns share a single slide or
cradle and that individual guns can not elevate independently from the others. Other nations do not use these distinctions. On my weapon pages, the
description for each weapon will indicate whether the mountings were individually sleeved or not.
UD - Upper Deck. British designation of the 1930s and 1940s referring to a gun-mounting that did not pierce the deck on which it was mounted. See
"Transferable Mounting" and "BD," above.
VB and VCP - Vavasseur Barbette and Vavasseur Central Pivot Mountings. British gun mountings of the late 1800s that used inclined ramps to help
absorb recoil forces. Named after Joseph Vavasseur (1834 - 1908) who at one point was connected with the Armstrong-Whitworth Co. and who is best
remembered for inventing the process of using hydraulic pressure to fit copper driving bands onto projectiles in 1874.
Forward to "Gun Data" Part 2 - Ammunition, Fuzes and Projectiles

Forward to "Gun Data" Part 3 - Miscellaneous
Back to the Naval Weapons Index Page


Part 2 - Ammunition, Fuzes and Projectiles
By Tony DiGiulian
Updated: 26 May 2006
.
Ammunition,
Mounting /
Turret
Definitions
Definitions
Ammunition, Fuze and Projectile Definitions
AA - Anti-Aircraft.
AAC - Anti-Aircraft Common.
AHEAD - Advanced Hit Efficiency And Destruction.
Amatol - An explosive mixture of ammonium nitrate and TNT.
AP - Armor Piercing. Projectile for use against heavily armored targets. Very little explosive within the
shell, as it must be almost solid in order to penetrate through armor plate. The USN has designated all
capped armor piercing projectiles as "AP" since about 1900. See "APC" below.
APC or CAP - Armor Piercing Capped or (rarely used) Capped Armor Piercing. Most AP shells have a cap
fitted over the nose which is intended to exert a high initial force on the face of the armor. In addition, a
ballistic cap is usually fitted over the AP Cap to provide a more streamlined shape for better aerodynamic
characteristics. See "Cap" below.
APDS - Armor Piercing Discarding Sabot.
APFSDS - Armor Piercing Fin-Stabilized Discarding Sabot.
API, AP-I, APT or AP-T - Armor Piercing Projectiles that include a Tracer (Incendiary).
Arrow Shell - A fin-stabilized HE projectile. In German, "Pfeilgeschoss."
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/Gun_Data_p2.htm (1 of 21)7/20/2006 15:17:58

Bag Ammunition - Ammunition in which silk or rayon bags are used to hold the propellant and the projectile
is handled separately. Propellant bags were manufactured from a special coarse silk known as "shallon" or
"cartridge cloth." This burned without leaving any smoldering residue in the barrel which would present a
safety hazard when loading the subsequent round. Rayon bags replaced silk ones in the USN after a
serious propellant fire aboard USS South Dakota BB-57 in 1945 was traced to a spark generated when a
bag was removed from its metallic container.
Ballistic Cap - Often called a "windshield," this is a covering on the

nose of a projectile which is intended to provide a more
streamlined shape for better aerodynamic - ballistic -
characteristics.

Ballistic Coefficient - Measure of the ability of a projectile to overcome air resistance. Ballistic coefficient
(BC) = SD / F, where SD is the sectional density of the projectile and F is a form factor for the shape of the
projectile. Sectional density is calculated from the mass (M) of the projectile divided by the square of its
diameter. The value of F decreases with as the pointedness of the projectile increases. A projectile shaped
like a sphere would have the highest F value while one in the shape of a long needle would have the lowest
F value.
Ballistic Conditions - Conditions which affect the motion of a projectile in the bore and through the
atmosphere, including muzzle velocity, weight of projectile, size and shape of projectile, rotation of the earth,
density of the air, elasticity of the air and the wind.
Ballistic Curve - Actual path or trajectory of a projectile.
Ballistic Density - Computed constant air density that would have the same total effect on a projectile
during its flight as the varying densities actually encountered.
Ballistic Efficiency - Ability of a projectile to overcome the resistance of the air. Ballistic efficiency depends
chiefly on the weight, diameter and shape of the projectile.
Ballistic Length or Head Length - The length of the projectile's nose. See "crh," below.
Ballistic Limit - Velocity at which a given type of projectile will perforate a given thickness and type of
armor plate at a specified obliquity. Also see "Armor Penetration Definitions," in Miscellaneous Definitions.
Ballistics, Internal, External and Terminal - Internal Ballistics is the study of what the projectile does from
the moment of firing up until it leaves the muzzle of the weapon. External Ballistics is the study of what the
projectile does as it travels from the muzzle to the target. Terminal Ballistics is the study of what the
projectile does as it strikes the target.
Balloting - The bounding from side to side of a projectile in the bore of a gun.
Base - The after end of the projectile, usually described as that portion between the driving bands and the
bottom of the projectile.
Base Bleed - This is a unit on the base of a projectile that generates gas, something like a tracer. What this
does is fill in the vacuum that is created behind a rapidly moving projectile. The gas thus greatly reduces
the amount of drag acting on the projectile. The gas also acts like a long tail, making the projectile more
stable in flight. The end result of these actions is an increase in range and accuracy.
Base Cover - A metal cover that is crimped, caulked or welded to the base of a projectile. This cover
prevents the propellant gasses from coming in contact with the explosive filler of the projectile through
possible flaws in the metal of the base.
Base Plug - A removable seal in the base of a shell which holds in the explosive filler.
Belt, Ammunition - Multiple rounds of ammunition that are held together by a strip of fabric or metal. Used
most often for feeding ammunition to automatic weapons. Metal belts may be disintegrating (linked), non-

disintegrating or continuous loop.
Boat Tailing - Tapering that part of the projectile behind the driving band to reduce air resistance, especially
at low velocities. This type of design gives a projectile greater range but tends to increase wear on the gun
barrel. It was long thought that boat tailing caused greater dispersion in the impact pattern, but a study
published in 1978 by the US Army's Ballistic Research Lab showed that the opposite was true.
Body - The cylindrical portion of the projectile between the bourrelet and the driving bands. It is machined
to a smaller diameter than the bourrelet to reduce the projectile surface in contact with the lands of the bore.
The body contains most of the projectile filler.
Booster - An explosive of special character, usually of high strength and high detonating velocity, generally
used in small quantities to improve the performance of another explosive, the latter constituting the major
portion of the charge and made up of a less sensitive explosive. Also see "Gaine."

Bourrelet - Finely machined band or ring of metal just behind the ogive of a projectile, designed to support
the front portion of the projectile by riding the lands as the projectile travels through the bore of a gun. Only
the bourrelet and the driving bands actually touch the rifling.
Bursting Charge - The explosive within a shell. Known simply as "Burster." Some of the more well-known:
● Explosive D - USN burster, Ammonium Picrate, a salt formed from picric acid. Adopted prior to
World War I, this explosive is very insensitive to shock. Used for both AP and HC (HE) projectiles.
● Lyddite - British Picric Acid, trinitrophenol. Prior to 1908, the British used gunpowder as the burster
for both AP and Common shells, but after that date Lyddite came into use for HE projectiles. In 1909,
the Royal Navy began experimenting with APC using Lyddite as the burster and began introducing
them into service the following year, even though testing had shown that this filling was more
sensitive to shock than gunpowder and thus prone to explode prematurely before the shell had a
chance to penetrate armor plate.
● Melanite - French picric acid, roughly equivalent to Lyddite.
● Shellite - Adopted just after the end of World War I, this British explosive was a less sensitive picric
acid mixture, containing a mixture of 70% Lyddite and 30% of the much weaker, insensitive explosive
dinitrophenol.
● Shimose - Japanese picric acid, roughly equivalent to Lyddite.
● TNA - Japanese tri-nitro-aniso, designated as Type 91 bakuyaku (Model 1931 Explosive), more
stable than Shimose.
● TNT - Tri-nitro-toulene. Few, if any, nations used pure TNT. Instead, this was usually mixed with a
desensitizer, such as beeswax. For example, German shells of World War II used a beeswax mixture
with the concentration of beeswax decreasing from the head to the base of the cavity.
Bursting Charge Power - The following approximations of explosive power may be used using TNT = 1.00
as a reference point.
● Before and during World War I

❍ Black powder = 0.33 - 0.5
❍ Guncotton = 0.5
❍ Picric Acid (British Lyddite, French Melanite and Japanese Shimose) = about 1.05 to 1.10
● After World War I

❍ German and Italian TNT = 1.00
❍ British Shellite = 0.96
❍ Japanese TNA = 1.05
❍ USA explosive "D" = 0.95
● Other Explosives (torpedo warheads, mines, depth charges)

❍ Amatol (80/20) = 1.24
❍ DD (Dinitronaphthalene/Dinitrophenol 60/40) = 0.82
❍ PETN = 2.21
❍ MDN (Melinite/Dinitronaphthalene 80/20) = 0.88

❍ RDX = 1.94
❍ Tetryl = 1.39
❍ Torpex = 1.5
❍ German SW types = about 1.07
❍ Japanese Type 97 (TNT/hexanitrodiphenylamine 60/40) = about 1.07
Two rules of thumb:

1) The effect of the burster may be taken as being proportional to the square root of the weight of the
bursting charge.
2) For the same basic shell design, the size of the bursting charge is proportional to the cube of the bore
size.
Cap - Hardened steel nose piece of an APC projectile. See illustrations on this page. The cap serves the
following purposes:
1) It is shaped so as to increase the biting angle; that is, the angle at which the projectile will penetrate
rather than ricocheting.
2) It spreads the shock of impact over the periphery of the nose instead of allowing the initial contact to
batter the nose tip.
3) It pre-stresses the armor plate upon impact before the cap shatters away. This means that the shell body
sees a weakened plate.
Cannelure - Means a ring-like groove or a groove encircling a cylinder. These have the following uses in
ammunition and weapons:
1) On projectiles used in fixed ammunition. The groove provides a means of securely crimping the cartridge
case to the projectile.
2) On armor-piercing bullets. The groove is used to lock the jacket of an armor-piercing bullet to the core.
3) In the rotating band of a projectile. The groove lessens the resistance from the rifling as the projectile
travels down the gun barrel.
4) Around the base of a cartridge case. The groove is where the extractor takes hold to eject the spent
case.
5) In the construction of British large-caliber, wire-wound weapons. Cannelured rings were used to prevent
"steel choke" problems.
Cartridge or Cartridge Case - A metallic container for holding powder charges. This type of propellant
container allows higher rates of fire and is less likely to catch fire in case of damage from a shell hit. It is
also less likely to suffer a flareback type of disaster caused by the smoldering remnants from the previous
powder charge. However, for larger caliber guns, it does require more complicated and heavier handling
equipment than does bag ammunition. Germany used a variation of this for their larger guns. The
propellant was divided in to two sections, a fore charge in a bag and a main charge in a cartridge. Also see
"Fixed" and "Semi-Fixed."
Cartridge Size - Cartridges are usually designated by the diameter of the projectile they fire and by the
overall length of the cartridge. Letter suffixes indicate the type of cartridge. For example, the famous
Oerlikon 20 mm of World War II used 20 x 110RB cartridges. This meant that the cartridge cases were for
20 mm projectiles, had an overall length of 110 mm and had a Rebated Rim (see below).
Case Ammunition - Ammunition using a cartridge case to hold the propellant. See "Cartridge or Cartridge
Case" above.

Case Plug or Mouth Plug - The sealing device in the mouth of a cartridge used for separate (semi-fixed)
ammunition. This may be of cork, plastic or cardboard.
CCAMS - Course-Corrected Anti-Missile Shell.
Charge or Powder Charge - The amount of propellant used in firing a weapon.
Common - Common or special common were originally shells - which literally means a hollow container -
filled with black powder and used for attacking lightly armored or unarmored vessels. By the 1930s, this
term was used by a few navies to describe any non-armor piercing shell. By that time, the bursters were
less sensitive explosives, such as TNT.
CLGP - Cannon-Launched, Guided Projectile. Long-range ballistic projectiles using terminal laser guidance
developed during the 1970s for the USN's 5"/54 Mark 42 and 8"/55 Mark 71 guns.
CNF - Common, nose fuze. British projectile designation.
CPBC - Common Pointed Ballistic Cap. British designation for shells of 6" (15.2 cm) and larger for use
against medium thicknesses of armor. After 1946 this designation was changed to SAPBC - Semi-Armor
Piercing Ballistic Cap.
CPC - Common Pointed Capped. British designation for shells of 6" (15.2 cm) and larger for use against
lightly armored targets. Little armor penetration capability but large bursting charge.
crh - Caliber Radius Head. The pointed head of a projectile is

described in terms of its ballistic length and the radius of the
curvature of its nose. Larger numbers mean a more streamlined
profile. Properly, crh is shown as a dual number such as 3/4crh,
with the first number indicating the ballistic length and the second
radius of the curvature, but it is often abbreviated to a single
number such as 4crh. In the sketch at the right, the dotted line
between Points A and B is the "shoulder" which is the start point
of the nose and the distance between these points is the caliber of
the projectile. In this sketch, the radius of the curvature is from
Point A to Point E and is four times the caliber of the projectile.
The vertical distance between Points C and D is the ballistic
length and is the most important factor in the design of a shell for
stability in flight. In this sketch, the ballistic length is 4, as Point E
is on the same plane as Points A and B. From these numbers,
this projectile would properly be described as "4/4crh" but this
would normally be abbreviated to just "4crh." Shells of this
general shape are described as being "ogival headed" and have superior ballistic performance. As can
easily be imagined, a 6crh shell is more pointed and streamlined than is a 4crh shell. When crh is described
as "5/10crh" it means that the radius is 10 calibers long but the ballistic length is that of a 5crh shell. When
a projectile is described as "5/ " it means that it has a ballistic length of 5 and its nose shape is conical, not
ogival. Most USN projectiles had secant ogive ballistic nose shapes which were somewhat more conical
than a simple tangent ogive (smooth merging joint with cylindrical lower-body side) and gave them a distinct

"shoulder" where the nose met the cylindrical side of the lower body). This shape has slightly reduced air
friction compared to a tangent ogive nose of the same length above the cylindrical body. For further
information, see the essay "Calculating crh" on the Technical Board.
DART - Driven Ammunition Reduced. Sub-caliber guided projectile with canard control, intended to improve
the performance of the OTO-Melara 76/62 gun in the antimissile role. Uses a radio-frequency beam rider
guidance system which utilizes the firing ship's tracking radar.
DBX - Depth Bomb Explosive. USN solid explosive developed during World War II to replace Torpex. It is
a mixture of TNT, cyclonite, ammonium nitrate and aluminum.
Density Factor - The weight of a projectile measured

in pounds divided by the cube of its caliber measured in
inches. For example, the USN 16" (40.64 cm) Mark 8
AP weighed 2,700 lbs. (1,224.7 kg). The density factor
of this projectile would thus be 2,700 / 163 = 0.659.

Detonator - An explosive device used to set off a larger explosive, such as a blasting cap used to set off
TNT.
Distance Piece - Used to hold cartridge propellant firmly in place when the amount of propellant does not
completely fill the cartridge. This is normally a rectangular cardboard piece folded into a triangular shape
and placed into the cartridge between the wad and the case closure plug or projectile. Distance Pieces are
generally used in fixed and semi-fixed ammunition for 40 mm and larger projectiles.
DPICM - Dual Purpose Improved Conventional Munition. A submunition carried as payload in projectiles
such as the USN 5" (12.7 cm) Cargo Round. "Dual Purpose" refers to the munition having both anti-
personnel and anti-armor capabilities.
Drag - The effect of air resistance on a projectile. Drag (D) = f(V/A) * K * Ø * P * Di2 * V2, where f(V/A) is a
coefficient related to the ratio of the velocity of the projectile to the velocity of sound in the medium through
which it travels. Sound through air at 68°F (20°C) at sea level travels at 1,128.6 fps (344 mps). K is a
constant for the shape of the projectile. Ø is a constant for yaw (deviation from linear flight). P is the
density of the medium, Di is the diameter (caliber) of the projectile, and V the velocity. The degree to which
a projectile is slowed by drag is called retardation (r) given by the formula: r = D / M, where M is the mass
of the projectile. Drag is also influenced by the spin of the projectile. The faster the spin, the less likely a
projectile will "yaw" or turn sideways and tumble. However, if the projectile spins too fast, it will not "turn
over" at the top of its trajectory (apogee) and so will not strike the target nose-first.
Driving Band - A raised ring of soft metal encircling a projectile. Also known as "rotating band." These are
made of copper, brass or soft steel. USN driving bands on large caliber projectiles consisted of 97.5%
copper and 2.5% nickel. There may be more than one band on each projectile. The bands engage the
rifling in the gun barrel, causing the projectile to spin as it travels through the barrel. They also provide a
tight seal so that the propellant gases do not escape past the projectile as it travels down the barrel. An
"augmented driving band" or "augmented rotating band" is a slightly thicker strip of metal used when the
rifling in the gun barrel has been worn down. See "Rifling," above.
Eccentricity - Distance from the geometric center line of a projectile to the center of gravity of the projectile.
ERGM - Extended Range Guided Munition. Effectively missiles fired from a gun barrel, these special
projectiles are currently under development for the US Navy for the 5"/62 Mark 45 Mod 4 and 155 mm AGS
gun systems.
F or FF - Form Factor. A value used for ballistic calculations. See "Ballistic Coefficient" above.
FAP - Frangible Armor Piercing. FAP is usually a projectile with a tungsten alloy core which breaks up into
multiple fragments when it strikes a hard surface. The FAP projectile combines armor penetration, blast
effects and incendiary action, all from an inert projectile that has no more logistical safety problems than a
training round.

FAPDS - Fragmented Armor Piercing Discarding Sabot.
Fixed Ammunition - Ammunition

in which the cartridge case is
attached to the projectile, similar
to a pistol bullet. This type is
usually limited to smaller
weapons as the weight becomes
prohibitive for hand-worked guns
as the caliber increases past
about 4 inches (10.2 cm). On my
datapages for guns firing this type
of ammunition, the value given for
"Weight of Complete Round"
refers to the total of the individual
weights of the projectile, cartridge
case, propellant and igniter all
added together. The weight of
the projectile itself is given
separately if available. Also see
"Bag" above and "Semi-fixed/
Separate," below.
Flechette - A small fin-stabilized projectile. Usually used in large numbers inside of a single carrier
projectile.
Fuze - An overview of fuzes used since the 1900s.
● Boresafe Fuze - Type of fuze having an interrupter in the explosive train that prevents the fuze from
functioning until after the projectile has cleared the muzzle of the weapon. A "non-boresafe fuze"
does not have this feature.
● Base Fuze - Fuze located at the bottom end or base of the shell. This is the most common location
for AP and SAP projectiles as it avoids weakening the nose of the shell and protects the fuze from
damage as the projectile passes through armor. Some HE/HC shells have both nose and base fuzes
as this increases the chances of the shell detonating under differing conditions.
● Contact Fuze - A fuze initiated only after it impacts the target. There are two general types of
contact fuzes, "delay" and "super quick" both further defined below.

● CCF - Course Correcting Fuze. A smart fuze that uses aerodynamic fins together with GPS in order
to steer an otherwise ordinary ballistic projectile.
● Delay Fuze - A fuze that detonates the projectile only after it has impacted and penetrated some
distance into the target. A "short delay" means that the fuze initiates detonation within a few
thousandths (0.00X) of a second after impact. For naval guns, short delays are generally used for HE/
HC rounds while longer delays are used for AP rounds. Some delay fuzes have a ring or dial which
allows adjustment of the delay time. For AP projectiles, it is desirable to have the shell detonate only
after it has penetrated past the armor plating, thus letting it get into the "vitals" of the target ship's
interior. For most AP rounds of the twentieth century, this delay was usually about 0.030 to 0.070
seconds, roughly equivalent to 35 to 80 feet (10 to 30 m) of travel. In addition, some thickness of
armor plate was needed to initiate the fuze action. For USN rounds, this was armor plate at least 1
inch (2.54 cm) thick.
● Nose Fuze - Fuze is located at the top point of the shell. This is the most common location for HC
and HE shells as the fuzes can be set to allow little or no time delay and thus detonate the bursting
charge immediately upon impact. Many nose fuzes have "auxiliary detonating" fuzes behind them.
These provide a heavier shock which actually detonates the bursting charge. Auxiliary fuzes also act
as a safety feature by preventing the projectiles from exploding should the nose fuze be accidentally
actuated prior to the arming of the auxiliary detonating fuze.
● Proximity Fuze - Fuze containing a simple radar that can detect the nearness (proximity) of a target.
Also called "influence" fuze. First used in World War II on USN 5 in (12.7 cm) AA shells which were
called "VT Fuzed" where VT stood for "Variable Time" (it appears to be a myth that "VT" was a
reference to "Section T," the BuOrd development team for proximity fuzes). These fuzes are also
widely used for anti-personnel rounds for land artillery as they eliminate the need to accurately set a
time fuze to explode the projectile at a fixed distance above the target. During World War II, the US
Army called these "posit" or "pozit" fuzes. This term meant that the proximity fuze allowed the shell to
detonate at the most effective height or "position" above the ground. Since World War II, fuzes small
enough to fit onto 40 mm AA rounds have been developed. The modern British versions of proximity
fuzes are called TTB - Target Triggered Burst.
● Super Quick Fuze or Instantaneous Fuze - A fuze designed to detonate the projectile before it has
penetrated any distance into the target. Super quick fuzes are commonly used on anti-aircraft rounds
that are designed to shred the outer airframe.
● Time Fuze - Fuze has an adjustable mechanism - usually an incremented dial or "ring" or, in more
modern fuzes, an electronic timer - which is used to set a delay time. For AA projectiles, smoke and
illumination rounds, this type of fuze is used to set the time between when the shell is fired and when
it detonates.
Fuze Setter
1) A machine located on or near the gun platform that is used to set time fuzes, usually for AA projectiles.
2) A gun crewman whose job it is to either operate the Fuze Setter machine or, by using a wrench or similar
tool, to manually set projectile time fuzes.
Fuze Setting in the Hoist - Hoist fuze setting was first successfully accomplished by the USN with its 5"/38

(12.7 cm) when coupled with the Mark 37 GFCS. In this system, the projectiles were inserted nose down
into a cup on an endless chain hoist that led from the handling room directly below the mount up to the gun
breeches. As the projectile traveled up the hoist, a pawl in the cup, driven by the GFCS, would engage a
lug on the projectile's time fuze ring. The cup rotated the pawl so as to set the time fuze. The time fuze
setting was automatically and continually adjusted during the hoist as the firing solution changed. Loaders
were trained to wait until the last possible moment before removing a projectile and placing it on the loading
tray so as to get the best possible time adjustment.
Fuze Setting at the Muzzle - Muzzle fuze setting is normally done by induction. The fuze setter itself
consists of a ring around the muzzle that generates a weak pulsed-electromagnetic field. As the fuze
passes through the ring it senses this data signal and sets itself accordingly.
Gaine (Booster) - An explosive container detonated by the fuze and which in turn detonates the bursting
charge.
Grain - A measure of weight used in the UK and USA for small propellant charges and for the weight of
small caliber bullets. 1 pound = 7,000 grains. 1 gram = 15.432 grains.
Greenboy - The failure of British AP projectiles during the Battle of Jutland (Skagerrak) in 1915 to detonate
after passing through armor led to an intensive development of a new type. These were introduced into
service starting in 1918 and had a new delay-action fuze patterned after the base fuze used on the German
28 cm Psgr. APC projectiles. They also had an improved body and used the new "Hadfield" hardened AP
cap. The ballistic cap for these projectiles was painted green to distinguish them from the older projectiles,
hence the nickname.
Grommet - Projectile cover used to protect the rotating band of projectiles during handling. The grommet is
removed before the projectile is fired.
HC - High Capacity. A projectile for use against lightly armored targets. Contains a relatively large amount
of explosive as compared to an armor piercing projectile.
HE - High Explosive or High Effect. Same as HC.
HEI or HE-I - HE projectiles that include an Incendiary.
HE-CVT - HE with a Controlled Variable Time (proximity) fuze.
HE-IR - HE with an infrared fuze. These rounds use a passive IR fuze that operates only on the infrared
spectrum detected in the exhaust gasses of jet and hot missile targets. These fuzes are harder to jam than
radar-type proximity fuzes.
HE-MOM - HE Multirole OTO Munitions. OTO-Melara ammunition with proximity fuzing and tungsten cubes
surrounding the bursting charge.
HE-PF-OM - HE Pre-Fragmented OTO Munition.
HE-PD - HE with a Point Detonating (contact) fuze.

HET or HE-T - HE shell with a tracer.
HE-T/SD - Self-destructing HE-T shell.
HETF - British high explosive projectile with time fuze.
HE-VT - High Explosive with a Variable Time (proximity) fuze.
HMX - Cyclotetramethyenetetranitramine. A white crystalline powder used as a high energy oxidizer in

propellants and explosives.
Igniter or Igniter Patch - Bag ammunition charges have a small patch at one or both ends containing black
powder (gunpowder). This is used to set off the main propellant charge. See "primer," below.
ILLUM - Illumination. Commonly called "Star Shells," these projectiles are filled with white phosphorous
(WP or "Willey Pete") and are used at night to light up (illuminate) the target.
ILLUM-MT - Illumination round with a Mechanical Time fuze.
K Shells - British term for projectiles using dye bags. See "Splash Colors," below.
Lead Foil - A piece of lead foil is sometimes inserted at the top of the propellant in a cartridge case. The
lead foil aids in scouring away residue left from the driving bands or unburnt propellant.
Lifting Plug - Threaded eyebolt which fits into the fuze cavity (nose or base), permitting heavy shells to be
handled by means of a winch.
Link - The part of an ammunition belt which joins the individual rounds together. Usually, one link holds one
round. "Disintegrating Link" means that the links holding each individual round to the next round separate
from each other and from the cartridge as each round is fired.
LRBA - Long Range Bombardment Ammunition. USN munition developed as part of the "Gunfighter"
program of the late 1960s. These were unguided 5" (12.7 cm) projectiles enclosed in a sabot and fired from
8" (20.3 cm) gun barrels. These sub-caliber projectiles had a maximum range of about 72,000 yards
(66,000 m) and were successfully used against Viet Cong targets at 70,000 yards (64,000 m).
LRLAP - Long Range Land Attack Projectiles. These are being developed as part of the AGS program.
Meplat - The flat or blunt area at the tip of a projectile. Usually specified by its diameter.
MPDS - Missile Piercing Discarding Sabot.
MT - Mechanical Time. Designation for Time Fuzes used by the US Navy. See "Ring or Time Fuze" below.
NACO - Navy Cool. A cooler-burning propellant currently in use by the US Navy.

Nitrated Cotton - A short-fibered cotton bleached and purified to the point where it is 90% pure cellulose.
This material forms the basis for nitrocellulose used in propellants. See "Propellants" below.
Nose Plug - The Lifting Plug (see above) used for nose-fuzed projectiles.
Nutation - The aerodynamic, gyroscopic and inertial forces acting on a spinning projectile are in constant
flux as it travels through the air. As the various forces readjust themselves, the nose of the projectile
describes a small arc around the axis of travel. This motion is called "nutation" from the Greek word for
"nodding," which is a good description of what the projectile actually does.
Obturator - In projectiles, this is a band, usually made of nylon, below the driving bands. The band helps
prevent propellant gasses from escaping past the projectile as it travels up the gun barrel. Commonly
described as the "Forward Obturator" or "Forward Located Slip Obturator" to distinguish it from the breech
obturator.
Ogive - The curved area making up the nose of a

projectile. Usually defined as extending rearwards from
the tip of the projectile's nose to the main cylindrical
portion or bearing surface. From an ordnance manual:
"Often a convex solid of revolution generated by an arc
of a circle whose center lies on the side of the axis of
revolution opposite to the arc." Whew, glad I found that
out! In layman's terms, the head of the projectile is
usually bullet-shaped. See "crh," above.
Oxidizer - Reactive compound which gains electrons during an oxidation-reduction chemical reaction. In
propellants, this is the ingredient that provides oxygen for the burning process.
Palliser Projectile - Iron armor piercing shells of the mid to late 19th century which were hardened by
casting the projectiles point downwards and forming the heads in an iron mold. This process rapidly chilled
the hot metal of the nose and made it intensely hard. The remainder of the projectile mold was formed of
sand, allowing the metal of the shell body to cool more slowly, making it tough but not brittle. These shells
were powder-filled, but did not use a fuze. Instead, they relied upon the shock of striking the target to set off
the burster. These shells were effective against wrought iron armor, but shattered against steel armor.
Named after the inventor, Sir William Palliser.
PBX - Plastic Bonded Explosive. A mixture of cyclonite, HMX, PETN and a plastic binder. Has high
mechanical strength, excellent chemical stability and is shock resistant.
PETN - Pentaerythritol tetranitrate. Shock-sensitive material used in explosives, blasting caps and in some
mono-propellants.
PFHE - Proximity Fuzed High Explosive.
Posit or Pozit Fuze - See "Fuzes" above.

Powder Bags - See Bag Ammunition, above.
Pre-fragmented - A projectile, usually AA or anti-personel, that has been sectioned so as to break up into
uniformly-sized pieces when the round detonates.
Primer - A device used to provide a flame for the purpose of setting fire to a propellant charge. Also called
an "igniter." Primers are divided into two types, depending upon the type of ammunition used by the gun:
1) Case and 2) Lock. Case primers, as their name implies, are used for guns firing case ammunition.
These are small containers of an explosive such as mercury fulminate that are installed into the base of the
cartridge. Lock primers are used for bag guns and are inserted by hand into the firing lock of the gun.
Primers are also divided into three classes, depending upon the method of firing: 1) Percussion, 2) Electric
and 3) Combination. Percussion primers are fired by the mechanical impact of a firing pin. Electric primers
are fired by passing a current through a resistance element surrounded by an initiating mixture.
Combination primers may be fired by either of these methods, which allows for a mechanical backup if the
electrical supply system of the gun fails.
Propellants - An overview of some of the most common propellants used by naval guns since the 1880s.
● Black Powder - Commonly known as "gunpowder," this was obsolete by the 1880s and rarely used
after 1900 by the major powers as a propellant. Black powder did continue to be used for igniter
patches on bag ammunition. Black powder as a gun propellant has several disadvantages: (1) it
leaves a large amount of residue, (2) it produces large quantities of smoke, (3) it causes rapid erosion
of the gun bore and (4) its velocity of reaction is too rapid.
● Brown Powder or Cocoa Powder or Slow Burning Cocoa (SBC) - Propellant developed in the late
19th century. An underburned straw charcoal was used in this powder and gave it the characteristic
color from which it took its name. This charcoal gave a denser and hence slower burning structure to
the powder and permitted better regulation of pressure. Brown powder is similar to black powder
(gunpowder), each being a mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur, but brown powder has a
lower sulfur content (3% versus 12%) and a correspondingly higher potassium nitrate content. The
reduced sulfur content results in a slower rate of deflagration (burning) and the higher potassium
nitrate content supports a more complete burning of the charcoal and thus releases more energy.
The slower burning nature of brown powder allowed longer barrel lengths and thus higher muzzle
velocities. However, this propellant is notorious for producing vast quantities of smoke.
● Cordite - A smokeless powder composed of nitroglycerin, guncotton and a petroleum substance,

usually gelatinized by the addition of acetone, and the mixture then pressed into cords which
resemble brown twine. Widely used by the British with Mark I being the first version adopted by the
Royal Navy in 1889. This burned very hotly and was found to be detrimental to the gun barrels as it
caused rapid wear. For this reason, the proportions of nitro-glycerine and nitro-cellulose were revised
to produce better results. This new propellant was designated MD (for Modified) and came into
service in 1901. MD charges were 25% heavier than Mark I for the same ballistic result but doubled
the life of the guns. Both Mark I and MD were in use during World War I, and both had poor storage
characteristics with their stability degrading over time. The double-based nature of these propellants,
containing a substantial amount of nitroglycerine in their composition, was significantly more
susceptible to ignition than their single-base American counterparts. These unfortunate traits led to
several ships suffering magazine explosions both in action and in harbor. A study performed after
World War I found that MD tended to form highly unstable micro-sized dust particles consisting of

nitrocellulose and iron pyrites. In 1927, after a study of the German RPC/12 solventless propellant
(see below) used during World War I, a more stable version called SC (solventless cordite, also
known as solventless carbamite) was introduced and the older propellants were replaced as rapidly
as possible. SC was used extensively in World War II and had a better safety record, although the
loss of HMS Hood may be partially attributed to it. Due to the presence of calcium in the small
amount of chalk used to counteract traces of residual acids, SC had a very bright "flash," a
characteristic which lead to development of flashless propellants (see below). British cordite
propellants were designated by the type and the cordage diameter size, which for MD cordite was in
0.010 inch (0.254 mm) increments and for SC cordite was in 0.001 inch (0.0254 mm) increments. For
example, MD45 means MD-type cordite in 0.450 inch (11.4 mm) diameter cords while SC350 means
SC-type cordite in 0.350 inch (8.89 mm) diameter cords. Cordite in various forms was used by the
Japanese from about 1890 to the end of World War II. Different formulations were used, most
containing about 30 percent nitroglycerin and 65 percent nitrocellulose with the remainder being
stabilizers. The nominal diameter of the Japanese cords was given in units of 0.1 mm (0.004"). For
example, the Japanese propellant DC80 was cordite with cords of 8 mm (0.315") diameter.
● Flashless Powder - Propellant formulation that reduces the amount of flame emitted from the gun
muzzle. Useful in night engagements as it does not give away the position of the firing ship. Not
really "flashless" but much less so than standard propellants.
● Gun Cotton - Explosive substance formed by the nitration of cotton or some other form of cellulose.
As a projectile force, gun cotton has around six times the gas generation of an equal volume of black
powder and produces less smoke and less barrel heating. Guncotton releases about 1,100
kilocalories (Kcal) of energy per kilogram, nearly twice that of black powder, almost the same as TNT
and two-thirds that of nitroglycerine. Moist or "wet" guncotton is relatively stable but can be easily
exploded by using a small amount of dry guncotton (which is sensitive to shock) to start the
deflagration. Some history about guncotton: In 1838 the French chemist Theophile Jule Pelouze
discovered that an explosive could be produced by nitrating cotton, that is, by treating cotton with
nitric acid in such a way as to cause NO2 groups from the nitric acid, HNO3, to enter into combination
with the cotton cellulose. He thus produced cellulose nitrates, generally called nitrocellulose. His
explosive was the first guncotton, but it was an inconsistent mixture and was not put to practical use.
The German-Swiss chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein discovered in 1845-46 that by nitrating
cotton with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids, an explosive of good quality would result and that the
nitration process could be satisfactorily controlled. Manufacture of guncotton via his process was
undertaken in several European countries, but poor quality control led to a series of disastrous
explosions in many of the factories where it was being produced. The researches of various
investigators during the middle of 19th century, notably of General von Lenk in Austria and the British
chemist Frederick Abel at Woolwich Arsenal (who, with James Dewar, later invented cordite), showed
that the danger was due to the presence of impurities, which could be removed by careful courses of
treatment. The methods of purification which they introduced consisted principally in washing and
boiling, together with pulping the material to facilitate cleansing. In 1865, Abel was the first to safely
produce good quality guncotton.
● Nitrocellulose - See Gun Cotton, above. Used as the base of most USN propellants. During World
War II, the primary USN propellant was a single-base, multi-tube form made up of 99.5% NC (12.6%
N), 0.5% diphenylamine. The USN used a flat, short grain design that usually had seven perforations
with the websize varying from 0.023 in (0.58 mm) for the short 3 in (7.62 cm) gun to about 0.174 in
(4.42 mm) for the 16 in (40.64 cm) guns. The USN's propellants had a good safety record partly due

to the harder-to-ignite and slow burning nature of their nitrocellulose propellants and partly due to the
quality of their manufacturing process. The French also used nitrocellulose, but in a strip form.
These French propellants were designated with "BM" followed by a number which indicated
thickness, such as BM15. This number was somewhat arbitrary, but a larger number did indicate a
thicker strip. Early French nitrocellulose was susceptible to spontaneous ignition, but this was
improved by the addition of diphenylamine as a stabilizer.
● RP - Rohr-Pulver. "Tube powder," the descriptive designation given to German gun propellants.
German propellants were manufactured in the form of hollow tubes. The propellants were classified
by model year and by the external and internal diameters of the tubes in millimeters. For example,
"RP C/38 (14/4.9)" meant a tube powder first introduced in 1938 that had an external diameter of 14
mm (0.551 in) and an internal diameter of 4.9 mm (0.193 in). There were several compositions used
from 1912 to 1945. Earlier ones used nitroglycerin while later ones used diethylene glycol dinitrate,
which was cooler-burning and less bore erosive. All were resistant to exploding even when exposed
to a hot fire. For instance, when the small battleship Gneisenau was bombed at Kiel in 1942, over 23
tons (24 mt) of propellant was ignited in a forward magazine. There was no explosion even though
turret "Anton" was lifted at least 50 cm (20 inches) from its mounting by the gas pressure generated
by the deflagration. As noted above, the British did extensive studies of RP C/12 after World War I
and developed "solventless cordite" (SC) based upon the results.
● SD - French "solventless" propellant produced during the 1930s for 380 mm, 330 mm and a few other
guns. Like British SC, French SD appears to have been developed from a study of German RPC/12,
as it was in a single tube grain and the composition was similar in its proportions of nitrocellulose,
nitroglycerin and centralite. SD19 was designed for the 330 mm guns while SD21 was used for the
380 mm guns.
● Smokeless powder - Refers to modern gunpowder, which is really not "powder" but rather flakes of
nitrocellulose and other substances. Not really "smokeless" but much less so than black powder or
brown powder. In the USN smokeless powder is designated as "SP" and is usually a uniform ether-
alcohol colloid of purified nitrocellulose with a quantity of diphenylamine (D suffix) or ethyl centrality
(C suffix) added for stability. Smokeless powder is basically unstable since it contains NC and two
volatile substances, ether and alcohol. Its length of usefulness depends largely on the conditions
under which it is stowed. Moisture or heat speeds its deterioration and the combination of the two is
extremely damaging to the propellant. SPDN is a diphenylamine-stabilized smokeless powder to
which nonvolatile materials have been added to reduce its hydroscopic tendencies. The N stands for
nonhygroscopic.
Prismatic Powder - In 1860 General Thomas Jackson Rodman of the United States Army, realizing the
advantages to be gained by increasing the propellant burn time, proposed the use of large grains of very
dense black powder for this purpose. As a result of his researches, he also proposed that perforated grains
be used in order that the burning surface of each grain might be increased as combustion proceeded. The
use of grains such as developed by General Rodman gave means of better regulating the ballistic action of
black powders, and such grains therefore came into general use. Various forms were common, such as
spherohexagonal and various prismatic shapes, including the hexagonal prism with a single perforation.
The latter form was widely used in large guns. The use of such grains was the first notable advance in
securing a powder which would burn progressively, that is, with increasing evolution of gases and heat.

Puff - Non-explosive projectile used for training spotters. These produce a dense cloud of smoke
approximately the size of those produced by high-explosive projectiles.
RAP - Rocket-Assisted Projectile.
RB - Rebated Rim. A cartridge whose bottom rim is smaller in diameter than the body of the cartridge.
Perhaps most famously used for Oerlikon 20 mm cartridges which are 20 x 110RB mm.
Rim - The lip or flange around the case head on a cartridge case which provides purchase for the extractor
claw.
Ring Fuze - See "Time Fuze" above.
Rotating Band - See "Driving Band" above.
Sabot - Pronounced "sa-BO." Literally means "hoof" in French. This is a lightweight carrier into which a
projectile smaller than the barrel diameter (usually called a sub-caliber round) is centered. The carrier fills
the bore of the weapon from which the projectile is fired and is normally discarded a short distance from the
muzzle. There are two common uses for this type of ammunition. The first use is when the projectile is
made from a very heavy, dense material, such as in tungsten penetrators. Making the projectile smaller
than the barrel diameter keeps the shell weight about the same as that of a conventional projectile and thus
does not overstress the gun barrel. The second use is to give a light-weight projectile a higher muzzle
velocity. This means that the same amount of propellant will throw the smaller projectile a longer distance
than it will the conventional projectile.
Sankaidan - Japanese for "fragmentation." Also known as "incendiary shrapnel shells" (shôi ryûsandan).
These were AA rounds which contained hundreds of incendiary-filled steel tubes and officially designated as
"Type 3 Common Shells" (3 Shiki tsûjôdan). The incendiary filling was "Elektron" metal (45%), barium
nitrate (40%) and rubber (14.3%) together with sulfur (0.5%) and stearic acid (0.2%). "Elektron" was a trade
name for a metal alloy composed primarily of magnesium (90%) with the balance being aluminum (3%),
copper (3%), zinc (2%) and silicon (2%). Besides their incendiary effect, the steel tubes also acted as
shrapnel. The Type 3 was first deployed in 1942 for 20 cm (8 in) and larger guns and in 1943 for the 12.7
cm/40 (5 in) AA and 12.7 cm/50 (5 in) DP guns. The 46 cm (18.1 in) Type 3 projectiles for the Yamato class
battleships may have been nicknamed "The Beehive" but this could be apocryphal. A time fuze was used to
set the desired bursting distance, usually about 1,000 meters (1,100 yards) after leaving the muzzle. These
projectiles were designed to burst in a 20 degree cone extending towards the oncoming aircraft with the
projectile shell itself being destroyed by a bursting charge to increase the quantity of steel splinters. The
incendiary tubes ignited about half a second later and burned for five seconds at 3,000 degrees C,
producing a flame about 5 meters (16 feet) long. These shells were thought to have a larger lethal radius
than did standard HE AA rounds. The concept behind these shells was that the ship would put up a barrage
pattern through which an attacking aircraft would have to fly. However, the USN pilots considered them to
be little more than fireworks and not an effective AA weapon.
SAP - Semi-Armor Piercing. Projectiles supplied for smaller guns for use against moderately armored
targets.
SAPBC - Semi-Armor Piercing Ballistic Cap. British projectile designation. See CPBC, above.

SAPER - Semi-Armor Piercing Extended Range.
SAPHEI-T - Semi-Armor Piercing High Explosive Incendiary Tracer.
SAPOM - Semi-Armor Piercing OTO Munition.
SAPOM-ER - Semi-Armor Piercing OTO Munition Extended Range.
SD - Sectional Density. A value used for ballistic calculations. See "Ballistic Coefficient" above.
Semi-fixed and/or Separate Ammunition - Semi-fixed ammunition is when the projectile and cartridge
case are separate pieces but are joined together prior to firing. This term has become interchangeable with
separate ammunition, which is where the projectile does not attach to the cartridge case but they are both
rammed together into the breech. These types of ammunition were commonly used for AAA and DP type
weapons used in World War II as this allowed each piece to be light enough to be manually handled. For
example, the US 5"/38 (12.7 cm) Mark 12 used a projectile with a separate brass cartridge which held the
propellant. These were laid together in the gun's loading tray after which a rammer pushed them "home"
into the breech which then closed automatically. Technically, the 5"/38 (12.7 cm) used separate
ammunition, but most descriptions of this weapon including USN official ones use the term semi-fixed.
Separate ammunition is used today on many weapons including both USA and Italian 5"/54 (12.7 cm) guns.
Set-back - The shock on a projectile when fired from a gun or when it strikes a target. Used to enable many
fuze mechanisms such as impact and time fuzes.
Shalloon - A type of coarse silk used in making propellant bags. Also known as "cartridge cloth."
Shark - A British ASW projectile developed near the end of World War II. Weighed about 96 lbs. (43.5 kg)
and could be fired from any 4 inch (10.2 cm) gun. Not known if successful in battle, but trial results were
considered to be very encouraging.
Shell Length - This is sometimes designated as being in "calibers," similar to barrel length. For instance, if
a 16 inch (40.64 cm) shell is listed as being 4 calibers long, then this means that it is about 16 x 4 = 64
inches (1.626 m) long from nose to base.
Short Delay Fuze - See "Contact Fuze" above.
Shot - An archaic term for a solid projectile intended for penetrating armor. Mostly replaced by "AP" after
about 1900.
Shrapnel - Also known as "spherical case," this was a type of anti-personnel ammunition which consisted of
a shell containing metal balls in the front and a small bursting charge at the rear which was detonated by a
time fuze set to explode just before reaching the target. This was first adopted by the British Army in 1803
and is named after the inventor, Lt. (later General) Henry Scrapnel (sometimes spelled as "Shrapnel") of the
British Army. This term has been used in the past to define shell fragments from most kinds of bursting
projectiles, not necessarily anti-personnel types. Currently, the more accurate term "shell splinter" is in
general use.

SP - Small Pebble. Large grain, densely packed gunpowder. See "Prismatic Powder" above.
Spin - A standard, fin-less projectile must be spun in order to maintain stability in flight. Under or over spun
projectiles will tend to tumble in flight or not turn over at apogee and thus do not achieve good range or
penetration performance. Generally speaking, the larger the diameter or longer the projectile, the slower it
can be spun, in terms of rotations per second (RPS), in order to maintain stability.
Splash Colors - In group actions, when more than one ship is firing on the same target, it is difficult to
determine which shell splashes are from which ship. This is important to know in order for each ship to be
able to adjust its fire onto the target. The solution was "Splash Colors," first used by the USN during Force
Battle Practice in 1930 and in use by most navies during World War II. The void space between the armor
piercing cap and the windshield for AP projectiles was filled with a colored dye by the shell manufacturer.
The dye is seen when the shell impacts in the sea and colors the resulting splash - hence the name. By
using different colors, each ship could distinguish between their shells and those fired by other warships. In
the USN, the dye was a dry powder which was packaged in paper bags. Interestingly, the USN used this
dye to compensate for minor weight variations that crept in during the projectile manufacturing process. For
example, the 16 inch (40.64 cm) Mark 8 AP had a nominal 1.5 lbs. (0.68 kg) dye bag, but this was allowed
to be as large as 3.0 lbs. (1.36 kg) in order to bring underweight projectiles up to the standard weight of
2,700 lbs. (1,225 kg). Usually, a particular color was assigned to each ship. For example, the colors used
by the USS Iowa (BB-61) class battleships were as follows:
USS Iowa - Orange

USS New Jersey - Blue
USS Missouri - Red
USS Wisconsin - Green
Splinter - Fragments of a shell after detonation.
Squib - A firing device that burns with a flash and is used for igniting black powder or pellet powder.
Super Quick Fuze - See "Contact Fuze" above.
Time Fuze - See "Fuzes" above.
TP-T - Target/Practice projectile with Tracer.
TTB - Target Triggered Burst. See "Proximity Fuze" above.
VD - Variable Delay. USN terminology for base fuzes designed for armor-piercing projectiles. Complete
designation was "VDXF" where "X" was the Mark number and "F" stood for fuze. See "Fuzes" above.
VT - Variable Time. See "Fuzes" above.
Wad - For cartridges using a loose powder propellant which does not fill the cartridge, a cardboard disc is
placed on top of the powder and held with a distance piece to keep the propellant firmly in place.
Window - Projectiles containing metal foil strips, which, when scattered high in the air by the small burster

charge, serve to jam radar sets by creating a multitude of images.
Windshield - See "Ballistic Cap" above.
World War I Projectile Weight - Typical World War I AP caps weighed about 5% of the total projectile
weight. World War I windscreens, when used, were tiny, only about 0.5-2% of the projectile weight. The
need for increased range caused more World War II-like long windscreens to be added to some projectiles
by the end of World War I. Burster weight was about 2.5-4% for APC, 4-6% for Common, 6-11% for HE and
about 8-10% for CPC.
World War II Projectile Weight - Windscreens weighed 3-5% (depending on length) for most World War II
projectiles, though German post-1930 L/4,4 and L/4,6 AP projectiles used brittle aluminum windscreens that
only weighed about 1% of the total projectile weight. Hoods weighed about 5%. AP caps had more variable
weights, with 8-14% being the usual range for large projectiles. Smaller projectiles, especially U.S. Navy 6
inch (15.2 cm) and 8 in (20.3 cm) APC projectiles, had much heavier caps. The U.S. Navy 335 lbs. (152 kg)
8 inch (20.3 cm) Mark 21 AP projectile had about a 17% cap weight, while the 130 lbs. (59 kg) 6 inch (15.2
cm) Mark 35 AP projectile had a 19-22% cap weight - both of these projectiles had the bluntest, most-
hemispherical nose shapes of all projectiles in use. Explosives made up about 2-5% for APC, although the
USN used about 1.5% in their "super-heavy" projectiles. HE or HC projectiles had about 6-8% explosive.
Some exact breakdowns:
USN 16 inch (40.64 cm) 2,700 lbs. (1,225 kg) AP Mark 8 Mod 6 (Data from NPG Report 3-47)
AP cap: 312 lbs. (141.5 kg) [11.6%]
Windscreen: 32.4 lbs. (14.7 kg) [1.2%]
Bursting charge: 40.5 lbs. (18.4 kg) [1.5%]
Body weight (including bursting charge): 2,355.6 lbs. (1,068.5 kg) [87.2%]
German 40.64 cm (16 inch) 2,271 lbs. (1,030 kg) Psgr. L/4,4 (mhb) (Data from NPG Report 101)
AP cap: 363 lbs. (164.7 kg) [16%]
Windscreen: 27 lbs. (12.3 kg) [1.2%]
Bursting charge: About 53.4 lbs. (24.2 kg) [2.3%]
Body weight (including bursting charge): 1,880 lbs. (852.8 kg) [82.8%]
Back to "Gun Data" Part 1 - Guns and Mountings
Forward to "Gun Data" Part 3 - Miscellaneous


Part 3 - Miscellaneous
By Tony DiGiulian
Updated: 18 July 2006
.
Ammunition,
Mounting /
Turret
Definitions
Definitions
Miscellaneous Definitions
AAA - Anti-Aircraft Artillery. Generally, any AA weapon with a bore larger than about 2.5 inches (6.4 cm).
AAW - Anti-Aircraft Warfare or Anti-Aircraft Weapon.
ACTH - Arbitrary Correction To Hit. Empirical correction, based upon an analysis of previous firings, in range
or deflection to compensate for indeterminate errors in the fire control solution.
Admiralty Table - British term for analog computers used to calculate firing solutions.
All Burnt - The point during a projectile's travel up the gun barrel where all of the propellant charge has been
consumed. In most instances, propellant charges are designed such that the propellant has been consumed
by the time that the projectile is about one half to two thirds of the way up the barrel. For example, the
standard charge in a 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 67 cartridge achieves All Burnt between 115 to 125 inches (290 to
320 cm) of shot travel, depending upon the amount of propellant loaded in the lot of charges being fired. Shot
travel in the 5"/54 is 235 inches (597 cm), which means that the All Burnt point is about half-way up the barrel.
There are a few exceptions where the All Burnt point is further up the barrel, but these are usually for rounds
developed after the gun entered service where the charge developers are trying to obtain the highest possible
muzzle velocity.
All Steel - A British

term of the 1930s and
1940s used to
describe guns built
primarily from forged
castings. This term
was used to

distinguish these new

weapons from older
guns built using wire
winding techniques.
The first large caliber
British "all steel" gun
was the 12-in/50 (30.5
cm) Mark XIV, which
was an experimental
weapon completed in
August 1933 to test
the new construction
techniques. The
successful completion
of these tests led to the same techniques being used to construct the 14"/45 (36.6 cm) Mark VII guns used on
the King George V class battleships. It should be noted that wire-wound guns in the Royal Navy had Wire
engraved on their breeches while all-steel guns had Steel engraved on their breeches.
Angle of Fall - The angle with respect to the horizontal that a projectile attains at the end of its ballistic flight.
Horizontal is defined as 0 degrees and vertical as 90 degrees.
Angle of Obliquity - The angle at which a projectile hits a plate of armor. Perpendicular, with the axis of the
projectile at right angles to the surface of the plate at the point of impact, is defined as being 0 degrees.
Armor Penetration Definitions - The ability of an Armor Piercing projectile to penetrate armor is defined as
follows:
● Partial Penetration - For hits of less than 45° obliquity, the forward half of the shell penetrates the
armor while the rear half is rejected. For hits over 45° obliquity, the nose and upper body are rejected
while the broken lower body penetrates.
● Holing Limit - The maximum thickness of face hardened armor plate that can be damaged by a
particular AP projectile. The projectile itself is rejected, but a plug of armor, usually of the diameter of
the striking projectile, is pushed into the ship.
● Naval Limit - The maximum thickness of armor where at least 80% of the projectile penetrates. Usually
this means that the projectile is broken up and will probably not explode, but it will still inflict splinter
damage on whatever is behind the armor plate.
● Effective Limit - The maximum thickness of armor a projectile will penetrate relatively intact and still
explode as intended.
ASuW - Anti-Surface [ship] Warfare or Anti-Surface Weapon.
ASW - Anti-Submarine Warfare or Anti-Submarine Weapon.
Automatic vs. Semi-Automatic vs. Manual Firing - Automatic firing means that as long as the trigger or firing
switch is closed, the gun will continue to pump out rounds. An example of this would be a machine-gun. Semi-
Automatic means that the trigger or firing switch must be cycled for each shell fired, but that all shell handling
operations are performed without manual intervention. An example of this operation would be a magazine fed
pistol. Manual means that each individual shell must be handled and rammed into the breech by the gun crew

in order to fire. An example of this would be a single-shot bolt action rifle. A "semi-automatic" breech is one in
which the breech must be closed manually after the round is rammed, but when the gun fires the breech opens
by itself and ejects the spent shell casing (cartridge). A "fully automatic" breech is one in which the breech
mechanism closes by itself when the round is rammed as well as opening and ejecting the shell casing
automatically after the weapon fires.
Base Slap - When an armor piercing projectile hits an armored plate at an angle, there is a tendency for the
shell to "yaw" or tilt as it pierces the plate. This tilt, if large enough, can result in the end of the shell - the base
- hitting against the edges of the hole. The impact can cause the shell to break up and thus not detonate
properly. Base slap also refers to when a shell hits a plate at such a large angle of obliquity that it starts to
ricochet. As the nose of the projectile bounces off, the base of the shell slams down onto the armor plate,
which again can cause it to break up or detonate prematurely. See "Hammer Action" below.
Batten Board - This

is a screen used for
bore-sighting guns
when a point target
is not available. The
board is set up at a
specific distance
from the gun or, as
can be seen on the
adjacent
photograph,
attached at a
specific point on the
gun barrel. On the
screen there will
usually be at least
four points, one for
the bore sight, one
for the trainer's
sight, one for the
pointer's sight and
one for the sight
checker's sight.
These points are
marked at exactly
the same distance
from each other that
they are on the gun
being boresighted.
See "Bore Sighting"
below.
Battle Ranges - The gun ranges at which navies expected to fight grew dramatically during the first half of the
twentieth century. By 1900, most navies considered 1,000 yards to be the maximum range at which battles
would be fought, although the 1898 Battle of Santiago during the Spanish-American War was fought at ranges

up to 9,500 yards. In 1903, the US Navy thought of 3,000 yards as being the probable battle range. Most of
the major naval battles in 1905 during the Russo-Japanese War took place at ranges between 3,000 and 9,000
yards. A British observer of those battles, Capt. William Pakenham, concluded that superior British gunnery
should allow fire to be opened at 20,000 yards and that 10,000 yards would be seen as close range. However,
in 1905 the famous battleship HMS Dreadnought was designed to fight at 6,000 yards. By 1907, US
battleships were being designed to fight at 8,000 to 10,000 yards. In December 1910 the Chief of the US
Bureau of Ordnance was quoted in Brassy as stating that 12,000 yards was the maximum battle limit as "at
15,000 yards all or nearly all of the actual hull of the [target] was below the horizon." This referred to the view
from turret gunsights; a spotter 90 feet up could see nearly twice as far. In 1911 the battleship USS Delaware
was able to repeatedly hit the obsolete USS San Marcos (ex-Texas) at 16,000 yards by utilizing such a spotter
technique. At the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915, British ships opened fire at ranges of about 20,000
yards and were able to score hits even though their range finders were inaccurate at any range over about
15,000 yards. The USS South Dakota (BB-49) class of 1918 was designed for battle at 18,000 yards or more
and when the North Carolina (BB-55) was designed in the mid-1930s, she was expected to open fire at 24,000
yards.
Battery
1) A weapon is said to be "in battery" when it is at rest in its mounting, ready for firing. This term comes from
the days of muzzle loading cannon where the gun was fired and was allowed to recoil back far enough such
that it could be swabbed, loaded, rammed and then moved forward back into firing position or "returned to
battery." See "run out," below.
2) All of the guns of a specific caliber on a particular ship. For example, the term "Main Battery" for USS Iowa
BB-61 refers to her nine 16-inch (40.64 cm) cannons while the term "Secondary Battery" refers to her 5 inch
(12.7 cm) guns.
3) All weapons that can be trained on a particular target, regardless of caliber.
Biting Angle - The maximum angle of obliquity where an AP projectile will penetrate an armor plate rather
than ricocheting.
Blowback
1) Unintended escape, to the rear and under pressure, of the propellant gasses. Blowback may be caused by
a defective breech mechanism, a ruptured cartridge or a faulty primer.
2) Gasses formed by burning propellant which are used to cycle the breech mechanism of gas-operated
automatic weapons.
Bore Premature - An explosive projectile detonating prior to leaving the gun barrel.

Bore Sighting - Aligning the bore of a gun with the gunsights. For guns that operate only in local control, this
is usually achieved by first inserting a bore telescope into the breech of the weapon. The gun is then aimed
until the bore sight is centered on a point target, preferably one that is at a similar distance where the gun
would be most effective. The gun sights then are adjusted until they are centered on the same target point.
See "Batten Board" above.
Bracket - A succession of two salvos, one over and one short or one left and one right, with no straddles.
Bracket Salvo - A method used to determine the range to a target. This procedure was extensively used by
the German Navy in both World Wars. As used by the Germans, three half salvos were fired. The first half
salvo was fired at the range determined by the rangefinder, the second at a range 400 meters too long and the
third at a range 400 meters too short. By seeing which half salvo lands closest to the target, the actual range
and bearing can be determined.
Broadside - Firing in a single salvo all guns that can bear on an abeam target. This may involve more than
one caliber of weapons.
CEP - Circular Error Probable. Although a friend of mine insists that it really stands for "Circle of Equal
Probability." Half of the data points fall within a circle of this radius centered on the MPI (or target, depending
upon the the subject), half lie outside of this circle. For example, for an eight shell salvo, the CEP would be the
radius of the circle containing the four shells that impacted closest to the MPI.
Chase Hooped - A method of strengthening weak gun barrels. Basically, this involves shrinking on additional
hoops over the chase of a gun barrel.
Clip - A length of metal which holds several rounds together for feeding into a weapon. The rounds are usually
stripped off the clip by the bolt as it cycles.
Cold Gun Correction - Refers to a correction for range for the first shot from a gun. The first round from a gun
falls slightly short due to the reduced friction caused by the oil used to swab the bore to keep it from rusting.
This reduced friction allows the projectile to move forward at a lower pressure than what occurs in a clean, dry
bore, and this lower pressure results in a lower muzzle velocity. Fire control systems have a built-in
adjustment for this condition.
Collective Fire - When the whole battery of a single ship, which may consist of more than one caliber, fires at
the same target.

Concentration Fire - When two or more ships fire on the same target.
Continuous Fire - Firing is not stopped for spots or corrections. Usually applies only to ships having
automatic control of guns or when the target solution is considered to be exceptionally good, such as when the
target has been repeatedly hit by previous salvos. See "Rapid Fire" and "Slow Fire" below.
Continuous Fire, Rapid - Each gun in each turret or at each position fires when loaded and ready without
waiting for the other guns.
Cook-off - Unintended firing of a weapon. A gun barrel becomes very hot after a prolonged period of firing.
This heat can cause propellant in the firing chamber to become hot enough to spontaneously combust and
thus unintentionally fire the weapon. This is one of the reasons why many automatic weapons are "bolt open"
designs that do not chamber a round until after the trigger mechanism is activated.
Copper Choke - Most projectiles of the twentieth century used copper driving bands. Copper deposits from
these driving bands can narrow down the bore, slowing subsequent projectiles and thus increasing the barrel
pressure to dangerous levels. Wire and Pisaba cleaning brushes were used to remove these deposits. See
"Fouling" and "Steel Choke" below.
COTS - Commercial Off The Shelf. Using existing components and technology rather than developing new
ones.
CTL - Constructive Total Loss. Something so badly damaged that it is uneconomical to repair it.
Cue Balling - One of the major "sailor alts" used to increase the rate of fire of 8 inch (20.3 cm) guns on US
World War II cruisers. This involved using the rammer at high speed to strike the projectile and bat it into the
breech. This meant that the rammer did not have to extend and retract past the much shorter and thus faster
acting powder bag ram position. This unofficial loading method increased the ROF of these weapons from the
standard 3 RPM up to 5 RPM, a significant improvement. The fact that the gun crews were able to do this on a
regular basis and not damage the mechanisms is a credit to the designers of the mountings, who over
engineered them to be resistant to such abuse.
DAMS and DEMS - British

designations meaning
"Defensively Armed
Merchant Ship," used during
World War I, and
"Defensively Equipped
Merchant Ship," used during
World War II. This
terminology was an attempt
by the British to circumvent
those treaty provisions that
allowed submarines to attack
any armed merchant ship
without warning.

Danger Space - That distance in front of the target, measured parallel to the line of fire, that the target could
be moved toward the firing point, so that a shot striking the base (waterline) of the target in its original position
would strike the top of the target in its new position. The flatter the trajectory, the greater the danger space.
See "Hitting Space," below.
Davis Gun - During World War I, the USN conducted a series of experiments in mounting larger caliber guns
on patrol aircraft for anti-submarine use. The "Davis non-recoil Guns" were 6-pdr (57 mm) and 3" (7.62 cm)
weapons having two barrels. The first barrel faced forward and fired a standard projectile while the second
barrel faced directly backwards and fired bird shot or buckshot. The weapon fired both barrels simultaneously,
thus negating the recoil motions. A Lewis machine-gun was mounted alongside these weapons to aid in
spotting.
Declination Marks - Scales painted on a turret mount to indicate to other ships in the formation the direction in
which the turret is pointing. See "Range Clocks," below.
Deflagration - Very rapid combustion sometimes accompanied by flame, sparks and/or spattering of burning
particles. Deflagration, although classed as an explosion, generally implies the burning of a substance with
self-contained oxygen so that the reaction zone advances into the unreacted material at less than the velocity
of sound in the material. In this case, heat is transferred from the reacted to the unreacted material by
conduction and convection. Burning rate is usually less than 2,000 meters / second.
Deflection - Lateral angular correction applied to target bearing to bring fire onto a target. Most targets move,
so it is necessary to "lead" them so that the projectile will arrive at their future position. See "LOF" and "LOS"
below.
Detonation, Low Order - The condition when a bursting charge does not fully combust or combusts
inefficiently. This can be the result of a projectile being damaged when striking the target, such as when an AP
projectile passes through armor.
Dispersion - The distance from the point of impact of a particular projectile to the MPI of the salvo. Dispersion
in range is measured parallel to the line of fire and dispersion in deflection is measured at right angles to the
line of fire. A Dispersion Pattern is the combining of all the impact points of a particular salvo.
Drift, Angular - The angle between the bore axis and the target. See "LOF" and "Trajectory" below.
Drift, Linear - The lateral deviation of a projectile in flight caused by the rotation of the projectile. See "LOF"
and "Trajectory" below.
Elevation - Moving a gun along its vertical axis.
Equal Section Charge - Propellant charge made up of a number of small charges equal in size. Making
multiple small individual charges makes them easier to handle than one large charge. The number of sections
used determines the muzzle velocity and range of the projectile.
Erosion - Wearing away of a bore due to combined effect of gas washing, scouring and mechanical abrasion.
The greatest source of wear is from the propellant gasses, which corrode the rifling via heat and chemical
action.

FCS - Fire Control System. This usually refers to all elements involved in pointing the guns at a target from the
range finder to the rangekeeper to the elevating and training mechanisms for the guns themselves.
Feed - How ammunition is supplied to a weapon.
FKC - Fuze Control Clock. A simplified version of the British HACS. See HACS essay on the Technical Board
for further information.
Flare-back - When a gun is fired, smoldering remnants and unburned propellant or propellant gasses can be
left in the chamber. When the gun breech is opened, the sudden infusion of oxygen can cause these to ignite,
sending flame back into the gun housing. Many large caliber weapons used a purging system which injected
nitrogen gas into the chamber shortly after the gun was fired in order to extinguish and expel such particles. In
movies or pictures of USN 16 inch (40.64 cm) guns, this nitrogen purging can be seen as a small puff of smoke
that is emitted a few seconds after the gun fires.
Fouling - Deposits of metal in the bore of a gun from the jackets or rotating bands of projectiles. Sometimes
also known as "copper choking." In the days of black powder guns, this was also the term used for the residue
left in the gun barrel from unburned gunpowder.
fps - Feet per second.
GFCS - Gunfire Control System.
Gun Index / Turret Efficiency - Guns in multiple mounts always lose efficiency as compared with the same
number of guns in single mounts. This is a factor of reduced rate of fire, handling awkwardness, interference
between guns, fire control, salvo problems and so forth. To account for these factors, there is a gun-index rule
of thumb that goes like this: A twin mount is roughly 1.75 times as effective a single mount, a triple mount is
roughly 2.5 times as effective as a single mount and a quadruple mount is roughly 3.125 times as effective as a
single mount.
Gun Jump - Defined as the variation in the angle between the gun bore axis and the effective line of projectile
departure. Round-to-round variations in the line of departure result from movement of the gun barrel during
firing and round-to-round changes in barrel droop due to thermal heating. Investigations have shown that one
of the primary causes of gun jump is bending oscillations during firing. Optical measurements have shown that
gun barrels are driven into high frequency oscillation caused by the changes in gas pressure as the projectile
travels down the barrel. This means that the particular oscillation phase existing at the instant when the
projectile exits the barrel is passed on to the projectile. The barrel oscillation has the effect of causing the
projectile to leave the muzzle at an angle (relative to the original axis of the bore) corresponding to the
instantaneous oscillation phase. In addition, the projectile is given a transverse velocity which is proportional to
the angular velocity of the barrel. Thus, gun jump has both a horizontal and vertical component. The
horizontal component generally varies by one to two minutes of angle from round-to-round and accounts for a
large part of the deflection dispersion. The mean of the horizontal component is generally zero; therefore
allowance for it is not made in firing tables nor in the aim of the gun. The component of jump in the vertical
plane does not average zero, as barrel droop changes with gun elevation, which changes the frequency of
oscillation and the transverse velocity; therefore these effects are accounted for in firing tables and the aim of
the gun.
HACS - High Altitude Control System. A series of British analog anti-aircraft fire control computers and

directors of the late 1920s - 1940s period. See HACS essay on the Technical Board for further information.
Hammer Action - When a shell hits armor plate at a large angle of obliquity (usually about 25 to 30 degrees)
there is a tendency for the shell to bend or whiplash as the nose of the shell abruptly slows down before the
base does. This can cause the shell to break up, detonate prematurely or fail to penetrate. The name comes
from the similarity of using a hammer to hit a nail head at an angle, rather than straight on. The nail usually
gets bent over, rather than being driven into the wood. See "Base Slap" above.
Hangfire and Misfire - A hangfire is when there is an unexpected delay between when the trigger is pulled
and the gun actually fires. This may be due to a slow burning primer, or, for bag guns, the powder bag may
have been loaded backwards or it may have become crooked during loading, so there is a delay while the fire
burns from the back of the bag to where the ignition pad is located. A misfire is when there is a complete
failure to fire. It is impossible to tell a hangfire from a misfire until the gun breech is opened and the
ammunition examined. For bag guns, an ember on the powder bag might smolder for a long time, so it is
common practice to wait for 30 minutes before opening the breech.
Hitting Space - The distance behind the target, measured parallel to the line of fire, that a projectile striking the
top of the target will strike the horizontal plane through the base (waterline) of the target. It may also include a
distance in front of the target within which impacts are likely to produce underwater or ricochet hits upon the
target. In other words, the hitting space is the distance between the point where a shell falling short of a target
will start to inflict damage and the point at which a shell falling long of a target will stop inflicting damage. The
greater the angle of fall, the smaller the hitting space. At long ranges, danger space and hitting space are
about the same size, but at short distances the danger space is larger than the hitting space. See "Danger
Space" above.
HSMST - High Speed Maneuvering Surface Target.
Inclined - During an inclination test, a set of standard weights are run on rails across the beam of the ship.
The amount of tilt (inclination) caused by moving the weights a certain amount can be used in calculations to
determine how much the ship weighs. Various other factors - such as weight distribution fore and aft - can also
be determined by moving the weights back and forth.
Indirect Fire - Firing at a target that cannot be seen. Usually refers to shore bombardments.
IS - Initial Salvo Error. The distance that the first salvo missed the target.
Killer Tomato - A large orange floating balloon that is used as a target during USN live fire targeting exercises.
Ladder Salvo - Also called "Ranging Salvo." When a ship is firing at a target and isn't quite sure of the range,
what the gunnery officer will often do is elevate each gun or group of guns slightly differently. This makes each
shell land a little farther along than the last one. By watching to see which shell hit or landed closest to the
target, the range can be determined more accurately. During World War II, the procedure for the new US
battleships was to fire all nine guns as a ranging salvo, a typical pattern being one group (three guns from one
turret) at 200 yards (180 m) up from the initial range estimate, one group at 200 yards (180 m) down and one
group at 400 yards (370 m) down. There was also a timing difference between groups to avoid confusion
between the shell splashes. Once the range had been found, the ship would then switch over to rapid fire, with
the guns firing as they were ready.
Laying - As in "Laying the Guns." Setting the elevation and train of the guns such that the shells will land on

target.
Lead Angle - The

difference between LOS
and LOF is referred to as
the "Lead Angle."
Local Control - All guns follow the target with their telescope or open sights and fire locally. Values of range,
deflection, and fuze settings are determined at the guns.
LOF - Line of Fire. The bearing and elevation you aim the weapon at to deliver fire onto the target's future
position. Same as "Laying the Guns."
LOS - Line of Sight. The direct line between your weapon and the target's present position.
Measurement Units
● Distance - Until relatively recently, a nautical mile was defined by Britain to be exactly 6,080 feet
(1,853.184 m) long while the USA defined a nautical mile as being 6,080.2 feet (1,853.249 m) long. In
1929, the International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference defined an "International Nautical Mile"
as being exactly 1,852 meters (6,076.115 feet) in length. This standard was adopted by the USA in
1954 and by Britain in 1970. Under any of these standards, a nautical mile has been traditionally
rounded off by English-speakers to 2,000 yards (1,828.8 m). When one reads in a British or USA
publication of something being ten nautical miles away, it usually means a distance of 20,000 yards
(18,288 m). A cable is usually defined as being one-tenth (0.1) of a nautical mile, although there is no

internationally recognized definition.

● Length - From 1893 until 1959, the United States of America defined one meter to be exactly equal to
39.370 inches. This meant that the USA inch was equal to 2.54000508 cm. During that same period,
Great Britain defined an Imperial inch to be equal to a 1/500,000 part of Earth's polar diameter, which
meant that an Imperial inch was equal to 2.5399772 cm. This difference between USA and Imperial
inches meant, for example, that a 16-inch gun designed in the USA prior to 1959 would have had a
slightly larger bore than a 16-inch gun designed in Britain. In 1959, both nations adopted the
"international inch" standard which defined one inch to be exactly equal to 2.540 cm. On my datapages,
the inch to metric conversion and vice versa is always given in international inch units.
● Weight - In the USA and Britain, the displacement of a ship or the weight of a major ship component
such as a turret was usually stated in "long tons" which is a measurement unit equal to 2,240 lbs.
(1,016.047 kg). Other nations generally used "metric tonnes" for these purposes, which are 1,000 kg or
2,204.623 lbs. each. On my data pages, weights given in "tons" are long tons, while those given in "mt"
are metric tonnes. It may be assumed that one British "Imperial" pound is essentially equivalent to one
USA "avoirdupois" pound at any time after 1883, as the differences between them were trivial (about
1/10,000,000), although they were not officially made exactly equal until the United Kingdom approved
the Weights and Measures Act of 1963.
Mil - A unit of angular measurement, equal to 1/6,400 of a circle. In fire control, one mil may be assumed to
approximately subtend a distance of 1/1,000 the range to the target.
MPI - Mean Point of Impact. The statistical midpoint of a salvo of projectiles. For example, if a circle is drawn
around the shell splashes created by a single salvo, then the MPI would be the center point of that circle.
mps - Meters per second.
Muzzle Energy - The kinetic energy of a projectile as it leaves the muzzle of the gun. This is a product of the
projectile's mass and velocity as calculated by the formula: ME = 0.5 * Mass * Velocity * Velocity. Muzzle
energy should not be confused with momentum, which is calculated with the formula: Momentum = Mass *
Velocity.
Muzzle Flash - Fireball seen when a gun fires. This glare is primarily the result of the ignition of unburned
propellant gases as they exit the muzzle of the gun and mix with atmospheric oxygen. See Muzzle Flash
essay on the Technical Board for further information.
NGFS or NGS - Naval Gunfire Support.
NSFS - Naval Surface Fire Support. Includes surface-to-surface missiles and other ship-borne ordnance as
well as gunfire.
Offset Firing - A live firing exercise where a deflection error is entered into the calculations such that the
projectiles land a predetermined distance to the left or right of the target ship.
OrdAlt - Ordnance Alteration. USN Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd) document describing a change to an existing
weapon, ammunition, mounting, etc.
Ordinate - Any point along a projectile's ballistic path. "Maximum Ordinate" is the highest point (apogee or
summit) that the projectile attains during its flight.

Optronic - A combination of the words OPtical and elecTRONIC. Usually refers to an optical gunsight which
has some means of computer-assisted aiming.
Parbuckling Gear - As used in USA ships, a projectile moving system using powered capstans and ropes.
"Parbuckling" is the process of moving the projectiles out of stowage and onto the shell hoists.
Pattern - The pattern of a salvo in range is that distance measured parallel to the line of fire between the shot
that lands at the greatest distance and that that lands at the shortest distance, excluding wild shots. The
pattern of a salvo in deflection is the distance measured at right angles to the line of fire between the salvo
landing farthest to the right and that landing the farthest to the left, excluding wild shots.
Pisaba Brush - Gun barrel cleaning device made with bristles from a type of palm frond. Usually mounted on
a long pole or has ropes attached to each end so that it can be pushed and pulled through the gun barrel.
POH - Probability of Hit.
Proof or Proofed - As in "proof test."

1) After a gun is manufactured and has passed visual and non-firing tests, it is taken out to a gun range where
it is fired with charges well above the maximum service charge. A gun having passed these tests is said to
have been "proofed" or "proof tested." Proof testing for US Army cannons today consists of firing three
standard rounds through the gun and then one "super slug." The standard rounds subject the cannon to
typical stresses, while the super slug inflicts more severe stresses on the cannon than it would normally
experience during its service life.
2) When ammunition is manufactured, a representative sample of each lot is fired to determine if it meets
specification.
Range Clocks or Concentration Dials - In many ship photographs taken between about 1910 and 1940,
there are what appear to be large clocks on the front and rear superstructures or masts. These are actually
devices to tell the other ships in the formation at what range that ship is firing at. Together with Declination
Marks, these mechanisms allowed the other ships in the formation, whose view of the target may be obscured
by fog, gun smoke or funnel smoke, to have their guns at the proper elevation and bearing when their view
becomes unobstructed. This greatly reduced the time needed before they were ready to fire. The introduction
of radar and better ship-to-ship communication methods in the late 1930s eliminated the need for these
devices and they were removed from most ships by the start of World War II or shortly thereafter.
Range, Gun and Navigational - Gun Range is the range set on the gunsights to obtain a hit. Navigational
Range is the geometric distance between the firing ship and the target at the moment of firing. As the
movement of both the firing ship and the target affects the point of impact, these two ranges are seldom the
same. These parameters are usually resolved by the firing ship's ballistic computer.
Range, Maximum - A gun does not always achieve its maximum range at an elevation of 45 degrees. This is
because air friction will always alter the ballistic path that a projectile takes. For example, when large caliber
guns with high muzzle velocities are fired at elevations greater than 45 degrees, their projectiles pass through
thinner, more rarefied air. This reduces the air's total resistive effect on the projectiles throughout their flight
time, allowing them to achieve greater ranges as a result.
Range, Slant
1) The distance in a straight line to an airborne object. In other words, the length of the hypotenuse of a
triangle formed by the horizontal and vertical distances to the object.

2) The maximum distance a projectile can travel before it reaches its highest altitude (apogee). This is useful
in gauging the performance of AA weapons as it represents the reasonable maximum range that an aircraft or
missile can be engaged.
Range Finders, Optical - There are two basic types of optical rangefinders used on ships, coincidence and
stereoscopic. The coincidence type splits the view into two separate sections, usually one above the other.
The observer adjusts the rangefinder controls so as to move the two views into alignment in order to get the
correct range. The stereoscopic type works like binocular vision. If you do not have your eyes focused
correctly, then the object you are looking at is blurred or doubled. When your eyes are focused correctly, the
object appears clear and you have a good idea of the distance to that object. Stereoscopic rangefinders
operate in a similar fashion. There are two separate images, one for each eye, that must be blended together
in order to get the correct range. In USN systems, there were small diamond marks on the borders that were
"moved" forwards or backwards until they appeared to be in focus at the same range as the target.
Stereoscopic rangefinders generally give better results and are harder to "spoof" than coincidence
rangefinders, but they require special aptitudes and a high degree of concentration on the part of the operator.
Rangekeeper - USN term for analog computers used in the first half of the twentieth century to calculate firing
solutions. Replaced by simply "computer" in modern times.
Rapid Fire - The director fires whenever a certain number of turrets are ready. In case of rapid fire guns this is
synonymous with continuous fire. See "Slow Fire" below.
RCS - Radar cross section. The measure of a target's ability to reflect radar signals in the direction of the
radar receiver. The larger this value, the more energy that is reflected back to the radar receiver.
Ready-use Ammunition - Ammunition stored close to a gun instead of in a magazine. For larger guns located
in open mounts, the rounds may be stored in bullet-proof steel lockers or racks. Many smaller guns have the
ready rounds clipped to the inside of the gun shield for easy access.
Reduced charge - Smaller than normal amount of propellant. These may be used for target shells as they
reduce the amount of barrel wear per shot. They are also useful for shore bombardment missions, as the
lower muzzle velocity and shorter range resulting when using these charges means an increased angle of fall
and thus an increased horizontal penetration capability. This is also useful in striking reverse-slope defenses.
Rocking Ladder - "Walking" the point of aim back and forth across the target, thus allowing for small errors in
the firing solution. Often used for rapid fire and automatic weapons.
Run-out - The process of returning guns to battery after they have fired and recoiled. This term originates
from the days of muzzle loading cannon where the cannons had to be withdrawn into the ship to be loaded and
the crews had to then manually move the cannon back out the gun ports before they could be fired. Most large
caliber weapons designed since 1880 utilize hydraulic and pneumatic run out systems although many smaller
weapons such as machine guns use springs.
Safety Rails - On many warships with light, manually worked automatic weapons such as the 20 mm Oerlikon,
there will be a railed structure surrounding the weapon. These are used to prevent the gun from being pointed
in certain directions and thus prevent the gunner from accidentally firing into the ship itself. See "Wooded"
below.
Sailor Alt - USN term meaning an unauthorized change to standard practice. See "Cue balling" and "OrdAlt"

above.
Salvo - When two or more guns are fired.
Salvos, Half and Double - In some action accounts of British warships, there are references to "half salvos,"
"double salvos" and "broadsides." In this context, a half salvo is when one gun from each turret is fired. A
double salvo is when one gun from each turret is fired, followed a few seconds later by the other gun in each
turret. A broadside is when all guns are fired simultaneously. Half salvos were generally used for ranging
purposes while double salvos were used once the range was known. Double salvos had the advantage of
reducing shell interference at a cost of some lateral dispersion caused by the turret rotating under the off-axis
force.
Siacci Method - A method of determing approximate ballistic performance developed in the late 1880s by
Cornal Francesco Siacci of Italy. This method is useful only for low-angle trajectories (<15 degrees) and is
commonly used today for calculating the performance of rifle-caliber bullets. The method reduces the
calculations for a low-angle trajectory to an easily tabulated quadrature giving distance, time, inclination (flight
path angle) and altitude (height) in terms of a "pseudo-velocity".
Slow Fire - Firing a salvo only after the one before it has landed and its spot has been applied to the firing
solution. See "Rapid Fire" above.
Spall - Fragments broken from either surface of a barrier. For example, fragments broken from an armor plate
as the result of projectile penetration, impact or detonation against the plate.
Steel Choke - Refers to a type of flaw found in British guns of the late 19th and early 20th century. "Choke" is
a reference to a type of shotgun barrel, where the muzzle is deliberately reduced in size and shape in order to
give a more desirable pattern spread. As the British started to use larger castings for their guns during the late
19th century, problems arose caused by the uneven cooling of the metal. One of these problems was that of
the inner A tube closing in near the muzzle and then cracking. This was a result of longitudinal stresses in the
tube being concentrated at the foremost locating shoulder. Various makeshift arrangements, including such
things as cannelured rings to support the castings, improved the situation somewhat, but the problem was
never really corrected until the introduction of a slow taper fit between the inner A and A tubes and changing
the position of the locating shoulders of the A tube well back so as to better distribute the stress patterns. The
later versions of the 13.5 in/45 (34.3 cm) Mark V were the first guns built with this solution. A similar "steel
choke" problem was found on many older gun designs after prolonged firing. As in most guns, the continual
drag of the projectile driving bands caused the liners of these guns to be gradually stretched forward. The
resulting projection at the muzzle could be simply cut off, but in addition the liners began to form a ridge in the
bore near the shoulders of the outer A tube. This ridge, sometimes known as "copper choke" as it tended to
accumulate copper from the projectile driving bands, narrowed the bore and could cause enough drag to
initiate the projectile fuze, with the result that a premature detonation would occur either within the bore or
shortly after the projectile exited the muzzle. While this ridge could be filed down, the only permanent solution
was to fit the guns with a new liner having a different arrangement of the internal shoulders and rifling.
Straddle - When a salvo lands on each side or all around the target but no hits are scored.
Star gauge - A simple measuring tool used for large caliber guns to determine the amount of liner wear at the
start of the rifling in front of the forcing cone. This measurement is used to calculate the amount of liner life
remaining.

Striking Angle - The angle at which a projectile hits a plate of armor. Perpendicular, with the axis of the
projectile at right angles to the plate, is usually defined as being 90 degrees. With this definition, the striking
angle is then the reciprocal of the angle of obliquity. In other words, if the striking angle is 50 degrees, then the
angle of obliquity is 40 degrees.
Superelevation or Super Elevation - The angle the gun must be elevated above the line of sight in order to
compensate for the effect of gravity acting on the projectiles in flight. See "Trajectory" below.
Swedish Additive - A mixture of titanium dioxide and wax that greatly reduces barrel wear. This mixture was
extensively used aboard the US Iowa class battleships during their last activations where it was credited with at
least quadrupling the liner life.
Synchronizing Time - The length of time required for a gun mounting to move to the elevation and train
positions being sent from fire control.
Tachymetric - Literally means speed measurement, but in the British Royal Navy of the World War II era this
word was used to describe a fire control system that automatically predicted the future position of an aircraft
target in three dimensions.
Target Salvo - When the target's range is accurately known, all guns are fired at the same elevation, which
makes all the shells land close together. This greatly increases the chance of a hit.
TNT - Tri-nitro-toulene.
Train
1) Moving a gun or mounting along its horizontal axis. Also called "traverse" or "traversing."
2) A line of gunpowder leading to an explosive charge within a shell. Usually called "explosive train."
Trajectory - The path followed by a projectile in flight.
Ward-Leonard System - An adjustable speed drive for electric motors. Used for RPC, this system controls

the DC voltages to the armature and the magnetic field strength with a simple algorithm, in which the desired
torque and the magnetizing field strength served as command inputs. This system not only furnishes a very
flexible and rapid control of heavy machinery, but also eliminates the power loss associated with the use of
rheostats.
Wear Gauge - A truncated cone used on smaller guns to determine the liner life remaining. This is inserted
into the breech end of the weapon.
Wild Shot - A projectile that lands abnormally far in deflection or range from the MPI.
"Wooded" and "Wooding" - When a gun or gun sight is pointed in a direction where its LOF or LOS is
blocked by the ship's structure. This term comes from when ships were built of wood.
From "Ghostrider One" by Gerry Carroll, published by Simon & Schuster © 1993:
Battleships - Even though these great warships do not figure in this novel at all, I can't resist commenting on
them. From the earliest days of naval warfare, even the dumbest commanders have known that the thing
which is the number-one most important gotta-have-it asset in a fight is weight of metal on the enemy. You
can screw up the tactics, but if you've got the biggest guns and the heaviest shells coming down on the bad
guys accurately, you will probably win. There are all sorts of annoying exceptions to this rule, but it still holds
most of its water.
The BBs were the rulers of the sea up until the Japanese took their little trip to Hawaii in 1941, then were
supplanted by the carriers (out of sheer necessity since the American battleships had been abruptly turned into
hazards to navigation). The battleships were relegated to a supporting roll and, except for getting dragged out
of mothballs for every war we've had since World War II, were pretty much finished.
In the eighties, we recommissioned all four of our Iowa class battleships and deployed them around the world.
They carried sixteen-inch guns and fired rounds weighing around 2,700 pounds apiece. The effect was like
shooting an entire showroom full of Ford Escorts, packed with high explosive, about twenty-five miles. When
the rounds hit, they made instant holes in civilization that were the size of tennis courts. I got to see the New
Jersey fire a broadside at somebody in Beirut once, and I still haven't found the words to describe it.
This was also effective because the people who were fired upon immediately quit annoying their neighbors and
repaired to their graves. The surviving terrorists went home for an underwear change and all was quiet for
awhile.
The battleships have all been mothballed again now and it doesn't seem the same anymore. When one sees a
battleship steaming along, one is seeing Navy and all that that meant through the centuries. There is no
weapon on earth that will make a little tinpot dictator sit up and take notice like a battleship slowly cruising off
his coast well out of pistola range with her guns trained on his presidential palace. It sort of gives him a little
peek at his relative importance in the grand scheme of things. If that peek stops one firefight, however small,
or saves one life, or ensures the fairness of one election, then the battleship has earned her keep.
But, since those things usually happen outside the Capital Beltway, and Dan Rather doesn't mention them,
they matter not at all to the geniuses in Washington. Those events have no bearing on the next election, and
every congressman knows that money to measure the effect of cow farts on the ozone layer is far more

important than wasting it on a battleship. They're quite correct, too. It'll help next year, when the bill to teach
cows to say "excuse me" comes out of committee.
Click Here for other Articles about Weapons and Weapon Technology at the Technical Board
Click Here for an Off-Site Listing of other USA Military Acronyms
Click Here for an Off-Site Listing of Shipyard and Ship part definitions
Still have a question? Post a note at our Help Bulletin Board and I'll try to answer it.
Back to "Gun Data" Part 1 - Guns and Mountings
Back to "Gun Data" Part 2 - Ammunition, Fuzes and Projectiles

German Ammunition, Guns and Mountings Definitions
German Ammunition, Guns and Mountings

Definitions
By Tony DiGiulian
Updated: 05 November 2005
This document defines the German abbreviations, designations and terms that are found on
these German Naval Gun pages. Thanks to M.J. Whitley, who provided many of these
abbreviations, and to Peter Lienau, who provided several translations.
Ammunition
Geschoss - Projectile
Granate - Shell
Sprenggranate - Explosive shell
Leucht geschoss or Lg. - Star shell or illumination projectile.
Leuchtspur - Tracer.
Patrone - Cartridge.
Pfeilgeschoss - Arrow Shell. A fin-stabilized HE projectile.
Psgr. - Panzersprenggranate. Armor Piercing shell (AP or APC).
Spr.gr. Bdz. - Sprenggranate mit Bodenzünder. HE with Base Fuze.
Spr.gr. Kz - Sprenggranate mit Kopfzünder. HE with Nose Fuze.
Spr.gr. Bdz u. Kz - Sprenggranate mit Bodenzünder und Kopfzünder. HE with both Base and
Nose Fuzes.
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L (as in "L4,2") - Lange. "Length." The length of the projectile in calibers (multiples of the
diameter of the projectile).
(mh) or (mhb) or (m.Hb) - mit haube. "Cap." This term is used to designate a projectile that
has a windscreen (ballistic cap).
Ad.gr. - Adolph granate. Special projectile for the 40 cm SKC/34 coastal artillery guns known
as "Adolph."
Si.gr. - Siegfried granate. Special projectile for the 38 cm SKC/34 coastal artillery guns known
as "Siegfried."
Hauptkartüsche - "Main Charge." Most German guns of 8 inches (20.3 cm) and larger caliber
had the propellant divided into two parts, the "fore charge" in a silk bag (see below) and the
"main charge" in a brass cartridge. These were usually rammed together. Brass cartridge
cases were replaced by steel during the war.
Vorkartüsche - "Fore Charge." This was in a double silk bag. During World War I, it was
common to use double brass bands to stiffen the bag, but this was abandoned prior to World
War II as it was believed that metallic deposits in the bores had caused split liners.
RP - Rohr-Pulver. "Tube powder," the descriptive designation given to German gun

propellants. These propellants were manufactured in the form of hollow tubes. The
propellants were classified by model year and by the external and internal diameters of the
tubes in millimeters. For example, "RP C/38 (14/4.9)" meant a tube powder first introduced in
1938 that had an external diameter of 14 mm (0.551 in) and an internal diameter of 4.9 mm
(0.193 in). There were several compositions used from 1912 to 1945. Earlier ones used
nitroglycerin while later ones used diethylene glycol dinitrate which was cooler-burning and
less bore erosive. All were resistant to exploding even when exposed to a hot fire. For
instance, the small battleship Gneisenau was bombed at Kiel in 1942 and had over 23 tons (24
mt) of propellant ignited in a forward magazine. There was no explosion even though turret
"Anton" was lifted at least 20 inches (50 cm) from its mounting by the gas pressure. The
British did extensive studies of RP C/12 after World War I and developed "Solventless
Cordite" (SC) based upon the results.
Wolfram - Tungsten.
World War I Muzzle Velocities - German range tables for this period were developed for
muzzle velocites using propellant temperatures of 15 degrees Centigrade (59 degrees
Fahrenheit) and those velocities are used throughout my webpages. As the actual propellant
temperature was about 10 degrees higher, about 10 mps (30 fps) should be added to the

muzzle velocities given for German 28 cm through 38 cm guns.
Guns
C - Construktionsjahr. "Year of Construction." Year that design or manufacturing started.

Usually shown with a number, such as "C/38" meaning that design was started in 1938. This
was also spelled as "Konstruktionsjahr" and some Krupp guns purchased by Austria-Hungary
in the 19th century used a "K" instead of a "C" in the designation.
FLAK - FliegerAbwehrKanone. Literally means "Flier Defense Cannon." Designation used for
AA weapons (FLAK guns). During World War I, this term was used by Allied airmen to
describe the shell bursts from such weapons, which has become the current accepted
meaning of the term.
Gerät - "Equipment." Used to identify experimental weapons during World War II. Usually
used together with an identifying number.
KM - Kanone Marine. "Naval Cannon." Usually followed by the year in which it was designed.
For example, "KM42" meant a naval gun designed in 1942. This designation system was used
for some guns designed between 1940 and 1945.
L (as in "L/45") - Lange. "Length." Length of the gun barrel in multiples of the bore diameter.
SK - Schnelladekanone or Schnellfeurkanone. "Fast Firing Cannon," equivalent to QF or RF.

Also listed as being for "Schiffskanone" or "Ship Cannon." Usually followed by the year in
which it was designed. For example, "SK C/34" meant that the weapon was designed in
1934. This designation system was used for most guns designed between 1920 and 1940.
TBK - Torpedoboots Kanone. "Torpedo Boat Cannon." Also shown as "Tbts K."
UBK - Untersee-Boots Kanone. "U-boat Cannon." Also shown as "Ubts K."
Mountings
BSG - Bettungschiess-Gerüst. "Platform firing framework." These were mountings for large

caliber guns used as coastal artillery and resembled a railway mounting without the rail
bogies. They were supported on a concrete platform by a central pivot and ball race with a
roller or bogie at the rear running on a circular arc.
Dopp MPL - Doppelt Mittel-Pivot-Lafette. "Twin central pivot mounting."
DrhL - Drehscheiben-Lafette. "Turntable mounting." Generally used for turret mountings.
Drh Tr - Drehturm. Another abbreviation for "Turret."
Kst.Drh.L - Küsten-Drehscheiben-Lafette. "Coastal turntable (turret) mounting." A type of

mounting for coastal artillery weapons.
MPL - Mittel-Pivot-Lafette. "Central pivot mounting."
Schiessgerät - "Firing Equipment." Description used for some coastal artillery mountings.
.
For other definitions and information, see Gun Data
.
Back to the German Naval Guns Page

Japanese Ammunition, Guns and Mountings Definitions
Japanese Ammunition, Guns and Mountings

Definitions
By Tony DiGiulian
Updated: 11 May 2006
This document defines abbreviations, designations and terms for Japanese ammunition and
guns.
Ammunition
Dan, Dangan or Hôdan - Shell or projectile
Eiryôdan or Eikôdan - Tracer Shell
Endan - Smoke shell
Enshûdan - Exercise (inert training) projectile
Jigen Enshûdan - Times Exercise (time fuzed) projectile
Mokuhyôdan - Target Shell
Seidan (before 1938) or Shômeidan A (after 1938) - Illumination (star) shell without
parachute
Shômeidan B - Illumination (star) shell with parachute
Ryûsandan - Shrapnel shell
Shôi ryûsandan (Sankaidan) - Incendiary shrapnel shell (Fragmentation)
Tekkôdan - Armor Piercing (AP) projectile
Hibô Tekkôdan - Capped Armor Piercing (APC) projectile
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Tsûjôdan - Common projectile
Hibô tsûjôdan - Capped Common projectile
Shôi tsûjôdan - Incendiary-common
Chakushokudan - "Pillar coloring shell." Shell containing a dye for coloring the splash.
Chakuhatsu Shinkan - Percussion fuze
Dan shinkan - Shell fuze
Dantei Shinkan - Base fuze
Dantô Shinkan - Nose fuze
Fukudô Shinkan - Double action fuze (instantaneous and timed)
Kikai jigen shinkan - Time fuze
Sakuyaku - Bursting Charge (inside projectile)
Bakuyaku - Explosive
Sôyaku - Propellant charge
Jô sôyaku - Full charge
Jaku sôyaku - Reduced charge
Gen sôyaku - Light or half charge
Kyô sôyaku - Heavy or proof charge
Kayaku - Powder (gunpowder, propellant powder)

Bursters - The following description is adapted from "Japanese Cruisers of the Pacific War" by
Eric Lacroix and Linton Wells II: Shimose was adopted during World War I. Like most
bursters derived from picric acid, the Japanese found that shells using this had a tendency
towards premature detonation. Following the end of the war, the Japanese obtained a quantity
of German AP shells which used a TNT - beeswax mixture for the burster (Fülpulver C/02)
enclosed in a "pulp" mantle as a dampener and a wooden plug at the top of the explosive
cavity which acted as a buffer against the impact shock. Based upon this knowledge, the
Japanese developed a similar enclosure made of hardended stone plaster pulp and parafin
and the burster was changed to a mixture of wax with Shimose. This development was in an
advanced stage by 1922 when the Japanese purchased some AP shells from the British
armament firm of Hadfields, Ltd., Sheffield, in order to examine the latest British
improvements. Lessons learned from this examination and from live-fire experiements against
were incorporated into the new shell designs and this was finalized in June 1925 an adopted
as the 5 Gô hibo tekkodan (No. 5 APC). These shells still had some degree of premature or
low-order detonations, and in 1928 they were replaced with the Type 88 (Model 1928) which
had an improved container for the burster among other improvements. A few years later in
1931, the Japanese adopted TNA (tri-nitro-anisol), which was more stable explosive than
shimose. This burster was designated as Type 91 bakuyaku (Model 1931 Explosive) and was
used for the Type 91 APC and Type 1 APC shells during World War II.
Propellants - Cordite in various forms was used by the Japanese from about 1890 to the end
of World War II. Different formulations were used, most containing about 30 percent
nitroglycerin and 65 percent nitrocellulose with the remainder being stabilizers. Nominal
diameters of the cords were given in units of 0.1 mm (0.004"). For example, DC80 would be
cordite with cords of 8 mm (0.315") diameter.
Powder Bags - Powder bags appear to have been made from wool up to 1942 at which time
silk ones were introduced.
Guns
Hô - Gun
Kiju - Machine Gun
Kôkei - Caliber (bore)
Kôsha-Hô - High Angle (AA) Gun

Shiki - Type (year designation)
Sokusha-hô - Quick Firing Gun (QF)
Imported Gun Designations

Many European armament firms built guns for the Japanese Navy during the late 1800s and
early 1900s. Some of the more famous ones are listed below.
Antotokuryû hô - AN Type Gun (British Armstrong)
HI hô - HI Type Gun (British Vickers), this is also translated as "BI"
Kanot (?) hô - KA Type gun (French Canet)
Kuryôhaku hô - Koku Type Gun (German Krupp)
Ruizu kiju - RU MG (Lewis MG)
.
.
Back to the Japanese Naval Guns Page

USA 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 45 Mods 0 - 2
United States of America

5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 45 Mods 0 - 2
Updated 20 June 2006
Fully automatic, this lightweight gun system offers significant improvements in

reliability and maintainability over the previous 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 42 gun
systems. The mount is unmanned above deck and all mechanisms have been
greatly simplified. It is claimed that this is the lightest 5-in (12.7 cm) mount in the
world, however, it is also one of the slowest firing. The gun-house is watertight
and has zone-temperature controlled de-icing of the gunport. Misfired rounds are
automatically removed. Mod 0 required special procedures in order to change
ammunition types. The Mod 1 version incorporated a major improvement in that
it is able to select and fire six different kinds of ammunition at the push of a
button, thus increasing the speed at which it can respond to changing threats.
Mod 0 used a mechanical fuze setter while Mod 1 has an electronic fuze setter.
The Mark 45 is controlled by either the Mark 86 Gun Fire Control System or the
Mark 160 Gun Computing System and can engage surface, shore or aircraft
targets.
This weapon system has been exported to Australia, New Zealand, Greece, Spain,
Turkey and Thailand.
The Mark 45 is being used as the basis for the Navy/DNA electro-thermal
chemical (ETC) advanced technology demonstration. ETC propulsion is a rapidly
maturing technology which offers greatly enhanced velocities and ranges from
traditional gun designs. ETC upgrade is a future option for the Mark 45 as well as
for new gun applications.
The Mark 19 Mod 0 is a two-piece with replaceable liner, Mod 1 is a one piece
design. Improved metallurgy gives this weapon about twice the service life of the
Mark 18.
Nomenclature note: In the late 1940s, the USA changed from designating guns
by the gun itself over to the gun mounting. "Mark 45" is actually the gun mount
designation, the gun itself is the Mark 19 and is an improved version of the
previous 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 18 gun used with the Mark 42 Mount.
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_5-54_mk45.htm (1 of 7)7/20/2006 15:18:05

USA 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 45 Mods 0 - 2
USS Cowpens CG-63 in February 2001

US Navy Photograph No. 010208-N-8421M-009
.
Click here for additional pictures
.
.

USA 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 45 Mods 0 - 2
Gun Characteristics
.
5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 19 (Gun)
Designation
5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 45 (Mount)
California (CGN-36), Virginia (CGN-38), Ticonderoga (CG-47),
Ship Class Used On Arleigh Burke (DDG-51), Spruance (DD-963) and Kidd (DDG-
993) classes
Date Of Design About 1968
Mod 0: 1971
Date In Service Mod 1: 1980
Mod 2: about 1988
Mark 19 Mod 0 (two piece with liner): 3,560 lbs. (1,615 kg)
Barrel liner for Mark 19 Mod 0: 2,840 lbs. (1,228 kg)
Gun Weight
Mark 19 Mod 2 (one-piece): 3,560 lbs. (1,615 kg)
Gun Length oa N/A
Barrel and Bore Length 270.0 in (6.858 m)
Rifling Length 229.07 in (5.820 m)
Grooves N/A
Lands N/A
Twist Uniform RH 1 in 25
Chamber Volume N/A
20 rounds per minute nominal (in automatic mode)
16 rounds per minute when using the fuse setter (MT-PD
Rate Of Fire rounds)
Terminally guided munitions are restricted to 10 rounds per
minute
Note: Mod 1 development began in 1977and the gun was first tested in February 1980
aboard USS Briscoe DD-977.
.
Ammunition
.
Type Separate

USA 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 45 Mods 0 - 2
Mark 80 HE-PD - 67.6 lbs. (30.7 kg)

Mark 91 Illum-MT - 63.9 lbs. (29.0 kg)
Projectile Types and Weights
Mark 116 HE-VT - 69.7 lbs. (31.6 kg)
(see Notes)
Mark 127 HE-CVT - 68.6 lbs. (31.1 kg)
Mark 156 HE-IR - 69.0 lbs. (31.3 kg)
Bursting Charge
N/A
(see Note 7)
Mark 80 - 26 in (66 cm)
Mark 91 - 26.1 in (66.3 cm)
Projectile Length Mark 116 - 26 in (66 cm)
Mark 127 - 26 in (66 cm)
Mark 156 - 26 in (66 cm)
Mark 67 - 18.25 lbs. (8.3 kg)
Propellant Charge
Cartridge weighs 38.9 lbs. (17.6 kg) filled
Most rounds using Mark 67 cartridge - 2,650
fps (808 mps)
Muzzle Velocity
Mark 91 Illum with Mark 67 cartridge - 2,700
fps (823 mps)
Working Pressure 18.5 tons/in2 (2,758 kg/cm2)
Approximate Barrel Life 8,000 rounds
Ticonderoga: 600 rounds
Ammunition stowage per gun
Arleigh Burke: 680 rounds
(see Note 8)
Others: 475 - 500 rounds
Notes:
1) This weapon has many different kinds of ammunition. The ones listed above are
meant to be representational, but by no means is this a complete listing.
2) Ammunition abbreviations:
HE-PD = High Explosive, Point Detonating Fuze
HE-VT = High Explosive, Variable Time Fuze
HE-CVT = High Explosive, Controlled Variable Time Fuze
HE-IR = High Explosive, Infrared Fuze
Illum - MT = Illumination, Mechanical Time Fuze
MT-PD = Mechanical Time, Point Detonating Fuze
3) All projectiles have a 0.5 caliber boat-tail.

USA 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 45 Mods 0 - 2
4) The illumination round burns for approximately 50 seconds.
5) The Arleigh Burke class ammunition magazine takes approximately 16 hours to be

loaded out with 680 ballistic projectiles and associated propelling charges during at-sea
replenishments. This assumes favorable weather conditions and calm seas. The
Ticonderoga class requires 12 to 16 hours for each 600 round magazine, assuming that
sufficient manpower and replenishment assets are available to simultaneously resupply
both forward and aft magazines.
6) This weapon is capable of using the BTERM II rounds made by Alliant Techsystems.
See 5"/62 (12.7 cm) Mod 4 data page for additional information.
7) Most conventional rounds have a warhead of about 7.75 lbs. (3.515 kg).
8) The gun feeds from a single loader drum holding 20 projectiles and cartridges. The
fuze setter is located directly above the transfer station, which feeds rounds from the
drum into the upper hoist.
.
Range
.
With most Projectiles using Mark 67
Elevation
cartridge
Range @ 47 degrees 25,290 yards (23,130 m)
Effective Range 16,400 yards (15,000 m)
AA Range @ 65 degrees 23,000 feet (7,000 m)
Illumination 18,085 yards (16,540 m)
Note: Illumination rounds are automatically timed to ignite at an altitude of 1,050 feet
(320 m) over the target area.
.
Mount / Turret Data

.

USA 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 45 Mods 0 - 2
Single Mounting
Tarawa (LHA-1) (2), California (CGN-36)

Designation (2), Virginia (CGN-38) (2), Ticonderoga
(CG-47) (2), Arleigh Burke (DDG-51) (1),
Spruance (DD-963) (2) and Kidd (DDG-
993) (2) classes: Mark 45
Mounting without lower hoist: 49,000 lbs.
(22,226 kg)
Weight
Mounting with four-flight lower hoist:
54,150 lbs. (24,108 kg)
Elevation -15 / +65 degrees
Elevation Rate 20 degrees per second
Train +170 / -170 degrees
Train Rate 30 degrees per second
Gun recoil
19 to 21 in (48 to 53 cm)
(see Note 3)
Notes:
1) Since the maximum elevation of this mounting is limited to 65 degrees, there is no

need for a complex cradle system to move ammunition around the gun and then throw
it into a loading tray from above. Instead, the gun is fed from below by a cradle
swinging out and up from a fixed ammunition hoist in the center of rotation of the
mount. Rounds are rammed directly from the cradle, which follows the rotation of the
mount. As mentioned, the ammunition hoist is fixed in rotation and feeds from a single
drum loader. The result of this design is a very light mounting at the cost of a lower rate
of fire and a lower maximum elevation. Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) is 100
hours.
2) This mounting consists of two groups, the upper and lower. The lower structure
(below deck) delivers an uninterrupted flow of ammunition and contains the mount
control unit, loader drum, fuze setter, hoist and lower accumulator system. The upper
structure consists of the gun house shield, upper accumulator system and mechanisms
to load the gun, lay the gun, fire the gun and handle the spent cartridge.
3) The recoil distances given above are nominal values when firing a standard service
charge at elevations between 30 and 40 degrees. When fired with a proof charge at
max elevation, recoil is about 23 inches (58 cm). The absolute, metal-to-metal recoil
distance is 24 inches (61 cm).

USA 5"/54 (12.7 cm) Mark 45 Mods 0 - 2
4) The Mark 45 manning includes one gun captain, one panel operator and four
ammunition loaders, all located below the gun deck.
5) The Mark 45 has a bore time of 0.02 seconds and has recoiled about 2 inches (5 cm)
when the projectile leaves the muzzle.
.
Data from
"US Naval Weapons" and "The Naval Institute Guide to World Naval Weapon Systems
1991/92" both by Norman Friedman
"Warship Volume VII" article by Antony Preston
---
NAVSEA 5-inch Gun Ammunition Fact Sheets
---
US Navy Fact File
United Defense Press Releases
Concept of Operations for Surface Combat Land Attack Warfare, 2005-2015
---
Special help by Leo Fischer

Italian 76 mm/62 (3") Compact, SR and USA 76 mm/62 (3") Mark 75
Italian
76 mm/62 (3") Compact
76 mm/62 (3") SR
---
76 mm/62 (3") Mark 75
---
Japan
76 mm/62 (3") Compact
Updated 21 May 2006
One of the most popular naval guns ever produced, with OTO-Melara reporting that about 1,000
Compact and SR guns were in service in 51 navies around the world as of December 2002. This
weapon is produced under license in Australia, India, Japan, Spain and USA. It is
manufactured in the United States by United Defense (now part of BAE Systems), in Japan by
Japan Steel Works and in Spain by FABA (formerly IZAR, formerly Bazán).
Under USN nomenclature, the Compact is designated as the Mark 75. USN ships use the Mark
92 FCS which is the USN's version of the Signall M20 series FCS. The Naval Systems Division
(NSD) of FMC Corporation and General Electric Co. (Ordnance Systems Division) were both
licensed by OTO-Melara and competed for the right to manufacture the Mark 75 in the United
States. In 1975, FMC/NSD (now part of United Defense) won the competition and the first gun
mount produced in the United States was delivered in August 1978. Since 1981 all Mark 75
orders for the USN were competed for by FMC/NSD and OTO-Melara.
The Compact was developed from the earlier 76 mm/62 M.M.I. mounting and uses a two-piece
water-cooled barrel with a replaceable liner. The gun is fitted with a small-hole muzzle brake
and fume extractor. The shield is made of fiberglass.
There are reports that the Compact has reliability and accuracy problems. When fired at
maximum ROF, there is a tendency for the mount to "self-destruct," in the words of one of the
Project Engineers who worked on the weapon. During a test shoot, the weapon was unable to
hold a 20-round burst on a 20 x 20 foot (6m x 6m) target at 500 yards (460 m).
The "Super Rapid" (SR) is an improved, faster-firing version designed specifically for anti-ship
missile defense. Accuracy was improved compared to the Compact, partly by reducing the
weight of the moving parts. OTO-Melara claims that these changes have reduced the standard
deviation values to less than 0.3 milrads (0.017 degrees) at 1,000 m (1,100 yards) per burst of 10
rounds when fired at the maximum ROF.
The gun shield for the SR is a rounded design similar to that for the Compact. However, this
similarity is only skin-deep as the SR mounting has been strengthened in order to resist
overpressures up to 14 psi (1.0 kg/cm2) vs. a 7 psi (0.5 kg/cm2) rating for the Compact

mounting. As an option, both the Compact and the SR are available with a boxier-looking
reduced radar cross section (RCS) gun shield and one of these was used to arm the French-
built Saudi Arabian frigate Makkah.
To achieve the higher rates of fire for the SR, OTO-Melara modified the ordnance itself as well
as the ammunition feed and fuzing. As a result, existing Compact mountings cannot be
converted to the SR standard, but a retrofit kit is available that does increase the ROF for the
older weapon. The magazine for the SR is independent of the turret, which means that the feed
can be interrupted to insert different kinds of ammunition, making the gun more flexible against
multiple targets.
The Italian Navy considers the SR to be an effective anti-missile weapon and new ships are
being built with this weapon in place of the twin "Fast 40" used on earlier ships in that role.
OTO-Melara estimates that, combined with the Dardo FCS, the SR can begin engaging attacking
missiles at about 6,600 yards (6,000 m), with the first rounds arriving on target at 6,000 yards
(5,500 m). With these ranges, a single gun can deal with up to four subsonic sea-skimmer
missiles, arriving simultaneously on courses 90 degrees apart, before any reaches 1,100 yards
(1,000 m).
As of this time (March 2006), the USN has no plans to use the SR version. Existing ships will
continue to use the Compact and newer ships are being fitted with the 57 mm Mark 110.
Compared with the USN 5" (12.7 cm) and Italian 127 mm (5") guns, these weapons cannot fire
any of the more sophisticated munitions as they use a much smaller projectile. Compared to
the older USN 3" (7.62 cm) and Italian 76 mm (3") M.M.I. guns, this weapon has far lower
manning requirements and carries a much larger supply of ready-service ammunition, allowing
the gun to fire longer bursts without reloading. As the Compact and SR mountings are very
nearly unmanned, they can fire at very short notice, about five to ten seconds from a cold start.
OTO-Melara is now offering the DAVIDE anti-missile system for both new installations and as a
retro-fit kit to existing mountings. This system is designed to allow these guns to act as an
inner-defense against sea-skimming or diving supersonic and subsonic missiles. The system
will be used in conjunction with the steerable DART anti-missile projectile and provides a
continuous data stream to all projectiles in flight.
Actual bore diameter of all guns is 76.2 mm (3.00").

76 mm (3") Compact on SAS Isaac Dyobha

Photograph courtesy of Comdr. Graham Harrison, Commanding Officer
.
.
.
Gun Characteristics
.
Italy: 76 mm/62 (3") Compact and SR
Designation
USN: 76 mm/62 (3") Mark 75

Compact
USN: Oliver Hazard Perry class
Used by fifty nations
Super Rapid
Ship Class Used On
Italy: Animoso and Audace
Royal Netherlands Navy: M-class frigates
Danish: Standard Flex 300
Singapore: 62 m attack craft
Canada: Tribal class
Compact: About 1963
Date Of Design
Super Rapid: N/A
Compact
First introduced in 1964
USN Mark 75 Introduction: 1971
Date In Service
Super Rapid
About 1988
Gun Weight (tube and liner) 1,686 lbs. (765 kg)
Gun Length oa N/A
Bore Length 186 in (4.724 m)
Rifling Length 158 in (4.012 m)
Grooves 24
Lands N/A
Chamber Volume N/A
Compact and Mark 75: 80 - 85 rounds per minute (in automatic
mode)
Rate Of Fire
Compact with retrofit kit: 100 rounds per minute
SR: 120 rounds per minute (139 achieved on trials)
.
Ammunition
.
Type Fixed
Weight of Complete Round 27.2 lbs. (12.34 kg)

Compact
All types - 13.88 lbs. (6.296 kg)
Projectile Types and Weights Super Rapid

SAPOM - 14.0 lbs. (6.35 kg)
SAPOMER - 14.6 lbs. (6.6 kg)
DART - 8.8 lbs. (4.0 kg)
HE -MOM: 1.65 lbs. (0.75 kg)
SAPOM: 1.01 lbs. (0.46 kg) Compound A3 HE
Bursting Charge
SAPOMER: 1.15 lbs. (0.52 kg) HEXAL-30
DART: 0.88 lbs (0.4 kg)
HE-MOM: 13.98 in (35.5 cm)
SAPOM: 14.4 in (36.6 cm)
Projectile Length
SAPOMER: 14.78 in (37.6 cm)
Complete Round - 35.45 in (90.04 cm)
Propellant Charge 7.85 lbs. (3.56 kg)
Cartridge 76.2 mm x 635.5 mm
Muzzle Velocity 3,000 - 3,024 fps (914 - 925 mps)
Approximate Barrel Life N/A
Ammunition stowage per gun Compact: 80 ready rounds on mount
(see Note 4) SR: 85 ready rounds on mount
Notes:
1) The HE-MOM round is pre-fragmented to enhance the splinter effect.
2) Misfires must be manually removed.
3) SR Ammunition includes: Multirole pre-fragmented HE-MOM and HE-PF-OM, semi-armor

piercing HE-SAPOM, semi-armor piercing extended range HE-SAPOMER, pre-fragmented and
new Course Corrected Anti-Missile Shell CCAMS. SAPOM and SAPOMER projectiles use base
fuzes. MOM-type rounds use tungsten cubes as penetrators.
4) The Compact uses a single main feed drum which holds 70 rounds. This feeds a central screw
hoist which holds six rounds. The hoist leads up to a loading station below the left trunnion. Two
arms alternate picking up rounds and placing them into a breech loading drum that holds four
rounds. The drum feeds rounds onto a loading tray which also receives the spent cartridge.
5) DART stands for "Driven Ammunition Reduced Time of flight." This is a sub-caliber, guided
projectile with canard control, intended to improve the performance of these guns in the
antimissile role. DART is scheduled for service introduction in 2007. OTO-Melara claims that an
average of only three of these projectiles are needed per engagement. The proximity fuzes for

this munition are said to be effective within 6 feet (2 m) of the water surface and are designed to
trigger when within 30 feet (10 m) of the target. A November 2005 OTO-Melara Press Release
stated that firing trials with DART had been performed at PISQ (Poligono Interforze Salto di
Quirra), an Italian interservice firing range located in Sardinia. During the firing trials, the DART
projectiles correctly entered and followed the guidance beam and manuevered within the
accuracy requirements for distances over 5,500 yards (5,000 m). This is seen as a crucial
milestone, as these tests showed that DART can be successfully guided over the expected
engagement ranges.
.
Range
.
Elevation With 13.88 lbs. (6.296 kg) HE Shell
AA @ 85 degrees 13,200 feet (4,000 m)
Elevation With 14.3 lbs. (6.5 kg) SAPOM
Elevation With 14.6 lbs. (6.6 kg) SAPOMER
Elevation With DART
.
Mount / Turret Data

.
Single Mountings
Designation Italy: Compact and SR
USN: Mark 75
Compact (without ammunition): 16,400 lbs. (7,439
kg)
SR (without ammunition): 16,800 lbs. (7,620 kg)
Weight
Compact including ammunition and off-mount
components: 18,783 lbs. (8,520 kg)
Train unlimited (uses a slip ring)


Gun recoil N/A
Notes:
1) The complete Mount is a single piece installation and consists of the shank which is below the
weather deck, the turret on the main deck, and a servo-systems control and distribution box. The
complete mounting may be divided up into two component groups: The lower structure (below
deck) and the upper structure (above deck). Lower structure components deliver an
uninterrupted flow of ammunition to the gun. Upper structure components load the ammunition,
aim the gun, fire the ammunition and eject the empty powder cases.
2) These mountings are normally controlled remotely, but there are provisions for an emergency
local control with a stabilized line-of-sight system for the operator.
3) Mountings need an electrical supply of 440V, 3-phase, 60 Hz to power the main circuit while
the servo and synchro network require a 115V, 1-phase, 400 Hz supply.
4) Mountings are unmanned but require two to three crewmen below deck to reload the revolving
magazine.
5) The SR mount performs several operations in parallel that in the Compact were performed in
sequence. The recoil length and the firing cycle have been shortened and ramming is not part of
the sequence in which the spent cartridge is ejected.
.
Data from
"Jane's Pocket Book 9: Naval Armament" edited by Denis Archer
"The Naval Institute Guide to World Naval Weapon Systems 1991/92" by Norman Friedman
"Jane's Ammunition Handbook: Ninth Edition 2000-2001" edited by Terry J. Gander and Charles Q.
Cutshaw
---
IZAR Press Releases
OTO-Melara Press Releases
US Navy Fact File

Sweden 57 mm/70 (2.25") SAK Marks 1, 2 and 3
Sweden
57 mm/70 (2.25") SAK Marks 1, 2 and 3
---
United States
57 mm/70 (2.25") Mark 110 Mod 0
Updated 09 May 2006
Work on these weapons began in 1962 based largely upon experience gained with the Bofors 57 mm/60. Compared
with that weapon, the major improvements of the Mark 1 were a higher rate of fire, the use of new munitions including
an improved proximity fuse, water cooling for the gun tubes and a new electro-hydraulic system for rapid training and
elevation. The Mark 1 has been exported to Malaysia and (the former) Yugoslavia.
The Mark 2 was a lighter weight mounting and used a new servo system that reduced aiming errors and damping time.
The gun barrel for this mounting used a special monobloc steel that eliminated the water jacket Bofors claimed that
this gun was dual-purpose in that it was accurate and agile enough to destroy sea-skimmers and that it could put more
explosives into a surface target in thirty seconds than any gun smaller than 10 cm (3.9"). In reviewing this weapon, the
US Navy concluded that it was heavy when compared to the OTO-Melara 35 mm and 76 mm weapons. About 25 Mark 2
guns were manufactured.
The Mark 3 is the latest version. This mounting uses the same ammunition as the Mark 2 but also can fire "smart"
ammunition. The Mark 3 can be installed with a lower radar profile (RCS) mounting which hides the gun barrel when
not firing. It is claimed that the Mark 3 has a mean time to repair of 30 minutes and can be installed on ships as small
as 150 tons (152 mt). This mounting uses a small radar mounted on the gun barrel to measure muzzle velocity for fire
control purposes.
Bofors was taken over by United Defense, which in turn has been taken over by BAE. A 30 September 2003 United
Defense press release stated that the United States Coast Guard had selected the Mark 3 to arm its new Maritime
Security Cutter, Large (WMSL, formerly the National Security Cutter). At that time, the USN designated this weapon as
the "EX-57 Mk 3" with the "EX" standing for "Experimental." The first WMSL is scheduled to enter service in 2006.
A 13 January 2004 United Defense press release stated that the USN designation for the Bofors Mark 3 had now been
changed to "EX 110 Mod 0" at the request of the USN. This change of designation followed a successful firing test of
29 practice rounds and 26 rounds of 3P service ammunition at the Dahlgren Main Range in Dahlgren, Virginia. The
initial test firings were conducted to verify the test range instrumentation and to document the gun system's
characteristics for the upcoming Test Readiness Review of the EX 110 Mod 0 gun safety qualification project.
In September 2004, the Coast Guard announced that this weapon had been accepted into service and would now be
designated as the Mk 110 Mod 0/57mm Gun. An article by Lt. Timothy Hacket (USCG) in the October 2004 issue of
"Deepwater News" reported that: "Between November 2003 and September 2004, well over 2,000 rounds of 57 mm
ammunition were successfully test fired. The test firings have been conducted in three phases to evaluate blast
effects, ballistics, and serviceability . . . The serviceability testing included multiple 120-round firing evolutions at high
firing rates to determine the gun’s sustainability. During one week’s course of firing, the test team successfully fired
well over 620 rounds and collected a wealth of data . . . A nomenclature request has been submitted to establish the
WMSL’s GWS [Gun Weapon System] to include the Mk 110 Mod 0/57 mm Gun, Mk 46 Mod 1 Optical Sighting System,
AN/SPQ-9B Radar, and the Mk 160 Gun Control System ballistic computer."
A 25 October 2004 United Defense press release stated that the USN had selected the Mark 110 "as the Close-In Gun
System (CIGS) for the baseline design of the new DD(X) Destroyer program . . . The function of the Mk 110 Naval Gun is
to provide key ship self-protection and attack capabilities. The Mk 110 will work in concert with other combat systems
being developed by United Defense, such as the ship's 155-mm Advanced Gun System (AGS) and the Mk 57 Vertical
Launching System."
In a 01 November 2004 USCG Press Release concerning a day of Human Systems Integration (HSI) testing on the 57
mm Mark 110, participant GM3 [Gunner's Mate 3rd Class] Robert Boyer reported "[the 57 mm Mark 110] is a huge
upgrade from the 76 mm. As far as maintenance and accuracy of the new weapon, the all-around ability is a lot easier
to handle compared to our current armament. I'll definitely look forward to working on the 57 mm gun." In this same
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release, Gunner’s mate PO3 Mike Sanders is quoted as saying that it "only takes up to three people for loading or
unloading the 57mm with more room to move compared to seven people loading or unloading the 76mm."
A 01 August 2005 BAE Press Release announced that the USCG has purchased two of these weapons, with delivery
scheduled for January 2006 and December 2006. These guns will be manufactured at the BAE Systems facility in
Louisville, Kentucky.
Munitions are produced by Bofors, Sako Limited (Finland), SME Ordnance (Malaysia) and Nammo Raufoss (Norway).
Mexican Navy Sonora

Photograph copyrighted by Bofors Defence
.
.
.
Gun Characteristics
.
Sweden: 57 mm/70 (2.25") Marks 1, 2 and 3
Designation
USN: 57 mm/70 (2.25") Mark 110 Mod 0 [equivalent to the Mark 3]

Mark 1
Sweden: Hugin, Spica I and Spica II classes
Finland: Helsinki class
Mark 2
Sweden: Spica III
Canada: Halifax class
Ship Class Used On
Mark 3
Finland: Squadron 2000 class
Mexico: Oceànica class
Norway: Skjold class
USCG: Maritime Security Cutter, Large
USN: Zumwalt (DD-1000) and Freedom (LCS-1) classes
Mark 1: 1964
Date Of Design Mark 2: 1981
Mark 3: 1995
Mark 1: 1966
Date In Service Mark 2: 1985
Mark 3: 1998
Gun Weight N/A
Gun Length N/A
Bore Length about 157.1 in (3.990 m)
Rifling Length N/A
Grooves N/A
Lands N/A
Twist N/A
Chamber Volume N/A
Mark 1: 200 rounds per minute cyclic
Rate Of Fire Mark 2: 220 rounds per minute cyclic - Time to reload 120 rounds: 2 minutes
Mark 3: 220 rounds per minute cyclic
.
Ammunition
.
Type Fixed
PFHE - 13.4 lbs. (6.1 kg)
HCER - 14.3 lbs. (6.5 kg)
Weight of Complete Round
HE - 13.4 lbs. (6.1 kg)
3P ammunition - 13.4 to 14.3 lbs. (6.1 to 6.5 kg)
PFHE - 5.3 lbs. (2.4 kg)
Projectile Types and Weights HCER - 6.2 lbs. (2.8 kg)
HE - 5.3 lbs. (2.4 kg)
PFHE - 0.84 lbs. (0.38 kg)
Bursting Charge HCER - 0.90 lbs. (0.41 kg)
HE - 0.99 lbs. (0.45 kg)
PFHE - 12.3 in (31.2 cm)
HCER - 13.4 in (34.1 cm)
Overall Length
HE - 12.2 in (30.9 cm)
Complete Round: 27 in (67.5 cm)

Propellant Charge 2.6 lbs. (1.19 kg) NC1066

Cartridge 57 mm x 438 mm
PFHE: 3,360 fps (1,025 mps)
HCER: 3,120 fps (950 mps)
Muzzle Velocity
HE: 3,360 fps (1,025 mps)
3P: 3,396 fps (1,035 mps)
Working Pressure N/A
Approximate Barrel Life Mark 3: 4,000+ rounds
Mark 1: 40 ready rounds, 128 rounds in ready racks in
Ammunition stowage per gun mount
(see Note 2) Mark 2: 120 ready rounds, 40 rounds in dual hoists
Mark 3: 120 ready rounds, 1,000 rounds in mounting
Notes:
1) Most rounds have conical or hemispherical base outlines to improve aerodynamics and to maximize the internal
volume. The original 57 mm rounds were of two types, HCER and SAP. The SAP round had a delayed action fuze which
allowed the round to penetrate about 2 cm (0.8 inches) of armor and then explode after traveling a further 2 m (6 feet).
2) The Mark 2 loader and gun mount are 2-sided so that two types of ammunition can be handled simultaneously.
Ammunition comes up from the magazine and goes into two 20-round cassettes mounted on a rail behind the gun. When
filled, they move into position over the ready-use magazines and discharge their ammunition into them. There are also
two intermediate 20-round cassettes. The Mark 3 appears to have a similar arrangement.
3) Bofors 57 mm 3P (Pre-fragmented, Programmable, Proximity-fuzed) all-target programmable ammunition allows 3

proximity fuzing options as well as settings for time, impact, and armor piercing functions.
4) The Mark 1 gun with a minor modification could use ordnance developed for the Mark 2 gun.
5) These guns used the same size cartridge case as did the 57 mm/60 guns, but the primer was changed to electrical
firing.
6) The USN has designated the 3P ammunition as Mark 295 Mod 0.
7) Target practice rounds have been designated as Mark 296 Mod 0. A recent contract with BAE Systems priced these at
$1,200US each, showing the high cost of even simple munitions.
.
Range
.
Elevation Range
Range @ 45 degrees HCER: 18,600 yards (17,000 m)
Range @ 45 degrees HE: 15,090 yards (13,800 m)
AA Ceiling PFHE: 24,930 feet (7,600 m) in proximity fuze mode
.
Mount / Turret Data

.
Designation Single Mounts
Mark 1: N/A
Weight Mark 2: 14,300 lbs. (6,500 kg)
Mark 3: 14,960 lbs. (6,800 kg)

Mark 1: -10 / +78 degrees

Elevation Mark 2: -10 / +75 degrees
Marks 1 and 2: 40 degrees per second
Elevation Rate
Mark 3: 44 degrees per second
Train 360 degrees
Marks 1 and 2: 55 degrees per second
Train Rate
Mark 3: 57 degrees per second
Gun recoil N/A
Notes:
1) These mounting are powered by 440 Vac 60 Hz 3 phase.
2) The DD-1000 will use a special low-RCS Mounting similar in design to that for the 155 mm AGS.
.
Data from
Ammunitionskatalog Marinen, 1990
"Jane's Pocket Book 9: Naval Armament" edited by Denis Archer
"Jane's Ammunition Handbook: Ninth Edition 2000-2001" edited by Terry J. Gander and Charles Q. Cutshaw
"Jane's Fighting Ships, 1999-2000" edited by Capt. Richard Sharpe RN
---
October 2004 issue of "Deepwater News" article "57mm Gun for WMSL Completes Test Firing Series" by Lt. Timothy Hackett,
USCG
"USCG 57mm / Mk 3 Gun Mount: Test, Evaluation & Certification Program" by Lt. Timothy Hackett, USCG, presented at the NDIA
39th Annual Armament Systems: Guns - Ammunition - Rockets - Missiles Conference & Exhibition
"Mk 110 Mod 0 / 57mm Naval Gun & Ammunition Certification Process" by Lt. Timothy Hackett, USCG, presented at the NDIA 40th
Annual Armament Systems: Guns - Ammunition - Rockets - Missiles Conference & Exhibition
---
BAE Systems Press Releases
Bofors Defence Press Releases
USCG Integrated Deepwater System Press Releases
---
Special help from Lt. Timothy Hackett, USCG, Mats T. Persson and Leo Fischer

USN Naval Gun Designations

by Tony DiGiulian
Updated 14 June 2006
Up until the 1920s, every caliber of gun in the USN had its own "Mark" numeric series along
with an additional "Mark" numeric series for the mountings used for that particular caliber. So,
for example, for the famous 5"/38 of World War II, the "Mark 12" designation was for the gun
itself. The mountings used for this gun were Mark 21 for the earliest pedestal mountings, Mark
25 for later pedestal mountings, Mark 30 for the single base ring mountings, and a whole slew
of mark numbers for the twin mountings, ending with the Mark 38 used on the AM Sumner and
Gearing destroyers.
Larger caliber guns originally had a similar designation series for guns and mountings, but
guns 6" and larger developed after the late-1920s did not get Mark numbers for their
mountings. Instead, they were simply known by the class of ship that they were to be installed
in. For example, the 16" guns used on the Iowa class battleships were designated as Mark 7,
but the mountings were simply described as "Iowa class 16-in three-gun mountings."
During the early 1940s, the USN developed the 5"/54 which was first used on the Midway
(CVB-41) class carriers. The gun barrel for this weapon was designated as Mark 16 and the
single mounting used on the Midway class was the Mark 39 (the next 5 inch mounting number
after the Mark 38 used on the AM Sumner and Gearing destroyers). The Mark 40 mounting
was a special "wet-mount" version of the older 5"/25 for submarines. The Mark 41 was a twin
mount for the cancelled Montana (BB-67) class battleships and was to have used the same
5"/54 Mark 16 gun as used on the Midways.
No new guns larger than 3" were developed until the early 1950s, when a new 5"/54 was
developed for destroyer-sized vessels. At this point, the USN decided to change the
designation system. New weapons would no longer be known by the gun barrel mark
designation, instead, they would now be known by the mounting designation. So, this new
5"/54 mounting was designated as "Mark 42" and it was used on numerous destroyers,
cruisers and carriers as well as on auxiliary vessels (by the way, the new 5"/54 gun itself for
this mounting was designated as the Mark 18, thus continuing the 5" gun designation series).
In another change in designations that occurred at about the same time, the USN decided that
there would no longer be a separate mounting mark numeric series for each caliber of gun.
Instead, all shipborne guns would henceforth be lumped together into a single numeric mark
series, which would continue from the Mark 42. Notable examples in this series are the 8"
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Major Caliber Light Weight Gun (MCLWG) installed on USS Hull (DD-945), which was the
Mark 71; the famous Phalanx CIWS is the Mark 72 (Mark 15 is the gun system itself); and the
76 mm OTO-Melara gun is the Mark 75. Almost all naval guns are now in this series, but
some weapons are more commonly known by their gun designations. For example, for the 25
mm "Chain Gun," Mark 38 is the designation of the gun system itself, not the mounting. The
normal non-stabilized mounting used for the Chain Gun is designated as the Mark 88. The
stabilized mounting with an integral 40 mm grenade launcher as used on the Cyclone class
patrol boats is designated as the Mark 96.
This designation-by-mounting system has continued until the present day with some Mark
numbers being given to weapons that were not accepted into service and several others being
given to minor modifications of existing mountings. An example of this latter type is the Mark
84, which was a modified mounting for the three-barrel 20 mm Gatling gun M197.
One of the latest examples of the current designation system is the Bofors/United Defense/
BAE 57 mm/70 Mark 3, which the USN has designated as the "Mk 110 Mod 0/57 mm" gun.
This weapon will enter service on the new Coast Guard Maritime Security Cutters (Large).
An interesting exception to the designation system is the 30 mm Bushmaster II as used on the

San Antonio class LPDs. The gun itself is designated as the Mark 44 Mod 1 while the
mounting is the Mark 46 Mod 1. This mounting designation is actually in the Marine Corps'
designation system, not the Naval one. The mounting for the San Antonio class is almost the
same turret as used on the Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle (EFV), formerly known as the
Advanced Amphibious Assault Vehicle (AAAV). The Mark 46 Mod 0 is the EFV turret while the
Mod 1 is a Navalized version used on the San Antonio LPDs. This simplifies the logistics
system by allowing the ship to use the same ammunition and spare parts as used on the EFV.
.
.
Back to the United States Naval Guns Page
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German 38 cm/52 (14.96") SK C/34
German
38 cm/52 (14.96") SK C/34
Updated 11 July 2006
Used on the famous Bismarck class battleships, this weapon is usually - but incorrectly - referred to as
being 47 calibers long, but it was actually 51.66 calibers in length. It is also sometimes mistakenly
described as being a carry over from the 38 cm L/45 guns used on the World War I-era Bayern class
battleships. These guns were actually of a completely new design having little in common with the older
guns other than their caliber.
These guns with a modified construction and known as Siegfried were widely used on BSG-mounted
coastal artillery. The best-known of these was Battery Todt with four guns located near Haringzelles and
which often fired across the Straits of Dover. Four more guns were used at Oxsby (Denmark), four at
Hanstead (Denmark) and three at Kristiansund (Norway).
When the Gneisenau was badly damaged in 1943, it was planned to use her three newly-constructed 38
cm twin-turrets, plus an additional one originally intended for the Soviet Union, as coastal artillery. These
were to be installed at Cap de la Hague and Paimpol in France, but this plan was never implemented.
Work on putting two of these turrets at Oxsby in Denmark was well advanced but incomplete by the end of
the war.
Constructed of loose liner, A tube with four rings shrunk over it for about two-thirds of the length from the
breech, a jacket shrunk over about two-thirds of the ring layer and a breech end-piece, breech block
supporting piece and a horizontal sliding breech block.
German Battleship Tirpitz in Alta Fjord, Norway

Note that the main rangefinders are oriented with their arms fore and aft
U.S. Naval Historical Center Photograph # NH 71390
.
.
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German 38 cm/52 (14.96") SK C/34
Gun Characteristics
.
Designation 38 cm/52 (14.96") SK C/34
Bismarck and Schlachtschiff "O" Classes
Ship Class Used On
Gneisenau as planned to be rebuilt
Date Of Design 1934
Date In Service 1939
Gun Weight including breech: 244,713 lbs (111,000 kg)
Gun Length oa 772.8 in. (19.630 m)
Bore Length 724.6 in. (18.405 m)
Rifling Length 629.2 in. (15.982 m)
Number Of Grooves (90) 0.177 in deep x 0.306 in (4.5 mm x 7.76 mm)
Lands 0.217 in (5.5 mm)
Twist Increasing RH 1 in 36 to 1 in 30
Chamber Volume 19,467 in3 (319 dm3)
Rate Of Fire 2.3 to 3 rounds per minute
Notes:
1) The weight figure above was for early production weapons. Later weapons were 661 lbs. (300 kg) lighter.
2) Guns built for coastal defense had a larger chamber volume of 22,072 in3 (361.7 dm3) and shorter rifling
length of 620 in (15.748 m).
3) Many references claim that this was the fastest firing large caliber gun ever built. The ROF figures above
represent generally published data that would support that claim. However, Krupp official documents cite its
ROF at 26 seconds at a four degree elevation, not notably faster than that of other nations' large-caliber
weapons. Note that at this elevation the range would be considerably less than 10,000 meters. It is
possible that well trained gun crews would reduce this time to the 20 seconds necessary to meet a ROF of 3
times per second.
.
Ammunition
.
Type Cartridge - Bag

German 38 cm/52 (14.96") SK C/34
Ship Projectiles
APC L/4,4 - 1,764 lbs. (800 kg)
HE L/4,5 base fuze - 1,764 lbs. (800 kg)
HE L/4,6 nose fuze - 1,764 lbs. (800 kg)
Special Coastal Artillery Projectiles
Siegfried HE L/4,5 - 1,091 lbs. (495 kg)
HE L/4,4 base and nose fuze - 1,124 lbs. (510
kg)
APC L/4,4 - 41.4 lbs. (18.8 kg)
HE L/4,5 base fuze - 71.9 lbs. (32.6 kg)
Bursting Charge
HE L/4,6 nose fuze - 141.5 lbs. (64.2 kg)
Others: N/A
APC L/4,4 - 65.8 in (167.2 cm)
HE L/4,5 base fuze - 67.3 in (171.0 cm)
HE L/4,6 nose fuze - 68.8 in (174.8 cm)
Projectile Length
Siegfried HE L/4,5 - 67.3 in (171.0 cm)
HE L/4,4 base and nose fuze - 65.8 in (167.2
cm)
Fore: 219.4 lbs. (99.5 kg) RPC/38 (17/7)
Propellant Charge Main: 248.0 lbs. (112.5 kg) RPC/38 (17/7)
Brass case for main charge: 154 lbs. (70 kg)
For naval shells: 2,690 fps (820 mps)
Muzzle Velocity For coastal artillery shells: 3,445 fps (1,050
mps)
Approximate Barrel Life 180 - 210 rounds (see Note 2)
Ammunition stowage per gun 108 rounds (see Note 3)
Notes:
1) These guns, like most large caliber German guns, used a "fore charge" which was propellant in a silk bag,
and a "main charge" which was propellant in a brass case. The brass case helped to seal the breech of the
gun.
2) With the lighter coastal artillery projectiles, life was increased to nearly 350 rounds.
3) This is the design figure and probably reflects only shell room storage. "German Warships 1815-1945"
says that the actual outfit ranged from 112 to 120 rounds while "German Capital Ships of World War Two"
says the outfit was 130 rounds per gun. These latter figures most likely include "ready rounds" stored in the
handling rooms and gunhouses.
4) APC and HE ballistic caps had a radius of 10 calibers.
5) Fore and Main charges were rammed together.
6) Actual Projectile designations were as follows:

APC L/4,4 - Psgr. L/4,4 (mhb)

German 38 cm/52 (14.96") SK C/34
HE L/4,5 base fuze - Spr.gr. L/4,5 Bdz (mhb)

HE L/4,6 nose fuze - Spr.gr. L/4,6 Kz (mhb)
Siegfried HE L/4,5 - Si.gr. L/4,5 Bdz u. Kz (mhb)
CA SAP L/4,4 - Spr.gr. L/4,4 Bdz u. Kz (mhb)
7) These ships did not carry WGr 4592 projectiles with shaped-charge warheads.
.
Range
.
Elevation With 1,764 lbs. (800 kg) AP Striking Velocity Angle of Fall
2.2 degrees 5,470 yards (5,000 m) 2,385 fps (727 mps) 2.4
30 degrees
39,589 yards (36,520 m) --- ---
(max elevation of turret)
52 degrees
45,932 yards (42,000 m) --- ---
(as coastal artillery)
Elevation With 1,091 lbs. (495 kg) HE Striking Velocity Angle of Fall
52 degrees
60,000 yards (54,900 m) --- ---
(as coastal artillery)
Note: Time of flight for APC Shell with MV = 2,690 fps (820 mps)
10,940 yards (10,000 m): 13.9 seconds
21,870 yards (20,000 m): 32.0 seconds
32,810 yards (30,000 m): 55.5 seconds
38,280 yards (35,000 m): 69.9 seconds
.
Armor Penetration with 1,765 lbs. (800 kg) AP Shell

.
Range Side Armor Deck Armor
0 yards (0 m) 29.23" (742 mm) ---
5,000 yards (4,572 m) 24.26" (616 mm) 0.76" (19.3 mm)
19,685 yards (18,000 m) 16.50" (419 mm) 2.96" (75.0 mm)
24,060 yards (22,000 m) 15.49" (393 mm) 4.15" (104 mm)
29,528 yards (27,000 m) 11.98" (304 mm) 5.02" (126 mm)
Note: The above information is from "Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II" for a muzzle
velocity of 2,690 fps (820 mps) and is based upon the USN Empirical Formula for Armor Penetration.

German 38 cm/52 (14.96") SK C/34
.
10,936 yards (10,000 m) 20.08" (510 mm) ---
21,872 yards (20,000 m) 14.33" (364 mm) ---
22,966 yards (21,000 m) 13.78" (350 mm) ---
27,340 yards (25,000 m) 12.13" (308 mm) ---
32,808 yards (30,000 m) --- about 4.70" (120 mm)
38,276 yards (35,000 m) --- about 6.69" (170 mm)
Note: The above information is from "German Capital Ships of World War Two" for a muzzle velocity of
2,690 fps (820 mps) and is based upon German face-hardened (side) and homogenous (deck) armor
penetration curves.
.
Mount / Turret Data

.
Two-gun Turrets
Designation Bismarck (4), Gneisenau (3) and "O" (3): Drh
LC/38
Weight 2,319,253 lbs (1,052,000 kg)
-5.5 / +30 degrees
Elevation
Coastal artillery: -3 / +55 or more degrees
Train -145 / +145 degrees
Gun recoil 41.3 in (1.050 m)
Loading Angle +2.5 degrees
Notes:
1) These turrets used electrically powered main training, auxiliary training, auxiliary elevation, auxiliary hoists
and reserve power for some of the loading gear, otherwise they were hydraulically powered by two
electrically driven pumps in each turret. Run out was pneumatic. Emergency hand elevation equipment was
provided.
2) As in all large German mountings, these turrets were supported by ball bearings, not the tapered rollers
preferred by other nations.
3) Distance between gun axes was 108.3 in (275 cm).
4) Each gun was served by a shell cage which picked up the charge cage on its way to the gunhouse. The
hoists came up between the guns and the shells were transferred to the loading tray by rammers. The
charges were carried end to end on a single tray. As the shell was transferred, the charges were moved to a
waiting cage. After the shell was loaded, the waiting cage moved down to the level of the loading tray. The
space between them was bridged by a ramp and the charges were then rolled into the loading tray. Both
charges were rammed together. The auxiliary hoists lifted shells and propellant one after the other in a

German 38 cm/52 (14.96") SK C/34
vertical position and came up to the rear of each gun. These were transferred to a tiltable cage and could be
then loaded by the main rammer. A manual rammer which required between ten to fourteen crewmen to
operate was provided as a backup.
5) There were at least five and perhaps as many as ten ready rounds stored in the back of each turret.
.
Data from
"Schlachtschiff Tirpitz" by Jochen Brennecke
"Naval Weapons of World War Two" by John Campbell
"Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II" by W.H. Garzke, Jr. and R.O. Dulin, Jr.
"German Warships 1815-1945" by Erich Gröner
"Naval Guns: 500 years of Ship and Coastal Artillery" by Hans Mehl
"German Capital Ships of World War Two" by M.J. Whitley
Other Resources
Additional information about these weapons may be found in the INRO article, The Loss of HMS Hood

USA 0.50"/90 (12.7 mm) M2 Browning Machine Gun (BMG)

0.50"/90 (12.7 mm) M2 Browning MG
Updated 17 May 2006
Built since the 1920s, the 0.50" (12.7 mm) caliber Browning Machine Gun (BMG)
M2 (Ma Deuce) is still one of the world's most widely used heavy machine guns.
Employed today on many USN ships for action against hostile small surface craft
and commando-type attacks which might occur in restricted waters.
This gun was initially designed as an aircraft weapon. The design was modified
for land use and then designated as the Model 1921 machine gun. In 1932 the
design was modified again and this design became the M2. M2HB denotes guns
using the heavier air-cooled barrel, which was adopted in order to increase barrel
life.
In the 1930s, these guns in various forms on AA mountings were a common sight
on most USN warships. However, with the start of World War II, the Navy quickly
determined that they were almost useless against modern aircraft and replaced
them as rapidly as possible with the 20 mm Oerlikon AA MG.
In the 1930s and 1940s, the US Navy used a water-cooled version on ships while
aircraft and small craft such as PT Boats used a lightweight air-cooled version.
The US Army fielded both a water-cooled model and an air-cooled version with a
slower rate of fire.
Today, the M2HB version is widely used by countless nations and ammunition for
these weapons is currently manufactured in at least twenty countries.
All versions of this MG are recoil-operated and fire with a closed bolt, although at
least one company is currently offering an adapter kit to convert this weapon into
an open-bolt type. As a personal note, I fired this weapon a few times during my
military service. Impressive firepower and quite reliable, although somewhat on
the heavy side. Barrel changes are complicated with the need to adjust head
spacings before the weapon can be fired.
The US Navy and Marine Corps have purchased a small quantity of the 0.50" (12.7
mm) M3M FN Herstal MG as a replacement for the aircraft version of the BMG and
the Army is currently evaluating a General Dynamics replacement firing 25 mm
"smart" ammunition. However, the M2 is plentiful and cheap and will continued
to be used for quite some time.
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNUS_50cal-M2_MG.htm (1 of 6)7/20/2006 15:18:12

The data that follows is organized as follows: "Air-cooled" refers to the modern-
day "heavy barrel" (M2HB) version which is currently employed by the USN as a
light anti-boat weapon. "Water-cooled" refers to the 1930s-1940s naval version.
"Aircraft" refers to the 1930s-1940s perforated barrel version used on aircraft and
small warships.

Modern-day air-cooled 0.50" (12.7 mm) Browning Machine Gun

The black objects are the links which are stripped off as each cartridge is rammed
Picture taken aboard USS Fife DD-991 on 4 July 2002
US Navy Photograph No. 020704-N-0156B-002
.
.
.
Gun Characteristics
.
0.50" (12.7 mm) M2 Browning Machine Gun (BMG)
Designation Navy Fixed Right Hand Feed: 1005-00-122-9339
Navy Fixed Left Hand Feed: 1005-00-122-9368
Almost all warships 1930s
Ship Class Used On
Many warships 2000s
Original design: about 1920
Date Of Design
M2 version: 1932
Date In Service about 1933 on US Navy ships
Air-cooled: 84 lbs. (38 kg)
Water-cooled: 100.5 lbs. (45.6 kg) - With water: 121 lbs. (54.9
Gun Weight
kg)
Aircraft: 61 lbs. (27.7 kg)
Air-cooled: 61.4 in (156 cm)
Gun Length oa Water-cooled: 65 in (165 cm)
Aircraft: 37 in (0.940 m)
Air-cooled: 45 in (1.143 m)
Barrel Length Water-cooled: N/A
Aircraft: N/A
Air-cooled: 41.9 in (1.064 m)
Rifling Length Water-cooled: N/A
Aircraft: N/A
Grooves 8
Lands N/A
Twist N/A

Chamber Volume 1.5 in3 (24.6 cm3)

Air-cooled: 550 rounds per minute cyclic
Rate Of Fire Water-cooled: 450 - 600 rounds per minute cyclic
Aircraft: 750 - 850 rounds per minute cyclic
.
Ammunition
.
Type Fixed
Varies depending upon ammunition type and weapon
Weight of Complete Round version
Ball - 0.255 lbs. (0.116 kg)
Bullet - 1.71 oz (48.5 gm)
See "Off-Site Resources" below
Bursting Charge Solid bullet
Projectile Length N/A - Complete round 5.45 in (13.84 cm)
Propellant Charge 0.54 oz (15.3 gm) NC tube
Cartridge 0.5 x 3.9 in (12.7 x 99 mm)
Air-cooled 1940s: 2,820 fps (860 mps)
Air-cooled Modern: 2,910 fps (887 mps)
Muzzle Velocity
Water-cooled: 2,930 fps (893 mps)
Aircraft: 2,840 fps (866 mps)
about 23.0 to 29.0 tons/in2 (3,600 kg/cm2 to 4,550 kg/
Working Pressure
cm2)
Air-cooled: 3,000 rounds
Approximate Barrel Life
Others: N/A
Ammunition stowage per gun 100 round belts
.
Range with 1.71 oz (48.5 gm) Bullet

1940's Water-cooled version
.

Effective: 2,600 yards (2,400 m)

Range
Maximum: 7,400 yards (6,770 m)
Effective: about 5,000 feet (1,524 m)
AA Ceiling
Maximum: about 15,000 feet (4,570 m)
.
Range with 1.71 oz (48.5 gm) Bullet

Modern Air-cooled Version
.
Effective: 2,200 yards (2,000 m)
Range
Maximum: 7,400 yards (6,770 m)
.
Mount / Turret Data

.
Naval water-cooled version of the
1930s-40s: Mark 3
Quad Mount: Mark 31
Designation Modern Navalized version: Mark 56
(see Note) (various Mods)
Modern Helicopter version: GAU-16
Tripod Mount (infantry type): M3
Anti-aircraft Mount: M63
M3 Tripod: about 44 lbs. (20 kg)
Weight
Others: N/A
Elevation
Others: N/A
Rate of Elevation Manually operated, only
Train 360 degrees
Rate of Train Manually operated, only
Gun Recoil N/A
Note: The Mark 31 Quad was an Army mounting used late in World War II on some
aircraft carriers. It was almost totally ineffective and was replaced shortly after the war
ended.
.

Data from
"Iowa Class Battleships" by Robert F. Sumrall
and
Tony DiGiulian's personal files
---
"Technical Manual for Machine Guns, Caliber .50, Heavy Barrel" issued by Departments of the
Army, Air Force, Marine Corps and Navy
US Navy Press Releases
---
Special help from Tracy White
Off-Site Resources
For data on 0.50" (12.7 mm) ammunition, see Gary W. Cooke Website
For an interesting variation of the BMG with an open-bolt capability, see Vinghøg Website
For data on the General Dynamics 25 mm replacement for the BMG, see XM-307

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7

16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
This was possibly the best battleship gun ever put into service. Originally intended to fire the relatively light
2,240 pound (1,016.0 kg) AP Mark 5 projectile, the shell handling system for these guns was redesigned to use
the "super-heavy" 2,700 pound (1,224.7 kg) AP Mark 8 before any of the USS Iowa class (BB-61) battleships
were laid down. This heavier projectile made these guns nearly the equal in terms of penetration power to the
46 cm (18.1") guns of the Japanese Yamato class battleships, yet they weighed less than three-quarters as
much.
As modernized in the 1980s, each turret carries a DR-810 radar that measures the muzzle velocity of each gun,
which makes it easier to predict the velocity of succeeding shots. Together with the Mark 160 FCS and better
propellant consistency, these improvements made these weapons into the most accurate battleship-caliber
guns ever made. For example, during test shoots off Crete in 1987, fifteen shells were fired from 34,000 yards
(31,900 m), five from the right gun of each turret. The pattern size was 220 yards (200 m), 0.64% of the total
range. 14 out of the 15 landed within 250 yards (230 m) of the center of the pattern and 8 were within 150
yards (140 m). Shell-to-shell dispersion was 123 yards (112 m), 0.36% of total range.
The Armor Piercing shell fired by these guns is capable of penetrating nearly 30 feet (9 m) of concrete,
depending upon the range and obliquity of impact. The High Capacity (HC) shell can create a crater 50 feet
wide and 20 feet deep (15 x 6 m). During her deployment off Vietnam, USS New Jersey (BB-62) occasionally
fired a single HC round into the jungle and so created a helicopter landing zone 200 yards (180 m) in diameter
and defoliated trees for 300 yards (270 m) beyond that.
A persistent anecdote is that the Iowa class suffered from alignment problems until after the Battle of Leyte
Gulf. William Jurens, a noted expert on US naval weaponry, together with Iowa crewmembers and the staff at
NSWC Dahlgren, performed a search of the official records for detailed data on this specific problem, but
could find nothing in the files suggesting that the alignments were in any way out of the ordinary. Mr. Jurens'
suspicion is that there may have been an oblique reference to an alignment problem in some document that
was taken out of context; perhaps they were waiting for parts.
The Iowa class battleships are the sole survivors of the battleship era that can still be placed into service,
although they now exist mainly as memorials.
The weapon is constructed of liner, A tube, jacket, three hoops, two locking rings, tube and liner locking ring,
yoke ring and screw box liner. Some components were autofretted. As typical of USN weapons built in the
1940s, the bore was chromium plated for longer barrel life. Uses a hydraulically operated Welin breech block
that opens downwards. The screw box liner and breech plug are segmented with stepped screw threads
arranged in fifteen sectors of 24 degrees each.

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
USS Iowa BB-61 firing a 15-gun broadside in 1984

Note the ship's wake. It should be clear from this photograph that firing a broadside does not push the ship sideways.
See the Technical Board essay Do Battleships Move Sideways when they fire? for further information.
U.S. Naval Historical Center Photograph DN-ST-85-05379
.
.
.
Gun Characteristics
.
Designation 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
Ship Class Used On Iowa (BB-61) and Montana (BB-67) Classes
Date Of Design 1939
267,904 lbs. (121,519 kg) (including breech)
Gun Weight
239,156 lbs. (108,479 kg) (without breech)

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
Gun Length oa 816 in (20.726 m) (breech face to muzzle)

Grooves (96) 0.150 in deep (3.81 mm)
Lands N/A
Chamber Volume 27,000 in3 (442.5 dm3)
Rate Of Fire 2 rounds per minute
Notes:
1) The primer cartridge can be fired either electrically or by percussion.
2) The bore was chromium plated for a distance of 690 inches (17.526 m) from the muzzle.
.
Ammunition
.
Type Bag
World War II and Korean War Deployments
AP Mark 8 - 2,700 lbs. (1,225 kg)
HC Mark 13 - 1,900 lbs. (862 kg)
Target - 2,700 lbs. (1,225 kg)
Projectile Types and Weights Developed during 1950s Deployments

(see Note 4) Nuclear Mark 23 - 1,900 lbs. (862 kg)
Developed during 1980s - 1990s Deployments

HE-CVT Mark 143 - 1,900 lbs. (862 kg)
ICM Mark 144 - 1,900 lbs. (862 kg)
HE-ET/PT Mark 145 - 1,900 lbs. (862 kg)
AP - 40.5 lbs. (18.4 kg)
Bursting Charge
HC - 153.5 lbs. (69.6 kg)
(see Note 4)
Nuclear - W23 warhead, about 15-20 kilotons
AP - 72 in (182.9 cm)
HC - 64 in (162.6 cm)
Nuclear - 64 in (162.6 cm)
Projectile Length
HE-CVT - 64 in (162.6 cm)
ICM - 64 in (162.6 cm)
HE-ET/PT - 64 in (162.6 cm)

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
World War II Full Charge - 664.6 lbs. (301.5 kg) NC

World War II Reduced Charge - 319.6 lbs. (145.0 kg)
NC
Propellant Charge
Post World War II Full Charge - 659.6 lbs. (299.2 kg)
SPD D839
Post World War II Reduced Charge - 325.0 lbs. (147.4
kg) SPD/N/CG D840
AP - 2,500 fps (762 mps) (new gun)
AP - 2,425 fps (739 mps) (average gun)
AP - 1,800 fps (549 mps) (reduced charge)
Muzzle Velocity
HC - 2,690 fps (820 mps) (new gun)
HC - 2,615 fps (797 mps) (average gun)
HC - 2,075 fps (632 mps) (reduced charge)
290 - 350 rounds
(see Note 8)
About 130 rounds
(see Note 9)
Notes:
1) The AP Mark 8 projectile was originally designed as the longer, heavier "big brother" to the AP Mark 5
projectiles used for the 16"/45 (40.6 cm) guns carried by the Colorado (BB-45) class battleships. Like the Mark
5, the Mark 8 projectiles were designed to be used in long-range gun actions against Japanese ships ("Plan
Orange") and for that reason they were to be fired at relatively low muzzle velocities and high gun elevations.
These conditions would result in a steeper angle of fall in order to enhance their deck armor penetration
capabilities. In almost all respects the 1939 design of the Mark 8 Mod 0 was very similar to the Mark 5 except for
length. However, around the end of 1944 the improved Mark 8 Mod 6 version came out with significantly better
hardening techniques which gave a noticeable improvement in penetration at impact angles of 35 degrees or so
against thick face-hardened armor. This performance was so much better that BuOrd put out a memo stating
that battleships were to return all previous Mods of this shell as quickly as the Mod 6 became available for
loading aboard ship. The Mod 6 had an even blunter, rounded AP body nose (with no point) to further enhance
penetration against deck armor at high obliquity (see picture of the disassembled Mark 8 on the additional
pictures page). The AP Mark 8 has a radius of ogive of 144 inches (366 cm) or 9crh and leaves the barrel
rotating at about 4,000 RPM. This round creates overpressures exceeding 50 psi (3.5 kg/cm2) close to the
muzzle and 7 psi (0.5 kg/cm2) at a distance of 50 feet (15 m) from the muzzle. The Mark 21 Base Detonating
Fuze (BDF) had a delay of 0.033 seconds. Fuze activation required a resistance equal to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) of
armor at 0 degrees obliquity or 0.375 inches (1 cm) at 65 degrees obliquity.
2) The HC Mark 13 was originally designed for the Colorado (BB-45) class battleships, whose shell handling
system limited the maximum projectile length to about 4 calibers. For standardization purposes, the Mark 13
was also issued to all newer battleships, even though their shell handling systems could have accommodated a
larger, heavier projectile. This much-needed projectile was introduced in late-1942 and was originally
designated as the EX-1. The explosive cavity in the Mark 13 has a relatively thick-wall with a fairly constant
sidewall thickness, getting slightly thicker at the nose. It had somewhat less explosive weight in terms of percent
than most foreign projectiles of World War II or even earlier USN HE projectiles, since it had as one of its
requirements the ability to penetrate light armor and heavy concrete for shore bombardment purposes. The
Mark 13 uses both base delay and nose contact fuzes for greater reliability under differing conditions, but can be
used with only one fuze if desired. During World War II BuOrd developed AA shells for these guns which were
standard HC rounds with a mechanical time fuze replacing the usual nose contact fuze. This meant that the

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
gunnery crews could easily change the function of any HC shell on board by simply replacing the nose fuze.
These AA shells do not appear to have been issued their own Mark number, as they seem to have been known
simply as the HC Mark 13 AA round. Like the AP Mark 8, the HC Mark 13 projectile has a radius of ogive of 144
inches (366 cm) or 9crh.
3) A total of fifty Mark 23 "Katie" nuclear projectiles were produced during the 1950s, with development starting
in 1952 and the first service projectile being delivered in October 1956. It is possible that the W23 warhead may
have simply been installed inside of an otherwise unaltered HC Mark 13 shell body, although one of the sources
listed below says that the projectile was slightly smaller than the Mark 13. USS Iowa, USS New Jersey and USS
Wisconsin had an alteration made to Turret II magazine to incorporate a secure storage area for these
projectiles. USS Missouri was not so altered as she had been placed in reserve in 1955. This secure storage
area could contain ten nuclear shells plus nine Mark 24 practice shells. These nuclear projectiles were all
withdrawn from service by October 1962 with none ever having been fired from a gun. One projectile was
expended as part of Operation Plowshare (the peaceful use of nuclear explosive devices) and the rest were
deactivated. USS Wisconsin did fire one of the practice shells during a test in 1957. It is not clear whether or
not any of the battleships ever actually carried a nuclear device onboard, as the US Navy routinely refuses to
confirm or deny which ships carry nuclear weapons. At least one Mark 23 shell body still exists at the National
Atomic Museum in Albuquerque, New Mexico, as can be seen on the additional pictures page.
4) During the 1980s, several new projectile assemblies based upon the HC Mark 13 projectile body were
developed or planned. Some of these were in service during the Gulf War (1990).
HE-CVT Mark 143

HC projectile with a Controlled Variable Time (CVT) fuze.
Anti-Personnel Mark 144 Improved Conventional Munition (ICM)

Modified Mark 13 shell body, designed to dispense anti-personnel submunitions. Considered exceptionally
effective against personnel, aircraft and other "soft" targets. Carried 400 M43A1 anti-personnel "Bouncing Betty"
grenades with time-fuzes.
HE-ET/PT Mark 145

Similar to Mark 143, but with Electronic-Time (ET) and Point-Detonating (PD) fuzes.
Anti-Personnel Mark 146 ICM (Planned)

Similar to Mark 143, but contained 666 M42/M46/M77 SADARM bomblets with time-fuzes. Does not appear to
have entered service.
Improved HC Mark 147? (Planned)

During the battleship reactivations during the 1980s, the Navy developed a new HC design that was the same
length as the AP Mark 8 (4.5 calibers) and weighed 2,240 lbs. (1,015 kg). Several of these were test-fired from
USS Iowa and at Dahlgren, achieving ranges over 51,000 yards (46,600 m) with a new gun muzzle velocity of
2,825 fps (861 mps). This projectile does not appear to have entered general service use before all of the
battleships were decommissioned in the early 1990s. The "Mark 147" designation is my guess, I would be
interested in learning the exact designation.
HE-ER Mark 148 (Planned)

13 in (33 cm) extended-range (ER), sub-caliber projectile with sabot. ET-fuzed with a payload of submunitions.
Experiments with this projectile were conducted during the 1980s, but development was cancelled in FY91 when
the battleships were decommissioned. Projectile weight without the sabot was about 1,100 lbs. (500 kg) and
range was to be in excess of 70,000 yards (64,000 m) at a muzzle velocity of 3,600 fps (1,097 mps).
HE-ER Mark ? (Planned)

Another sub-caliber projectile with sabot, this one 11 inches (28 cm) in diameter. This project was also cancelled
about FY91. For more information on this projectile, please see the "additional pictures" link above.

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
5) All full-caliber projectiles have a bourellet diameter of 15.977 inches (40.058 cm).
6) The AP Mark 8 had a nominal 1.5 lbs. (0.68 kg) dye bag but this was allowed to be as large as 3.0 lbs. (1.36
kg) in order to bring underweight projectiles up to weight. The Iowa class was assigned the following dye colors:
USS Iowa - Orange

USS New Jersey - Blue
USS Missouri - Red
USS Wisconsin - Green
7) The propellant was in six bags for both full and reduced charges. Primer patch was at one end, quilted to
ensure even distribution, and usually colored red. The other end had a handling strap. Bags were transferred
from hoist to loading tray three bags at a time and then all six bags were rammed into the breech with a single
stroke. During the 1980s reactivations, some experiments were performed using five bag loads.
8) When first introduced into service during World War II, the barrel life was 290 ESR, the lower of the two values
given above. At that time, Nitrated-Cellulose (NC) was the standard propellant. HC rounds at 2,690 fps (820
mps) were 0.43 ESR and at 1,900 fps (579 mps) were 0.03 ESR. The Target rounds at 1,800 fps (549 mps)
were 0.08 ESR. Following World War II, Smokeless Powder Diphenylamine (SPD), a cooler-burning propellant,
was adopted in order to prolong barrel life to about the second value given above. In the 1967 and 1980s
deployments, the use of "Swedish Additive" (titanium dioxide and wax) greatly reduced barrel wear. It has been
estimated that four AP shells fired using this additive approximated the wear of a single AP shell fired without the
additive (0.26 ESR) and that HC rounds fired with the additive caused even less wear (0.11 ESR). Later
developments during the 1980s deployment led to putting a polyurethane jacket over the powder bags, which
reduced the wear still further. This jacket is simply a sheet of foam with a fabric border around the ends that is
tied to the powder bag. When the jacket burns during firing, a protective layer forms over the surface of the liner
which greatly reduces gaseous erosion. This wear reduction program was so successful that liner life can no
longer be rated in terms of ESR, as it is no longer the limiting factor. Instead, the liner life is now rated in terms
of Fatigue Equivalent Rounds (FER), which is the mechanical fatigue life expressed in terms of the number of
mechanical cycles. The 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7 is now rated at having a liner life of 1,500 FER.
9) There are conflicting accounts about the number of rounds that could be carried by the Iowa class. The
following numbers are taken from notes and sketches made by a chief gunner's mate just before USS Missouri
BB-63 was decommissioned in February 1955.
16-inch Projectiles:
Turret I: 387
Turret II: 456
Turret III: 367
Total: 1,210
16-inch Powder Canisters (each canister contains three propellant bags):

Mark 4 are Full Service, Mark 8 are Reduced Service
Turret I: 843 Mark 4 or 989 Mark 8
Turret II: 928 Mark 4 or 1,148 Mark 8
Turret III: 743 Mark 4 or 874 Mark 8
Totals: 2,514 Mark 4 or 3,011 Mark 8
As was typical of US designs, the higher position of Turret II allowed additional projectile stowage compared to
the other mountings. This accounts for the larger number of projectiles for this turret. There was also stowage
for 9 drill projectiles for each turret.
10) A 1981 inventory of naval ammunition storage facilities found that there were 15,500 HC projectiles, 3,200

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
AP projectiles and 2,300 practice rounds in stock.

.
Range
.
With 2,700 lbs. (1,224.7 kg) AP With 1,900 lbs. (861.8 kg) HC
Elevation
Mark 8 (new gun) Mark 13 (new gun)
10 degrees 17,650 yards (16,139 m) 18,200 yards (16,642 m)
Notes:
1) With reduced charges, the AP Mark 8 had a maximum range of 24,180 yards (22,110 m) while the HC Mark 13
had a maximum range of 27,350 yards (25,010 m).
2) The Mark 23 Nuclear shell had about the same weight and ballistic shape as did the HC Mark 13 projectile
and, as noted above, the nuclear warhead may have been installed in an otherwise unaltered Mark 13 shell
body. For these reasons, I would assume that the elevation/range performance of the Mark 23 would be similar
to that of the Mark 13. For the same reasons, the performances of the Mark 143, Mark 144 and Mark 145
projectiles should all be similar to that of the Mark 13.
3) Time of flight for AP Shell with MV = 2,500 fps (762 mps)

10,000 yards (9,140 m): 13.2 seconds
20,000 yards (18,290 m): 29.6 seconds
30,000 yards (27,430 m): 50.3 seconds
36,000 yards (32,920 m): 66.1 seconds
40,000 yards (36,580 m): 80.0 seconds
4) Time of flight for HC Shell with MV = 2,615 fps (797 mps)

10,000 yards (9,140 m): 13.1 seconds
20,000 yards (18,290 m): 30.3 seconds
30,000 yards (27,430 m): 53.2 seconds
35,000 yards (32,000 m): 70.3 seconds
39,500 yards (36,120 m): 86.0 seconds
5) The maximum range with the originally planned 2,240 lbs. (1,016 kg) AP Mark 5 was 47,000 yards (42,980
m). Muzzle velocity would have been 2,700 fps (823 mps) with a charge of 640 lbs. (290 kg) SPD.
6) At an "average gun" MV of 2,425 fps (1,739 mps), the maximum range with AP Mark 8 at a 40 degree
elevation was 40,185 yards (36,745 m).
.
Anti-Aircraft Range
.

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
Elevation Time of Flight Horizontal Range Altitude Slant Range

1,705 yards
10 degrees 2 1,653 yards (1,512 m) 271 yards (248 m)
(1,559 m)
3,335 yards
(3,050 m)
7,831 yards
(7,161 m)
1,702 yards
(1,556 m)
3,324 yards
20 degrees 4 3,153 yards (2,883 m) 1,054 yards (964 m)
(3,039 m)
2,188 yards (2,001 7,778 yards
20 degrees 10 7,469 yards (6,830 m)
m) (7,112 m)
1,699 yards
(1,554 m)
1,584 yards (1,448 3,313 yards
30 degrees 4 2,910 yards (2,661 m)
m) (3,029 m)
3,457 yards (3,161 7,726 yards
30 degrees 10 6,909 yards (6,318 m)
m) (7,065 m)
1,696 yards
40 degrees 2 1,313 yards (1,201 m) 1,074 yards (982 m)
(1,551 m)
2,066 yards (1,889 3,303 yards
40 degrees 4 2,577 yards (2,356 m)
m) (3,020 m)
4,611 yards (4,216 7,675 yards
40 degrees 10 6,135 yards (5,610 m)
m) (7,018 m)
1,185 yards (1,084 1,695 yards
45 degrees 2 1,211 yards (1,107 m)
m) (1,550 m)
2,284 yards (2,088 3,299 yards
45 degrees 4 2,380 yards (2,176 m)
m) (3,017 m)
5,133 yards (4,694 7,651 yards
45 degrees 10 5,673 yards (5,187 m)
m) (6,996 m)
Notes:
1) The above information is from OP 1091 "A.A. Range Table for 16-inch 50-caliber Gun" for a 1,900 lbs. (861.8
kg) HC round at a muzzle velocity of 2,615 fps (797 mps).
2) Time of flight is in seconds. The time of flight in the range tables in OP 1091 go to the surface impact point,
which is up to over a minute for elevations above 25 degrees, but I believe that the figures given in the table
above would represent practical use against aircraft during World War II.
3) Time fuzes were probably set by hand on the loading tray.

.
Accuracy During World War II

.
A Naval War College study performed during World War II estimated that an Iowa Class (BB-61) battleship firing
with top spot against a target the size of the German battleship Bismarck would be expected to achieve the
following hit percentages.

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
Percentage hits against a broadside Percentage hits against an end-on

Range Ratio
target target
10,000 yards (9,144 m) 32.7 22.3 1.47:1
20,000 yards (18,288 m) 10.5 4.1 2.56:1
30,000 yards (27,432 m) 2.7 1.4 1.92:1
.
Armor Penetration with 2,700 lbs. (1,224.5 kg) AP Mark 8

.
Range Side Armor Deck Armor Striking Velocity Angle of Fall
0 yards (0 m) 32.62" (829 mm) --- 2,500 fps (762 mps) 0
5,000 yards
29.39" (747 mm) 0.67" (17 mm) 2,280 fps (695 mps) 2.5
(4,572 m)
10,000 yards
26.16" (664 mm) 1.71" (43 mm) 2,074 fps (632 mps) 5.7
(9,144 m)
15,000 yards
23.04" (585 mm) 2.79" (71 mm) 1,893 fps (577 mps) 9.8
(13,716 m)
20,000 yards
20.04" (509 mm) 3.90" (99 mm) 1,740 fps (530 mps) 14.9
(18,288 m)
25,000 yards
17.36" (441 mm) 5.17" (131 mm) 1,632 fps (497 mps) 21.1
(22,860 m)
30,000 yards
14.97" (380 mm) 6.65" (169 mm) 1,567 fps (478 mps) 28.25
(27,432 m)
35,000 yards
12.97" (329 mm) 8.48" (215 mm) 1,555 fps (474 mps) 36.0
(32,004 m)
40,000 yards
11.02" (280 mm) 11.26" (286 mm) 1,607 fps (490 mps) 45.47
(36,576 m)
42,345 yards
9.51" (241 mm) 14.05" (357 mm) 1,686 fps (514 mps) 53.25
(38,720 m)
Note: The above information is from "Battleships: United States Battleships 1935-1992" for a muzzle velocity of
2,500 fps (762 mps) and is based upon the USN Empirical Formula for Armor Penetration. These values are in
substantial agreement with armor penetration curves published in 1942.
.
Penetration of Reinforced Concrete [5,000 psi (352 kg/cm2)]

with 2,700 lbs. (1,224.5 kg) AP Mark 8
.
Thickness in feet (meters)
Range Angle of Fall Striking Velocity Obliquity
0 degrees 30 degrees
10,000 yards (9,144 m) 5.7 2,074 fps (632 mps) 27.5 (8.4) 20.5 (6.2)
15,000 yards (13,716 m) 9.8 1,892 fps (577 mps) 23.5 (7.2) 17.5 (5.3)
20,000 yards (18,288 m) 14.9 1,740 fps (530 mps) 21.0 (6.4) 15.5 (4.7)
25,000 yards (22,860 m) 21.1 1,632 fps (497 mps) 19.5 (5.9) 14.5 (4.4)
30,000 yards (27,432 m) 28.25 1,567 fps (478 mps) 18.5 (5.6) 14.0 (4.3)

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
35,000 yards (32,004 m) 36.0 1,556 fps (474 mps) 18.0 (5.5) 13.5 (4.1)
40,000 yards (36,576 m) 45.47 1,607 fps (490 mps) 19.0 (5.8) 14.0 (4.3)
42,345 yards (38,720 m) 53.25 1,686 fps (514 mps) 20.0 (6.1) 15.0 (4.6)
Note: The above information is from OP 1172 using a muzzle velocity of 2,500 fps (762 mps) (new gun).
.
Penetration of Reinforced Concrete [5,000 psi (352 kg/cm2)]

with 1,900 lbs. (862 kg) HC Mark 13
.
Thickness in feet (meters)
Range Angle of Fall Striking Velocity Obliquity
0 degrees 30 degrees
10,000 yards (9,144 m) 5 2,083 fps (635 mps) 16.5 (5.0) 13.0 (4.0)
15,000 yards (13,716 m) 10 1,820 fps (555 mps) 14.0 (4.3) 11.0 (3.4)
20,000 yards (18,288 m) 16 1,606 fps (490 mps) 12.5 (3.8) 9.5 (2.9)
25,000 yards (22,860 m) 23 1,461 fps (445 mps) 11.0 (3.4) 8.5 (2.6)
30,000 yards (27,432 m) 32 1,391 fps (424 mps) 10.5 (3.2) 8.0 (2.4)
35,000 yards (32,004 m) 41 1,394 fps (425 mps) 10.5 (3.2) 8.0 (2.4)
40,000 yards (36,576 m) 51 1,479 fps (451 mps) 11.0 (3.4) 9.0 (2.7)
41,622 yards (38,060 m) 57 1,552 fps (473 mps) 12.0 (3.7) 9.5 (2.9)
Note: The above information is from OP 1172 using a muzzle velocity of 2,690 fps (820 mps) (new gun).
.
Mount / Turret Data

.
Three-gun Turrets
Designation
Iowa (3) and Montana (4)
Iowa class: 1,701 - 1,708 tons (1,728.4 -
Weight
1,735.4 mt)
(see Note 1)
Montana class: N/A
Turrets I and III: -2 / +45 degrees
Elevation
Turret II: 0 / +45 degrees
Rate of Elevation 12 degrees per second
Rate of Train 4 degrees per second
Gun Recoil
48 in (1.219m)
(see Note 7)
Loading Angle +5 degrees

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
Notes:
1) The mountings for the Iowa class were originally to have used the same gun as planned for the never-built
South Dakota BB-49 class, the 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 2. When the plans for using that weapon fell apart due to
miscommunications between design bureaus, a new, smaller mounting design using the much lighter 16"/50
(40.6 cm) Mark 7 was generated. This mounting was no larger than the three-gun 16"/45 (40.6 cm) turrets used
for the North Carolina BB-55 and South Dakota BB-57 classes, which meant that the turret training pinions were
crowded together and difficult to access. The mountings for the never-built Montana BB-67 class would have
been similar but with thicker armor protection.
2) As built, all three turrets on the Iowa class had 46 foot (14 m) rangefinders, with Stereoscopic Mark 52 used in
Turrets II and III and Coincidence Mark 53 in Turret I. The Mark 52 is a 25 power system weighing 10,500 lbs.
(4,763 kg) and which cost about $100,000 US during World War II. Near focus is 5,000 yards (4,570 m) and the
maximum range is 45,000 yards (41,150 m). In the 1950s, the rangefinder on Turret I was removed as weight
compensation for growth in other areas. The rangefinder on Turret I was selected as, unlike the stereoscopic
rangefinders on the other turrets and elsewhere on the ship, this rangefinder was a coincidence type with a
special astigmatic lens which allowed it to range in on a single point source, such as a searchlight. With the
increasing sophistication of fire control radar, such a capability became redundant. The lower height of Turret I
above the water also meant that this mounting had a shorter distance to the horizon capability.
3) Each turret requires 94 men to operate.
4) Training was by a 300 hp electric motor driving hydraulic gear. Each gun had a 60 hp motor for elevation, a 60
hp motor for ramming, a 75 hp motor for the shell hoist and a 100 hp motor for the powder hoist. Each of the
shell rings used a 40 hp motor.
5) These mountings used delay coils, which delayed the firing of the center gun by about 0.060 seconds (60
milliseconds). This delay, plus a wider spacing between the gun barrels than on the older ships, improved the
dispersion patterns.
6) The gun axes are 122 in (310 cm) apart according to BuOrd OP 769. "Naval Weapons of World War Two"
mistakenly says 117 in (297 cm), the same as this reference lists for the 16"/45 (40.6 cm) Mark 6 guns used on
the North Carolina (BB-55) and South Dakota (BB-57) classes.
7) Recoil lasts 0.43 seconds and counter recoil lasts 0.90 seconds at +15 degrees elevation.
.
.
Click here to read the Firing Procedure for the 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
.
Data from
"US Battleships: An Illustrated Design History," "US Naval Weapons" and "The Naval Institute Guide to World Naval
Weapon Systems 1991/92" all by Norman Friedman
"The Iowa Class Battleships" by Malcolm Muir
"Battleships: United States Battleships, 1935-1992" by W.H. Garzke, Jr. and R.O. Dulin, Jr.
"U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in World War II" by Lt. Cmdr. Buford Rowland, USNR, and Lt. William B. Boyd, USNR
"Iowa Class Battleships" by Robert F. Sumrall
----
"Naval Ordnance and Gunnery - 1952" Navpers 16116-B
---
Special help by Richard Landgraff, Nathan Okun, Leo Fischer and William Jurens

USA 16"/50 (40.6 cm) Mark 7
Off-site Resources
For further information on these weapons, see USS Iowa Website

For a memorial to the men killed in Turret II, see USS Iowa Virtual Memorial
For information about the Mark 38 GFCS, see William E. Genereux Website
For a webpage devoted to a gun from USS New Jersey (BB-62), see Alan Zirkle Website
See Gene Slover's Navy Pages for an on-line copies of BuOrd OP 769 "16-Inch Three Gun Turrets BB-61 Class" and OP
1091 "A.A. Range Table for 16-inch 50-caliber Gun"
---
Windows Media Files (Video) at USS Missouri BB-63 Website
Operation of 16" gun ca. 1955
Firing 5" and 16" guns near Australia in 1986
Firing 5" and 16" guns during SinkEx Shoot in 1989

British 2-pdr [4 cm/39 (1.575")] Mark VIII
British
2-pdr [4 cm/39 (1.575")] Mark VIII
Updated 17 May 2006
Also known as the "multiple pom-pom," this weapon was essentially a redesign of the 2-pdr Mark II to
suit an eight gun mounting. The Mark VIII used the same barrel as the previous weapon, but the new
design did have an improved automatic mechanism. It has been speculated that the reason that the 2-
pdr shell was selected for this weapon was because there were about 2,000,000 rounds left over from the
First World War.
This weapon had a long development history. It started off when six 2-pdr Mark II guns were mounted
on a common base on HMS Dragon during 1921-22. This was modestly successful, and as a result
design work was begun by Vickers and Armstrong on various multiple-gun designs. Armstrong
produced a design that allowed continuous fire while the Vickers design did not, but the Armstrong
product was also a more complicated design. Vickers won the contract and presented an eight-gun
mockup for examination in July 1923 at Vickers, Dartford. Lack of funding delayed proving ground firing
trials out to 1927 with sea trials aboard HMS Tiger being held in 1928. The first service introduction on
HMS Valiant was not until the end of 1930.
Satisfactory completion of these trials loosened the purse strings and during 1931 Nelson, Rodney and
Revenge each received one mounting while Hood received two. The following year saw Furious and
Royal Sovereign each receiving two mountings while Renown received one. At the time of its service
introduction in 1931, this was a very advanced weapon, but by 1939 the rapid improvements in aircraft
design had rendered this gun obsolete, as it had a low muzzle velocity and lacked a satisfactory
explosive shell. Nonetheless, it was still manufactured in large numbers throughout World War II.
Single and quad mountings for smaller ships were also produced after 1935, with the single mounting
being widely used as a bow-chaser on coastal convoy escorts during the war.
As originally introduced, this was a recoil operated, "controlled" (partially-automatic) weapon which
used a manually turned crank to operate the firing gear. In 1939 provision was made to allow guns in the
octuple and single mountings to fire in fully automatic mode by replacing the crank turner with a electric
motor, but quadruple mountings were apparently supplied only in controlled versions throughout the
war. A higher velocity projectile was introduced in 1938 which required a different breech mechanism
and other changes. However, guns firing only the older low-velocity projectiles were still manufactured
throughout World War II. There were several other variations, as shown in the data tables below. It
should be noted that standardization was never a high priority in British ordnance thinking prior to the
1950s.
The internal gun mechanisms were very complex and required much care and skilled maintenance to
keep them in working condition. Jams and stoppages were frequent, although the linked ammunition
proved to be more reliable in service than the older belt-fed guns.
Constructed of monobloc barrel and the breech block moved parallel with the gun axis. The naval gun
register lists a total of 6,691 guns made in Britain, including 12 prototypes, 843 manufactured in Canada
and 219 ex-land service (Army) which were scrapped in 1944-45. This was roughly twice the number of
Bofors 40 mm guns used by the Royal Navy.
A variation of this gun was exported to Japan where it was designated as the 40 mm/62 "HI" Shiki.
Actual bore length was 39.37 calibers.
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNBR_2pounder_m8.htm (1 of 9)7/20/2006 15:18:18

2-pdr. in Mark VI Octuple Mount on HMS Ark Royal in 1939

The large boxes on the right are for ammunition
This appears to be a low velocity mounting

Single 2-pdr. at the Imperial War Museum in London, UK

Photograph copyrighted by Vladimir Yakubov

2-pdr. in Mark VII Quad Mounting

Sketch from B.R. 224/45
2-pdr HV Rounds
Sketch courtesy of Steve Johnson's Cyberheritage Website

.
Images at The Vickers Photographic Archives
See multi-barrel, gun sight pounder, pounder XVI, Mark VIII guns, VIA, 40mm barrelled four, barrelled naval mk
and flash protector
.
.
Images at Australian War Memorial
Picture of 2-pdr ammunition in belts
Search via "017310"
.
.
Gun Characteristics
.
Vickers 2-pdr Mark VIII
Suffix designations:
CLV: Controlled Low Velocity
CHV: Controlled High Velocity
CHV(U): CHV with modification to latch locking crank
ALV: Automatic Low Velocity
AHV: Automatic High Velocity
Designation W W
CHV and AHV : CHV and AHV with modified cooling jackets to allow water
circulation
There were also right and left hand inner and outer guns (indicated by the suffixes
RHI, LHI, RHO and LHO), the differences being in the ammunition feed. In outer
guns and in upper guns in quadruple mountings, the connecting block in the gun -
which took the barrel, buffer cylinders and ejector tube - was lengthened by 13
inches (33 cm) to allow the ammunition feed for inner and lower guns to pass
through.
Ship Class Used On Almost all major warships of World War II
Date Of Design 1923
Octuple Mounting: 1930
Date In Service
Quad Mounting: 1936
Gun Weight LV: 572 lbs. (259.5 kg)
(see Note) HV: 850 lbs. (385.6 kg)
Gun Length oa 102.6 in (2.606 m) [one source says 115.6 in (2.936 m)]
Bore Length 62.0 in (1.575 m)
Grooves (12) 0.0141 in deep x 0.322 (0.358 x 8.18 mm)
Lands 0.894 in (2.271 mm)
Chamber Volume 9.98 in3 (0.165 dm3)

Controlled Fire: 96-98 rounds per minute

Rate Of Fire
Automatic Fire: 115 rounds per minute
W W
Note: These weights probably do not include the cooling water. Only CHV and AHV guns were fitted
for water recirculation, other models had simple water jackets.
.
Ammunition
.
Type Fixed
HE LV - 2.0 lbs. (0.91 kg)
Projectile Types and Weights HE HV - 1.81 lbs. (0.82 kg)
(see Note 4) SAP - 2.0 lbs. (0.91 kg)
AP - N/A, probably 2.0 lbs. (0.91 kg)
HE LV - 2.95 lbs. (1.34 kg)
HE HV - 2.87 lbs. (1.30 kg)
Weight of Complete Round
SAP - 2.95 lbs. (1.34 kg)
AP - N/A, probably 2.95 lbs. (1.34 kg)
HE LV - 0.16 lbs. (0.071 kg)
Bursting Charge HE HV - N/A
SAP - 0.05 lbs. (0.023 kg)
N/A
Projectile Length
Complete round: 11.995 in (30.47 cm)
HE LV: 0.243 lbs. (0.11 kg)
HE HV: 0.2793 lbs. (0.13 kg)
Propellant Charge
Others: N/A
Cartridge weighed 1.0 lbs. (0.45 kg)
Cartridge 40 x 158R
LV: 1,920 fps (585 mps)
Muzzle Velocity HV: 2,300 fps (701 mps)
Others - N/A
LV: 15.5 tons / in2 (2,440 kg / cm2)
Working Pressure
HV: 16.5 tons / in2 (2,600 kg / cm2)
LV: 5,000 rounds
HV: 7,200 rounds
Royal Sovereign class, Hood, Barham and Malaya: 720 rounds
Warspite: 750 rounds
Queen Elizabeth, Valiant, King George V class, Renown, Town class,
Magazine capacity per gun
Dido class and Colony class: 1,800 rounds
Tribal class: 3,500 rounds
Ark Royal and Courageous classes: 2,500 rounds

Notes:
1) Low Velocity type shells were first introduced in 1914. The High Velocity type was introduced in 1938.
2) The usual outfit was HE and HE tracer, but SAP and AP were issued to a limited number of ships. HE
tracer may not have been issued prior to 1942.
3) Ammunition was in 14-round steel-linked belts which could be hooked together to give up to 140 rounds
per gun in the octuple mounting.
4) Complete breakdown of LV shell weight from "Q.F. High Explosive 2 pdr Mark II N Shell":
Empty body: 1.45 lbs. (0.66 kg)

Driving band: 0.875 oz (0.025 kg)
Paint: 0.125 oz (0.0035 kg)
Bursting charge: 2.5 oz (0.071 kg)
Fuze No 131: 5.25 oz (0.15 kg)
Total filled: 2 lbs. (0.9 kg)
.
Range
.
Shell Type and Weight Range
With LV shells 2.0 lbs. (0.91 kg) 3,800 yards (3,475 m)
With HV shells 1.81 lbs. (0.82 kg) 5,000 yards (4,572 m)
AA Ceiling with HV shells 13,300 ft. (3,960 m)
.
Mount / Turret Data

.
Octuple Mounts
M (later changed to Mark V)
Mark VA
Mark VI
Mark VIA
RP10 Mark VIA*
Designation Quadruple Mounts

(see Notes 1 and 2) Mark VII
RP50 Mark VII*
Mark VII*P
Single Mounts
Mark VIII (hand worked)
Mark XVI (power worked and used mostly by
coastal forces)

Octuple
M (Mark V): 16 tons (15 mt)
Mark VA: 15.04 tons (15.3 mt)
Mark VIA: 15.68 tons (15.9 mt)
Quadruple
Weight Mark VII*: 8.58 tons (8.7 mt)
RP 50 Mark VII*: 10.00 tons (10.16 mt)
Mark VII*P: 11.01 tons (11.19 mt)
Single
Mark VIII: 1.78 tons (1.8 mt)
Mark XVI: 1.1 tons (1.1 mt)
Quad and Octuple Mounts: -10 / +80 degrees
Elevation
Single Mounts: -10 / +70 degrees
Manual: 15 degrees per second
Elevation Rate
RPC Mounts: 25 degrees per second
Train 360 degrees
Manual: 15 degrees per second
Train Rate
RPC Quad Mounts: 25 degrees per second
RPC Single Mounts: 40 degrees per second
Gun recoil N/A
Notes:
1) The Mark V differed from the Mark VI by having a heavier carriage and different controlled firing gear.
Both were operated by a self-contained electro-hydraulic system powered by an 11 hp motor. Later
octuple mountings capable of automatic firing were introduced in 1939 and designated as Mark VA and
Mark VIA.
2) Mountings capable of firing the HV projectiles are indicated by the star (*) in their designations.
3) When RPC was added to the Mark VIA* mountings, water cooling jackets were also introduced.
4) Gyro sights were added to some mountings in 1945 as an anti-kamikaze measure, mainly for units
intended for the Pacific area of operations. At least Anson, Duke of York and Implacable were fitted.
5) The Mark VII and Mark VII* were hand elevated and trained. The Mark VII*P was a late war quadruple
mounting with self-contained power that had a dual joystick control. RP 50 Mark VII* mountings also had
local joystick controls.
.
Data from
"Big Gun Monitors: The History of the Design, Construction and Operation of the Royal Navy's Monitors" by Ian
Buxton

"Destroyer Weapons of World War 2" by Peter Hodges and Norman Friedman
"British Carrier Aviation" by Norman Friedman
"Battleships: Allied Battleships in World War II" by W.H. Garzke, Jr. and R.O. Dulin, Jr.
"British Battleships of World War Two" and "British Cruisers of World War Two" both by Alan Raven and John
Roberts
---
"Q.F. High Explosive 2 pdr Mark II N Shell - Forged Steel with Fixing Screw Design." No. 21,071.c.(1) / A.D.G.
S/3/164 dated 24 February 1916
---
Special help from Anthony G. Williams

British 15"/42 (38.1 cm) Mark I
British
15"/42 (38.1 cm) Mark I
This was quite possibly the best large-caliber naval gun ever developed by the British and it was certainly one of the
longest-lived of any nation, with the first ship-board firing taking place in 1915 and the last in 1954. The design of this
weapon was largely based upon the 13.5"/45 (34.3 cm) Mark V and it was rushed into production, bypassing the normal
- and lengthy - prototype stage. This shortened design cycle was approved by the Director of Naval Ordnance, Rear
Admiral Archibald Moore, who staked his "professional existence" on its success. The reason for this rushed
procedure was to allow what became the Queen Elizabeth class battleships to be armed with larger guns than would
have otherwise been possible. Although their first warshots were for bombarding shore positions at Gallipoli in 1915,
the true value of these guns was amply shown at the Battle of Jutland (Skagerrak) where they were able to engage
German battlecruisers at a range of 19,000 yards (17,400 m), which was beyond the maximum range of the guns on the
German ships.
By the mid-1930s these guns were growing obsolete, as other nations had developed more powerful weapons, capable
of longer ranges and firing heavier projectiles. And the ships themselves were approaching their third decade of
service and starting to show signs of wearing out. A "modernization" program was thus initiated where the ships had
major overhauls performed and their weapons upgraded. There were two major improvements made to these guns
during the modernizations: 1) The maximum elevation of the mountings was increased from 20 to 30 degrees, which
raised their maximum range with 4crh projectiles from 23,700 yards to 29,000 yards (21,670 m to 26,520 m), and 2) The
projectiles were redesigned with a more streamlined ballistic cap fitted (6crh), which increased the range still further to
about 32,000 yards (29,260 m) at 30 degrees elevation. Thanks to these modifications, in July 1940 HMS Warspite made
one of the longest hits ever scored by a naval gun on an enemy ship when she struck the Italian battleship Guilio
Cesare at approximately 26,000 yards (23,770 m).
The rate at which these ships could be modernized was limited and by the start of World War II Malaya, Barham,
Repulse and the five Royal Sovereign class battleships had not yet been upgraded. Royal Oak, Barham and Repulse
were sunk early in the war, but for the remaining unmodernized ships a "Super Charge" was developed. This was the
largest propellant charge that the guns and mountings could safely handle and these were issued starting in late 1941.
At the maximum elevation of 20 degrees, a range of 28,700 yards (26,240 m) could be achieved with these Super
Charges. However, from a study of the records, it would appear that no ship ever fired a shot using Super Charges,
although they were used by the coastal artillery at Dover. Super Charges were not issued to ships with 30 degree
mountings as the increased barrel wear and mounting stress was not considered to be acceptable. For this reason,
sources which quote HMS Vanguard as having gun ranges in excess of 32,000 yards (29,260 m) are somewhat
misleading, as such a range would have required the use of super charges, which she never carried.
In addition to the ship-board guns, there were also four guns (one source says five) used as coastal artillery at
Singapore and a further two mounted at Wanstone near Dover.
Constructed of tapered inner A tube, A tube, full-length multi-start wire, B tube, overlapping jacket and breech ring.
Used a Welin breech operated by hydraulic Vickers "pure-coupled" mechanism. A total of 186 guns, including two
prototypes, and 58 turrets were manufactured between 1912 and 1918.
The second prototype gun, E597, was to a considerably different construction, having a full-length jacket, no B tube
and an Elswick three-motion short arm breech mechanism which considerably reduced "slam." This gun suffered a
failed A tube during proof testing. Had this gun not failed, the Elswick breech mechanism probably would have been
used on all production guns.
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNBR_15-42_mk1.htm (1 of 14)7/20/2006 15:18:21

Forward Turrets of HMS Hood in 1932

Note the 5.5" (14 cm) secondary guns
.
.
.
Gun Characteristics
.
Designation 15"/42 (38.1 cm) Mark I
Capital Ships: Queen Elizabeth, Royal Sovereign,
Ship Class Used On Glorious, Repulse, Hood and Vanguard classes
Monitors: Marshal Soult, Erebus and Roberts classes
Date Of Design 1912
Gun Weight 224,000 lbs. (101,605 kg) including breech mechanism
Gun Length oa 650.4 in (16.520 m)
Grooves (76) 0.1245 in deep x 0.445 (2.16 x 11.30 mm)

Lands 0.175 in (4.445 mm)

Chamber Volume 30,650 in3 (502.3 dm3)
Rate Of Fire 2 rounds per minute
Note: From "Progress in Gunnery Material, 1921" ADM 186/251:
32. Comparison between British and German Gun Designs
(a) The design of German 38 cm, 42.4 calibre Naval gun mounted in “Baden” has been carefully investigated
and compared with that of the British 15 in. Mark I 42 calibre gun.
(b) The main points of difference between this [German] design and British designs are as follows:
(i) The gun is not relinable.
(ii) Factors of safety are lower. In calculating the strength of the gun at any point, the Germans
allow the steel to be stressed much nearer to its elastic limit that we do in our designs, also the
figure of elastic limit which they take for purposes of calculation is higher than ours. The gun is
not serviceable with barrel split.
(iii) The gun is a Q.F., which permits of radical differences in construction from those necessary
at the breech end of a B.L. gun.
(iv) All-steel construction as against wired type.
(v) Much smaller chamber (Capacity 18,000 cu. In. as compared to our 30,590.)
The effect generally of (i), (ii) and (v) is to lighten the gun considerably.
(iii) is a matter of general policy ; there are reasons both for and against Q.F. guns of this calibre
(iv) The advantages of all-steel versus wire-wound guns have been the subject of discussion for a great
many years, and opinions still differ as to which is better than the other from point of view of strength and
ballistics ; more recently, however, it has been considered probable that the smaller droop and greater rigidity
of the all-steel type may be a very important factor in effect on accuracy. The German gun is noticeably stiff
in the region of the centre of gravity, making for small droop and whip ; this is undoubtedly a good point.
(c) As regards (i), the life of our guns (about 325 E.F.C.) is apparently considerably less than that of German
heavy guns owing to their use of cooler propellant. They evidently considered that the life of their guns was
long enough to justify the simpler lighter design which is possible when relining is not intended. Experiments
with propellants generally similar to the German are in hand, but some time must elapse before any can be
adopted to replace cordite M.D. in the Service. Until then it is considered that we should certainly continue to
design our guns for relining.
(d) As regards (ii), apparently German designers placed greater reliance on their steel forgings than we do on
ours, and consequently stressed them much more highly. In all large steel forgings there is always a certain
factor of uncertainty which we have allowed for and the Germans have been content to neglect. This is not
confined to gun construction, but it is to be found throughout British engineering practice generally. The high
factors of safety used in this country are considered to be partly due to the above and partly to caution, which
may have been brought about by a few failures of guns in the past caused by faulty building or poor steel,
also because there has been no special demand for light gun. We now call for a factor of safety of 1.5 over
the chamber and of 2 forward before the steel is stressed up to a figure well below the specification yield
point (20 tons as against the German 27). Consequently according to German ideas our factor of safety is 2
or 2.7.

The possibility of reducing the factors of safety in our gun designs has been the subject of discussion
recently, and trials to test whether they are unduly great have been arranged for. Doubtless some reduction
will now be possible in view of the great advance in machining operations and steel treatment made of late
years, but improvements materially affecting our designs can only be adopted gradually. It is confidently
anticipated that the forgings for the 16 in. designs will be much superior to what we have had in the past and
fully equal to the German, the chief advance being in improvement in elastic limit and resistance to shock,
which latter as evidently been specially attended to by German steel makers and is now provided for in our
specifications for steel forgings.
The effect of these two points (lower factor of safety and high stress in the steel in the German design) is
very marked over the chase with consequent reduction in weight and therefore decrease in the droop – a
point already referred to in para. (b).
(e) As regards (iii), a movement between breech bush and inner tubes in a Q.F. gun with cartridge case is of
much less importance than with B.L. gun and obturator pad in maintaining an effective seal, and this has
permitted the longitudinal stresses being taken direct by the jacket, the breech bush screwing into this
instead of into the A tube as in our designs. This simplifies design and manufacture. It has also permitted
the use of short hoops in lieu of a long B tube, a form of construction that offers many advantages in
accuracy of building shrinkage, though at the same time providing less longitudinal strength, which is poor in
the German design according to our ideas.
The fact that the Germans accepted this longitudinal weakness shows that they had great confidence in the
workmanship and skill of their gunmakers, as good results depended entirely on these. Our guns are
undoubtedly easier to build and are so strong circumferentially due to the wire that the accuracy in building
shrinkages, necessary in the German design has not been called for.
(f) As regards (iv), steel and wire construction will be tried out in the trial 16 in. designs, also in trial 6 in. guns
to be manufactured this year.
(g) As regards (v), the small size of chamber is not suitable for a solid cord propellant which we have hitherto
adhered to. The question of adopting a tubular propellant [may be resolved as] various experiments are in
progress.
The opinion is now held that the tubular shape makes for higher M.V. but reduced accuracy as regards mean
differences in M.V.
It is more difficult to manufacture to accurate dimensions than cord or oval. Also, with a propellant such as M.
D. cordite which has a volatile solvent (acetone) there would be less uniformity of stick than is obtainable with
a propellant (like the German) with non-volatile solvent. Ardeer cordite has a non-volatile solvent. Again,
owing to its form, a tubular propellant is inherently more susceptible to the influence of variations in ballistic
conditions, and thus, though actual wear may be less, loss of velocity for a fewer number of rounds may be
greater.
It is, however, one of the many things that requires further investigation before we can be in a position to
decide finally what to adopt in the future. It is quite certain that we shall be able to improve on cordite M.D.
(h) Apparently the Germans consider it unnecessary to fire proof rounds in testing guns for supply, and, to
take this gun as an example, this certainly permitted them to cut down factors of safety, and therefore weight.
(i) Summarising, the main lessons to be learnt from study of the German design are :-
(i) The possibility of reduced factors of safety being introduced into our designs, especially
towards the muzzle.
(ii) The reduction of droop by (i) combined by the use of all-steel construction with a view to
obtaining greater rigidity and consequently improved accuracy. At the same time distance of
centre of gravity of gun from breech end would probably be decreased, and this would be
advantageous as affecting diameter of barbette and size of mounting generally.

(iii) The need for taking advantage of manufacturing progress and greater knowledge obtained
by experience in ordering trial guns of new designs from time to time, so that when new guns
are required in supply they can be ordered to the most up-to-date designs. Unless this is done,
our gun designers cannot acquire confidence in their designs nor can the gun makers gain
experience in building.
(iv) The necessity for constantly revising our specifications to obtain the best possible gun steel,
and for ensuring by strict inspection during manufacture, that specifications are adhered to and
that the workmanship is of the highest standard.
The trial 16 in. guns and experiments in hand on other guns will test some of these points, but the trial guns
have chases with a large factor of safety and the droop is therefore not the smallest obtainable.
(j) It may be of interest to mention here that the trial 16 in. gun under manufacture by E.O.C. weighs
practically the same as a gun of similar calibre that has been designed working to German figures and
methods. It will be clear, therefore, that a good deal has been done already towards reducing weight ; but,
although this is very desirable, it can certainly be overdone, and if the gun is not sufficiently stiff, its accuracy
will be less good than one where weight has been subordinated all through to gunnery considerations. There
is no doubt at all as to the importance of stiffness in a gun.
(k) It is the intention to build, next year, a 6 in. gun to the German design, so far as this can be done without
adopting the Q.F. principle, and to try this gun against our guns of similar calibre.
Ammunition
.
Type Bag
APC Mark Ia (4crh) - 1,920 lbs. (871 kg)
APC Mark IIIa (4crh - Greenboy) - 1,910 lbs. (866.4 kg)
APC Mark Va (4crh - post World War I) - 1,917 lbs. (869.5
kg)
CPC 4crh - 1,920 lbs. (871 kg)
Projectile Types and Weights HE 4crh - 1,920 lbs. (871 kg)
Shrapnel 4crh - 1,920 lbs. (871 kg)
APC Mark XVIIb (6crh) - 1,938 lbs. (879 kg)

APC Mark XXIIb (6crh) - 1,938 lbs. (879 kg)
HE Mark VIIIb (6crh) - 1,938 lbs. (879 kg)
APC Mark Ia - 60.5 lbs. (27.4 kg) Lyddite
APC Mark IIIa - 45.3 lbs. (20.5 kg) Shellite
APC Mark Va - 45.3 lbs. (20.5 kg) Shellite
CPC - 129.3 lbs. (58.6 kg) Powder
HE 4crh - 216.5 lbs. (98.2 kg)
Bursting Charge
Shrapnel - 13,700 1.75 oz (49.6 gm) lead-alloy balls
APC Mark XVIIb - 48.5 lbs. (22.0 kg) Shellite

APC Mark XXIIb (6crh) - 48.5 lbs. (22.0 kg) Shellite
HE Mark VIIIb - 130 lbs. (59 kg)

APC Mark Ia - 54.5 in (138.4 cm)

APC Mark IIIa - 55.9 in (142.0 cm)
CPC - 63.3 in (160.8 cm)
HE 4crh - 63.9 in (162.3 cm)
Projectile Length
Shrapnel - about 63.9 in (162.3 cm)
APC Mark XVIIb - 65.0 in (165.1 cm)

HE Mark VIIIb - 67.0 in (170.2 cm)
World War I: 428 lbs. (194 kg) MD45
Propellant Charge After 1927 (standard charge): 432 lbs. (196 kg) SC 280
Super charge: 490 lbs. (222.2 kg) SC 300
World War I
APC 4crh - 2,575 fps (785 mps)
Muzzle Velocity
1927-1954
(see Note 1)
APC 4crh - 2,467 fps (752 mps)
APC 6crh (standard charges) - 2,458 fps (749 mps)
APC 6crh (super charges) - 2,638 fps (804 mps)
MD and SC standard charge: 20 tons/in2 (3,150 kg/cm2)
Working Pressure
Super Charge: 23 tons/in2 (3,620 kg/cm2)
335 rounds
(see Note 8)
Queen Elizabeth, Royal Sovereign and Vanguard classes:
100 rounds
Renown, Courageous and Hood classes: 120 rounds
(see Note 4)
Marshall Soult and Erebus: 100 rounds
Abercrombie and Roberts: 110 rounds
Notes:
1) There are disagreements between the sources listed below as to the muzzle velocity of these guns, which I suspect has
to do with whether they use "new gun" or "average gun" figures. In the table above, I have chosen to use those muzzle
velocity figures given in "Warship Volume V" for MD charges and those muzzle velocity figures given in "Naval Weapons
of World War Two" for standard SC charges and for SC super charges. These are "new gun" figures, while the velocities
given in the tables below represent "average gun" figures and are taken from British range tables.
2) The 4crh projectiles are more properly defined as 3.05/4crh. The 6crh projectiles are more properly defined as
5/10crh. See the Naval Technology Board essay, "Calculating crh" for further information.
3) The 6crh projectile was introduced in 1938. Originally, these new projectiles were limited to Warspite, Renown, Valiant
and Queen Elizabeth. In other words, they were only issued to those ships with the modified Mark I* or Mark I*/N
mountings. This was apparently because the projectile handling equipment on the non-modernized ships could not
accommodate the longer 6crh shell. Following a refit in mid-1940, Barham was outfitted with 6crh projectiles and the other
ships were modified to use them from late-1941 to mid-1943. Hood, Royal Oak and Repulse apparently never carried
these newer projectiles, as they were sunk before the necessary modifications could be made.
4) Outfits for battleships and Renown were originally limited to APC. Repulse carried 84 APC and 36 CPC per gun. The
Courageous class were originally designed for 80 rounds per gun but this was increased to 120 rounds following the
Falklands battle, where ammunition expenditure was very heavy. In the 1920s, 6 shrapnel rounds per gun were added to
most battleships while the outfit for Renown was changed to 96 APC, 24 CPC and 6 shrapnel rounds per gun plus a total
of 70 practice rounds. As completed, Hood had an outfit of 289 CPC, 672 APC, 30 shrapnel (forward turrets only) and 82
practice rounds. After her 1929-1931 refit, she carried 160 CPC (TNT burster), 640 APC (Shellite burster), 48 shrapnel
and 96 practice rounds. In the latter years of World War II, surviving ships replaced five APC rounds with HE unless they
were assigned to bombardment missions, in which case the proportion of HE was greatly increased. Outfits for monitors
during World War I was 10 CPC and 90 HE per gun while during World War II it was 30 to 60 APC or CPC and the
balance HE. Monitors usually carried 8 practice shells per gun. HMS Vanguard when completed post-war carried 95

APC, 5 HE and 9 practice shells per gun until she was converted to "Royal Yacht" duties in 1947, after which time she
rarely carried any main gun ammunition at all.
5) Propellant was in quarters for all charge types. Super charges were supplied at the rate of twenty per gun to ships with
20 degree mountings.
6) During World War II "K" shell Mark KIBT was introduced which contained dyes for coloring the shell splashes. These
shells also had a small fuze and burster to disperse the dye. These additions increased the APC weight to 1,944 lbs. (882
kg). Active ships had the following colors listed in a 20 June 1946 Fleet Order:
Queen Elizabeth: Red

Valiant: Green
Vanguard: Yellow
Renown: None
7) In addition to the projectiles listed above, an 8crh HE projectile weighing 1,965 lbs. (891.3 kg) was developed for use by
the monitors during 1918. This had a range of about 32,000 yards (29,260 m) at 30 degrees.
8) The life figure given above is for APC with full charges. HE was limited to 250 EFC as the longer body and greater
longitudinal inertia could result in unsteady flight if the rifling was too worn. Erosion was greatly affected by the size of the
charge, with a 3/4 charge causing only 1/4 of the erosion of a full charge. The 15" (38.1 cm) guns were usually
condemned when the wear reached about 0.74" (1.9 cm) at a point one inch (2.54 cm) from the start of the rifling. Guns in
otherwise good condition could be relined by replacing the inner A tube.
9) The USA firm of Crucible Steel supplied some APC and HE projectiles during World War II. Trials with the APC shells
showed that their armor penetration was about equal to the ones manufactured by Hadfield and Firth Brown although
inferior to the ones made by Cardonald. During firing missions on 06 June 1944, the monitors HMS Erebus and HMS
Roberts each had one gun destroyed by bore prematures which were traced to faulty fuzes in these HE rounds.
.
Range
.
Elevation With 1,920 lbs. (871 kg) 4crh AP Shell
Striking Velocity Angle of Fall
(see Note 2) MV of 2,400 fps (732 mps) using MD or SC standard charges
1.0 degree 1,920 yards (1,756 m) --- 1.0
5.0 degrees 8,629 yards (7,980 m) --- 6.0
10.0 degrees 14,853 yards (13,582 m) --- 13.0
15.0 degrees 19,707 yards (18,020 m) --- 21.0
20.0 degrees
23,734 yards (21,702 m) --- 29.0
(see Note 3)
20.0 degrees
23,387 yards (21,385 m) --- ---
(see Note 3)
.
With 1,938 lbs. (879 kg) 6crh AP Shell
Elevation Striking Velocity Angle of Fall
MV of 2,400 fps (732 mps) using SC standard charges

.
With 1,938 lbs. (879 kg)
Elevation 6crh AP Shell
Striking Velocity Angle of Fall
(see Note 4) MV of 2,575 fps (785 mps)
using SC super charges
20.0 degrees 28,732 yards (26,273 m) --- ---
44,150 yards (40,370 m)
about New gun MV of 2,638 fps
--- ---
50.0 degrees (804 mps) using SC super
charges
Notes:
1) There are disagreements between the sources listed below as to the maximum range of these guns. I have chosen to
use those figures given in "The Big Gun" for MD charges and those given in "Naval Weapons of World War Two" for SC
standard and SC super charges.
2) In the "With 1,920 lbs. (871 kg) 4crh AP Shell" table, elevations above 20 degrees apply only to HMS Hood and to the
monitors, as these were the only ships as completed that had gun elevations greater than 20 degrees. Ships given
extensive modernizations in the 1930s had their mountings modified to achieve 30 degree elevations, but those ships
were then issued 6crh projectiles.
3) For reasons that are not made clear in the text of "The Big Gun," two different ranges for 20 degree elevation are given
for 1,920 lbs. (871 kg) 4crh shells. The first value shown above is presented as part of a table of figures and appears to
be from the range tables for this weapon. There is no indication as to what the second figure represents, but I include it
here for reference purposes.
4) As noted above, super charges were never issued to ships whose gun mountings could elevate past 20 degrees. For
that reason, in the super charge table, elevations above 20 degrees should be used only for weapons employed as
Coastal Artillery.
5) Time of flight for 1,920 lbs. (871 kg) APC Shell with MV = 2,400 fps (731.5 mps)
10,000 yards (9,140 m): 14.6 seconds
20,000 yards (18,290 m): 35.1 seconds
25,000 yards (22,860 m): 48.7 seconds
29,000 yards (26,520 m): 62.1 seconds

Time of flight for 1,938 lbs. (879 kg) APC Shell with MV = 2,400 fps (731.5 mps)
10,000 yards (9,140 m): 14.1 seconds
20,000 yards (18,290 m): 32.5 seconds
30,000 yards (27,430 m): 57.3 seconds
32,500 yards (29,720 m): 65.4 seconds
Time of flight for 1,938 lbs. (879 kg) APC Shell with MV = 2,575 fps (785 mps)
10,000 yards (9,140 m): 13.1 seconds
20,000 yards (18,290 m): 29.8 seconds
30,000 yards (27,430 m): 51.3 seconds
36,500 yards (33,380 m): 69.2 seconds
.
Armor Penetration with 1,920 lbs. (871 kg) APC Shell

.
8,629 yards (7,980 m) 16.0" (406 mm) ---
14,853 yards (13,582 m) 12.0" (305 mm) ---
19,707 yards (18,020 m) 11.0" (279 mm) ---
23,734 yards (21,702 m) 9.0" (229 mm) ---
Note: This data is from "The Big Gun" and refers to World War I-era armor plate and probably refers to APC of the early
World War I period, not the later, improved "Greenboy" projectiles. This table assumes 90 degree inclination, i.e., an
angle of obliquity of 0 degrees. It should be noted that APC of this time did not reliably penetrate at even modest angles
of obliquity and were subject to premature bursting, so these values should be used with caution.
.
Armor Penetration with 1,920 lbs. (871 kg) AP Shell

.
Range Side Armor Striking Velocity Angle of Obliquity
0 yards (0 m) 18.0" (457 mm) 2,450 fps (869 mps) 0
10,000 yards (9,144 m) 14.0" (356 mm) 1,850 fps (579 mps) 0
10,000 yards (9,144 m) 13.2" (335 mm) 1,850 fps (579 mps) 20
10,000 yards (9,144 m) 12.2" (310 mm) 1,850 fps (579 mps) 30
Note: This data is from "British Battleships of World War Two" for uncapped AP shells against KC Plate armor of World
War I and probably refers to armor piercing projectiles of the early World War I period, not the later, improved "Greenboy"
projectiles. The first two rows are for a projectile striking a plate at an angle of 0 degrees, i.e., with the axis of the shell
perpendicular to the face of the plate. The next two rows are for shells striking at larger angles and show the degradation
in penetration performance for the same striking velocity as the angle increases. A capped shell (APC) would show about
10 to 20% improvement at low velocities and about 30 to 50% improvement at high velocities.
.

.
17,200 yards (15,730 m) 14.0" (356 mm) ---
18,000 yards (16,460 m) --- 2.0" (51 mm)
19,400 yards (17,740 m) 13.0" (330 mm) ---
21,700 yards (19,840 m) 12.0" (305 mm) ---

24,000 yards (21,950 m) --- 3.0" (76 mm)

24,500 yards (22,400 m) 11.0" (279 mm) ---
28,000 yards (25,600 m) 10.0" (254 mm) 4.0" (102 mm)
29,500 yards (26,970 m) --- 5.0" (127 mm)
32,500 yards (29,720 m) --- 6.0" (152 mm)
Notes:
1) This data is from "British Battleships of World War Two." This table assumes 90 degree inclination and is based upon
theoretical calculations performed in 1935, not actual firing trials.
2) Note that the range necessary to penetrate 6.0" (152 mm) of deck armor is at or beyond the maximum range of guns
firing SC standard charges at an elevation of 30 degrees.
.

.
0 yards (0 m) 27.1" (687 mm) ---
10,000 yards (9,144 m) 16.5" (422 mm) 1.25" (32 mm)
15,000 yards (13,716 m) 13.9" (353 mm) 1.95" (50 mm)
20,000 yards (18,288 m) 11.7" (297 mm) 3.10" (72 mm)
25,000 yards (22,860 m) 10.2" (259 mm) 4.30" (121 mm)
30,000 yards (27,432 m) 9.0" (229 mm) 5.70" (145 mm)
Note: This data is from "Battleships: Allied Battleships in World War II" for a muzzle velocity of 2,400 fps (732 mps) and
is partly based upon the USN Empirical Formula for Armor Penetration and partly based upon official data.
.
Armor Penetration Trials with Baden

.
In 1921 the British conducted a series of gunnery trials using the last battleship completed by the Germans during World
War I, the surrendered Baden. These trials were conducted as a part of the design process for the next generation of
capital ships, which were later cancelled as a result of the Washington Naval Limitation Treaty. During these gunnery
trials, the monitors Erebus and Terror fired a total of 31 shells against Baden, using reduced charges in order to obtain
striking velocities equivalent to the expected battle ranges. Two primary striking velocities were used, 1,550 fps (472 mps)
simulating a range of 15,500 yards (14,170 m) and 1,380 fps (421 mps) simulating a range of 21,800 yards (19,930 m).
Tests at 1,550 fps (472 mps) with 4crh APC - probably Greenboys - showed that these projectiles could penetrate turret
face armor of 35 cm (13.8 in) when struck at an angle of 18.5 degrees and penetrate barbette armor of 35 cm (13.8 in)
when struck at an angle of 11 degrees, but that this same armor thickness on the conning tower successfully defeated an
APC striking at an angle of 30 degrees. Another test at this velocity saw an APC striking at an angle of 14.5 degrees
penetrating the upper armor belt of 25 cm (10 in) and this shell then traveling some 38 feet (11.6 m) before bursting on the
funnel casing and damaging two boilers, having first penetrated a 3 cm (1.2 in) splinter bulkhead and the 1.2 cm (0.5 in)
main deck.
Five rounds of APC fired at 1,550 fps (472 mps) hit the 10 cm (3.9 in) turret roof armor, four of these failed to penetrate.
Tests at 1,380 fps (421 mps) with CPC projectiles showed that armor of 17 cm (6.75 in) could be penetrated, but that
these shells could neither penetrate nor significantly damage the 35 cm (13.8 in) barbette armor when striking at a 12
degree angle.

There is a cautionary note in ADM 186/251 that may apply to these trials:
Unsteadiness of shells at plate proof - When firing shells with reduced charges to obtain the required S.V.
[striking velocity] for the proof or trial of shells or armour, particularly with the larger natures, there is a
tendency for shells to be unsteady in flight, as shown by the shape of the hole made in a jump card erected in
front of the armour plate. This unsteadiness tends to vitiate the result of the trial. As each round at thick
armour may cost as much as £2,000 or more, it is a serious matter to reject the evidence of a round and to
repeat it on the score of unsteadiness, although this has sometimes to be done.
Data in this section is primarily from "Washington's Cherrytrees: The Evolution of the British 1921-22 Capital Ships" and
from excerpts of ADM 186/251 provided to me.
.
Mount / Turret Data

.
Capital Ship Two-gun Turrets
Queen Elizabeth (4) and Royal Sovereign [except

Resolution] (4): Mark I
Resolution (2) Mark I and (2) Mark I*
Repulse (2) Mark I and (1) Mark I*
Renown (3), Courageous (2) and Glorious (2): Mark I*
Designation Hood (4): Mark II
(see Notes 1, 2 and 6) Vanguard (4): Mark I/N RP 12
Monitor Two-gun Turrets
Marshall Soult (1) and Roberts (1): Modified Mark I

Erebus (1): Modified Mark I*
Abercrombie (1): Mark I*/N
Mark I and Mark I*: 770 tons (782 mt)
Mark II: 880 tons (894 mt)

Weight
(see Note 4)
Mark I/N: 815 tons (828 mt)
Mark I/N RP 12: 855 tons (869 mt)

Mark I and Mark I*: -5 / +20 degrees
Modified Mark I and Modified Mark I*: +2 / +30 degrees

Elevation
Mark II: -5 / +30 degrees
(see Notes 3 and 6)
Mark I/N, Mark I*/N and Mark I/N RP 12: -4.5 / +30 degrees
Coastal artillery: -3 / +50 or +55 degrees

Rate of Elevation 5 degrees per second
Train
-150 / +150 degrees
(see Note 9)
Gun Recoil
46 in (117 cm)
(see Note 8)

Marks I, I* and II: -5 to +20 degrees

Loading Angle
Marks I/N and I*/N: -4.5 to +20 degrees
(see Note 5)
Monitors with only the slide trunnions raised: +5 degrees
Notes:
1) The Mark I mounting can be easily differentiated from the Mark I* mounting by the shape of the front plate. The Mark I
had a polygon shape while the Mark I* was circular. The Mark I* also differed in that Kenyon Doors were used in place of
shell bogies. As built, the battleship turrets had 15 foot (4.57 m) MG8 rangefinders that were contained entirely within the
gunhouse. Later, 30 foot (9.17 m) MG14 rangefinders were fitted to the rear of "B" and "X" turrets on the battleships and
to "B" turret only on the battlecruisers Renown and Repulse. The twin turret mountings each sat on 48 rollers and were
hydraulically powered from a ring main using a water/soluble oil mixture. Elevation was by hydraulic cylinder connected to
the slide. "The Big Gun" states that the gun axes for the Mark I and Mark I* were both 90 in (228.6 cm) apart while "Naval
Weapons of World War Two" lists them at 98 in (249 cm). Typical manning of a 15" (38.1 cm) mounting was 64 officers
and men.
2) The Mark II mount was used only on HMS Hood and had a polygon shaped front plate, similar to the Mark I. The Mark
II turret itself was considerably taller than the Mark I to allow for the increased gun elevations. Besides the increased
elevation, the Mark II turrets on HMS Hood differed from the Mark I as follows: All four turrets had 30 foot (9.17 m) MG14
rangefinders; improved flash-tightness; sighting hoods on gunhouse roof replaced by sighting ports in the turret face (see
Note 9); armored officer's cabinet and; hydraulic run-out for the guns replaced by pneumatic run-out (see Note 6). The
gun axes were 98 in (249 cm) apart.
3) The monitors Marshal Soult and Marshal Ney had their slide trunnions raised 25.5 in (64.8 cm) to allow +2 / +30
elevation (please note, these guns could not depress to the horizon). The monitors Roberts and Terror used the
mountings removed from Marshal Soult and Marshal Ney, respectively. The monitor Erebus had one of the two 15" (38.1
cm) Mark I* turrets originally built for HMS Furious in case the 18"/40 (45.7 cm) Mark I guns were unsuccessful. This was
modified in a similar manner as the mountings for the other monitors to allow +2 / +30 elevation. The monitor HMS
Abercrombie was given the other HMS Furious mounting, but this was more heavily modified to the Mark I*/N standard
(see Note 6). In addition, the Kenyon doors on this mounting were replaced by shell bogies, a shell handling room was
built with shells transferred from the shell room via four rammer trays and flashtight scuttles were added to the hoppers on
the main trunk in the magazine handling room. The flash doors on the gun loading cage were also redesigned.
4) There is disagreement between the sources listed below as to the revolving weight of these mountings. I have chosen
to use those figures given in "Naval Weapons of World War Two."
5) In the original Mark I, Mark I* and Mark II mountings, the chain rammer was carried on an extension to the slide which
theoretically allowed loading to be performed over a large range of elevation, -5 to +20 degrees. However, it was found
during World War I that the hydraulic system lacked enough capacity to both run the guns out at high elevations and
handle all of the other hydraulic loads. This situation resulted in the mounts "stalling" during gun run-out, greatly slowing
the loading cycle. A further problem was that the driving band on the projectiles would not always "bite" into the rifling
during ramming. At the higher elevations this failure allowed the projectiles to slide back out of the breech when the
rammer was withdrawn, which must have been a fairly "exciting" occurrence. For these reasons, loading was generally
performed at +5 degrees or less. Turrets modernized during the 1930s had the run-out problem fixed (see Note 6), but
may still have suffered from the projectiles sliding out of the breech at higher elevations.
6) During modernization in the 1930s, the turrets on Queen Elizabeth, Valiant, Warspite and Renown were modified to
increase their maximum elevation from 20 degrees up to 30 degrees in order to achieve longer ranges. This was
accomplished by increasing the size of the gun ports, raising the slide trunnions 8.75 in (22.2 cm) and moving them back
7.25 in (18.4 cm). The gun and slide were moved forward relative to the trunnions by the same amount. This design gave
the necessary clearance in the gun wells but the gunloading cage rails had to be moved in order to reach the new breech
position. There was a penalty in that a 12 ton (12.2 mt) balance weight had to be fitted to the rear collars of each gun.
The elevation cylinders and elevation walking pipes also had to be redesigned to accommodate these positional changes
and pneumatic run-out was fitted to eliminate the "stalling" problem at higher elevations. Sighting hoods were removed
and front-plate sighting ports were added, which increased the practical firing arcs (see Note 9). Modified mountings can
be easily identified by the "hooded" armor fittings used to cover the larger gun port openings. These modified Mark I and
Mark I* turrets were redesignated as Mark I/N and Mark I*/N, respectively.

7) The 15" (38.1 cm) Mark I* mountings used on HMS Vanguard were actually old ones removed from the British
Battlecruisers (or "Unorthodox Cruisers") HMS Glorious and HMS Courageous when they were converted into aircraft
carriers. When Vanguard was being constructed, these mountings were modified to increase their maximum elevation to
30 degrees and remote power training control (RPC) equipment was fitted. In general, the modifications listed above in
Note 6 were performed along with alterations to the cordite hoppers on the trunk. These changes to Vanguard's turrets
required larger face plates and gun port openings. To compensate for these larger openings, the face plate armor was
thickened which in turn necessitated thicker rear armor for balance. Vanguard's mountings were then designated as Mark
I/N RP 12 (some sources say Mark I*/N RP 12, which may be correct, as the turrets were originally designated as Mark
I*). In addition, 24.5 foot (7.47 m) FX stabilized rangefinders - not 30 foot (9.17 m) rangefinders as stated in many
references - were installed on the rear of "B", "X" and "Y" turrets. The corresponding space in "A" turret was used as a
secondary conning position. To increase protection, Vanguard's magazines were located below the shell rooms, which
was the reverse of the arrangement used for all other British capital ships with 15" (38.1 cm) guns, but was similar to the
design used for the 14" (35.6 cm) mountings on the King George V class. To accommodate this change, the turret trunks
now ended at the shell handling rooms and the magazine handling rooms were located above them. The magazines were
connected to the handling rooms by fixed hoists, three each for turrets X and Y and four each for turrets A and B.
Something else to note about these mountings is that all four were from ships that did not have superfiring turrets. So, the
two mounts destined for Vanguard's "B" and "X" positions had to be substantially reworked in order for them to be used in
those superfiring positions. The support structures for all four mountings were stiffened to take the greater recoil forces
involved with the use of supercharges, but as noted above, supercharges were never issued to this or any other ship with
mountings capable of 30 degree elevation. It should be noted that it was only the mountings themselves that came from
the battlecruisers, the guns used to arm HMS Vanguard actually came from the reserve stock of spare units.
8) The recoil distance given above is the nominal figure. The absolute, metal-to-metal recoil distance was 47.25 inches
(120 cm).
9) With the exceptions of HMS Hood and HMS Vanguard, superfiring turrets on these ships as built could not fire within 30
degrees of the axis because the blast effects would have penetrated into the lower turrets through the sighting hoods.
From an examination of photographs taken during World War II, it would appear that this problem was not corrected on
the affected ships except for the few that had major rebuilds in the 1930s. As an example, in 1944 the non-reconstructed
HMS Malaya mounted 20 mm Oerlikon AA guns atop "A" turret which were thus located directly below the muzzles of "B"
turret.
10) After her conversion to "Royal Yacht" in 1947, HMS Vanguard rarely carried any main gun ammunition and little
secondary or AA ammunition, as she had become badly overloaded. "X" turret was put into a state of preservation and
was never made functional again while "Y" turret was rendered inoperable in order to allow the use of a sunroom on the
after deck. Main armament shoots were seldom performed after this time and those that were conducted used just the
forward turrets and are said to have been primarily intended as morale boosters rather than for serious gunnery training.
"HMS Vanguard was a pleasant and spacious flagship, but a Naval Staff anxious to increase her combat efficiency
seemed faced with a choice between filling an overweight ship with ammunition or with fuel should she actually ever be
made into a fully combatant unit." - Eric Grove in "Vanguard to Trident." In 1955, Vanguard was decommissioned for a
refit and weight reduction program which was intended to make three of her four turrets operational and allow them to
carry their full outfit of 15 inch (38.1 cm) shells for the first time since 1946. Half of her other armament was also to be
made functional during this refit. However, she never recommissioned and was sent to the scrapyard in 1960.
11) As part of the studies for new capital ships following World War I, the monitor HMS Lord Clive was used for
experiments with triple mountings to test for shell interference problems. She had her 18"/40 (45.7 cm) Mark I and
secondary guns removed in 1920 and was then fitted with three 15"/42 (38.1 cm) guns in a fixed broadside mount, firing to
starboard. During firing trials in March 1921, one of these guns suffered a bore premature from a faulty, "old type" APC
projectile. This burst the jacket and wrecked the gun, slightly injuring one crewman. Other than that disruption, the trials
were successfully concluded and determined that there were no serious shell interference problems for a triple mount.
.
Data from
"Regia Marina: Italian Battleships of World War Two" by Erminio Bagnasco and Mark Grossman
"The Design and Construction of British Warships 1939-1945: Volume I", "The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development
1906-1922" and "Nelson to Vanguard: Warship Design and Development 1923-1945" all by D.K. Brown
"Big Gun Monitors: The History of the Design, Construction and Operation of the Royal Navy's Monitors" by Ian Buxton

"Naval Weapons of World War Two", "Washington's Cherrytrees: The Evolution of the British 1921-22 Capital Ships" article in
"Warship Volume I" and "British Naval Guns 1880-1945 No 1" article in "Warship Volume V" all by John Campbell
"Battleships: Allied Battleships in World War II" by W.H. Garzke, Jr. and R.O. Dulin, Jr.
"Vanguard to Trident: British Naval Policy since World War Two" by Eric Grove
"The Big Gun: Battleship Main Armament 1860-1945" by Peter Hodges
"The Weird Sisters" article in "Warship 1990" by Keith McBride
"British Battleships of World War Two" by Alan Raven and John Roberts
"Anatomy of the Ship: The Battlecruiser Hood" by John Roberts
---
ADM 186/169
ADM 186/251 (an incomplete copy is at HMS Hood Association Website)
---
Special help from Phil Golin and Neil Stirling
Off-site Resources
For further information on these weapons, see the following at HMS Hood Association Website
15" Main Guns and Mounting Handbook
Fire Control System: An Overview

Japanese 46 cm/45 (18.1") Type 94
Japanese
40 cm/45 (18.1") Type 94
46 cm/45 (18.1") Type 94
Updated 21 May 2006
The 46 cm/45 (18.1") cannons used on the Yamato class were the most powerful
guns ever installed on a battleship. While closely matched by the USA 16"/50
Mark 7 at long ranges, in a close-range engagement the penetration power of this
weapon was unsurpassed. The muzzle blast is said to have been able to rip the
clothes off personnel who were standing too close when the guns were fired, but
this story is probably apocryphal.
These guns were officially designated by the Japanese as "40 cm/45 Type
94" (15.9 inch) in an effort to hide their actual size, which was a closely-guarded
secret until after the end of World War II.
The Yamato is known to have fired at enemy ships on only one occasion. This
was at the Battle off Samar in October 1944 against the U.S. Taffy 1 and Taffy 3
escort carrier groups, with rounds possibly hitting USS Gambier Bay (CVE-73).
The Musashi is known to have fired her guns in anger only once when she fired
"sankaidan" (incendiary shrapnel) anti-aircraft shells during the Battle of the
Sibuyan Sea in October 1944. One of these reportedly exploded in the barrel,
disabling the gun.
A total of 27 guns were produced, with the first one being completed in March
1938 and tested at the Kamegakubi proving grounds. Eighteen of these guns
were lost with Yamato and Musashi, two test guns at Kamegakubi were
demolished in November 1945 in accordance with the general disarmament
orders of the U.S. Army and the remaining seven were found in various stages of
completion on the beach in a cove north of Kamegakubi. Five of these remaining
guns were destroyed while the last two were taken to Dahlgren Proving Grounds
in Virginia, USA, for testing. These were reportedly cut up for scrap sometime
during the 1950s. Two partially completed turntables intended for Shinano were
also captured and later destroyed.
These guns had an unusually complex construction, perhaps reflecting the

difficulty in manufacturing such a large caliber. The A tube, designated as 2A,
had the 3A tube shrunk on for somewhat over half the length from the breech
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNJAP_18-45_t94.htm (1 of 10)7/20/2006 15:18:23

end. This assembly was then wire-wound and had a layer of two tubes shrunk on
for the entire length, followed by a two-part jacket at the breech end. The various
tube locating shoulders were fitted with Belleville spring washers, presumably to
lessen stress concentration and potential "steel choke" problems. This feature
was similar to many Vickers designs which used cannelured rings. The inner A
tube, known as 1A, was radially expanded into place by applying hydraulic
pressure in three separate operations. The inner A tube was rifled after it was in
place. There were also a short breech ring and a breech bush screwed into the
3A tube. The breech is believed to have been a Japanese version of the Asbury
type with a Welin breech block.
A great disadvantage of this type of construction was that the gun could only be
relined by completely boring out the inner A tube. This was so expensive a
process that it was considered to be more practical to simply replace a worn out
gun with a new one, although it does not appear that either battleship was ever
regunned during the war.
IJN Yamato under construction in September 1941

Carrier on the right is IJN Hosho and the store ship Mamiya is at the top of the picture
U.S. Naval Historical Center Photograph # NH 63433

.
Click here for additional photographs
.
.
Gun Characteristics
.
Official Designation - 40 cm/45 (15.9")
Type 94 (Model 1934)
Designation
Actual Size - 46 cm/45 (18.1") Type 94
(Model 1934)
Ship Class Used On Yamato Class
Date Of Design 1934
Gun Weight 363,000 lbs. (164,654 kg) with breech
Gun Length oa 831.9 in (21.130 m)
Rifling Length about 806 in (20.480 m)
(72) 0.181 in deep x about 0.478 in (4.6
Grooves
mm x 12.14 mm)
Lands about 0.312 in (7.93 mm)
Chamber Volume about 41,496 in3 (680 dm3)
Rate Of Fire 1.5 - 2 rounds per minute
Note: At the loading angle of +3 degrees, a firing cycle of about 30 seconds could be
achieved. However, this would equate to a range of no more than 6,560 yards (6,000
m). The additional elevation and depression times required to reach an elevation of 41
degrees increased the firing cycle by about 11 seconds. As can be seen in the Range
Table below, most ship-to-ship actions would rarely exceed an elevation of 20 degrees,
so an intermediate time of 35 seconds would seem to be reasonable for most battle-
range engagements.
.
Ammunition
.

Type Bag
APC Type 91 - 3,219 lbs. (1,460 kg)
APC Type 1 - N/A
Projectile Types and Weights Common Type 0 HE - 2,998 lbs.
(see Notes 1 and 2) (1,360 kg)
Common Type 3 IS - 2,998 lbs.
(1,360 kg)
APC Type 91 - 74.6 lbs. (33.85 kg)
APC Type 1 - 74.6 lbs. (33.85 kg)
Bursting Charge Common Type 0 HE - 136 lbs. (61.7
kg)
Common Type 3 IS - N/A
APC Type 91 - 76.9 in (195.35 cm)
APC Type 1 - 81 inches (206 cm)
Projectile Length Common Type 0 HE - 63.0 in (160
(see Note 2) cm)
Common Type 3 IS - 63.0 in (160
cm)
Propellant Charge 794 lbs. (360 kg) 110 DC1
APC Type 91 - 2,559 fps (780 mps)

APC Type 1 - 2,559 fps (780 mps)
Muzzle Velocity Common Type 0 HE - 2,641 fps
(see Note 5) (805 mps)
Common Type 3 IS - 2,641 fps (805
mps)
19 - 20.3 tons/in2 (3,000 - 3,200 kg/
Working Pressure
cm2)
Approximate Barrel Life about 150 - 250 rounds
Ammunition stowage per gun 100 rounds

Notes:
1) IS is my abbreviation for the Type 3 Common incendiary shrapnel round (sankaidan)

intended for AA use. Fuzes for these were set in the shell handling room with fuze
protectors used to prevent damage before loading. Type 3 Common may have made
up as much as 40% of the outfit by 1944. See below for more information.
2) Type 91 shells were all 6 / [infinity] crh with boat tail. The diameter of the bourrelet
was 18.07 in (45.898 cm). The original Type 91 APC was L/4.25 or 76.9 inches (195.35
cm) long. The later Type 1 version was L/4.47 or 81 inches (206 cm) long. The main
difference was the length of the windscreen, as the conic angle went from 23.5 degrees
to a longer, sharper 21 degrees. Type 1 shells also introduced a dye bag, which may
have slightly increased their weight over that of the Type 91. The base of the Type 1
was slightly different from the Type 91 as the original two driving bands were replaced
by a single double-width band with a copper ring in the middle of the band. The
modified type superseded the original in 1941, so these battleships may never have
carried any but the newer shell. See the additional photographs page for a sketch of
the Type 91.
3) Each mounting held 300 rounds with 180 rounds stored in two handling rooms on the
rotating structure and the remaining 120 in shell rooms. The practice was to feed
projectiles from the lower handling room until the supply was exhausted and then feed
from the upper handling room.
4) The propellant charge was in six bags. Bags were made of wool until 1942 at which
time silk ones were substituted. Bags had a 1.1 lbs. (0.5 kg) separate silk bag of
gunpowder at one end.
5) Smaller propellant charges were available for training and target rounds. These
were designated as "Reduced" and "Weak" charges. "Reduced" charges gave about
two-thirds of the normal service velocity and were rated at 0.25 ESR while "Weak"
charges were rated at 0.5 ESR. No muzzle velocity is given for "Weak" charges.
.
Common Type 3 Sankaidan Anti-Aircraft Shell

.

As were most Japanese warships, the Yamato and Musashi were provided with a
special anti-aircraft incendiary shrapnel shell officially designated as "3 Shiki
tsûjôdan" (Common Type 3) and supposedly nicknamed "The Beehive," but this could
be apocryphal. This round weighed 2,998 lbs. (1,360 kg) and was filled with 900
incendiary-filled tubes. A time fuze was used to set the desired bursting distance,
usually about 1,000 meters (1,100 yards) after leaving the muzzle. These projectiles
were designed to expel the incendiary tubes in a 20 degree cone extending towards the
oncoming aircraft with the projectile shell itself being destroyed by a bursting charge to
increase the quantity of steel splinters. The incendiary tubes ignited about half a second
later and burned for five seconds at 3,000 degrees C, producing a flame approximately
5 meters (16 feet) long.
The concept behind these shells was that the ship would put up a barrage pattern
through which an attacking aircraft would have to fly. However, these shells were
considered by US Navy pilots to be more of a visual spectacular than an effective AA
weapon.
.
Range
.
Elevation With 3,219 lbs. (1,460 kg) APC Striking Velocity Angle of Fall
30.0 degrees 39,180 yards (35,830 m) --- ---
40.0 degrees 44,510 yards (40,700 m) --- ---
45.0 degrees
(max elevation 45,960 yards (42,030 m) --- ---
of turret)
48.0 degrees 46,050 yards (42,110 m) --- ---
50.0 degrees 45,790 yards (41,870 m) --- ---

Note: Time of flight for APC Shell with MV = 2,559 fps (780 mps)
18,410 yards (16,830 m): 26.1 seconds
30,530 yards (27,920 m): 49.2 seconds
44,510 yards (40,700 m): 89.4 seconds
45,960 yards (42,030 m): 98.6 seconds
.
Elevation With 2,998 lbs. (1,360 kg) HE
Range @ 45.0 degrees 35,600 yards (32,550 m)
.
Armor Penetration with 3,219 lbs. (1,460 kg) APC

.
0 yards (0 m) 34.01" (864 mm) ---
21,872 yards
19.43" (494 mm) 4.30" (109 mm)
(20,000 m)
32,808 yards
14.19" (360 mm) 7.43" (189 mm)
(30,000 m)
Note: This data is from "Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II" for a
muzzle velocity of 2,559 fps (780 mps) and is based upon the USN Empirical Formula
for armor penetration.
.
Striking Angle of
Velocity Fall
21,872 yards 1,713 fps (522
22.28" (566 mm) 6.57" (167 mm) 16.5
(20,000 m) mps)
32,808 yards 1,558 fps (475
16.38" (416 mm) 9.06" (230 mm) 31.4
(30,000 m) mps)
Note: This data is from "AS: The Battleship Yamato," but has been corrected for
typographical errors in that publication.
.
Mount / Turret Data

.

Three-gun Turrets
Designation
Yamato (3)
Weight 2,730.2 tons (2,774 mt)
Train about +150 / -150 degrees
Gun recoil 56.3 in (1.43 m)
Loading Angle +3 degrees
Notes:
1) These mountings had a unique sliding cross-head for the elevating cylinder anchor
point. This could be set to allow either -5 to +45 degree elevation or +3 to +41 degree
elevation. The advantage of this was that the latter setting meant that no locking pins
had to be inserted to hold the guns at the loading angle, the operator merely kept the
controls at the "depress" position until an indicator showed him that loading was
complete. This sped up the loading cycle and, as shown in the range table above, cost
very little in terms of maximum range.
2) These turrets had two independent sets of training gear, only one of which was in
use at a time. Each was driven by a 500 hp vertical swashplate motor driving a train of
straight-toothed pinion gears. Guns were individually sleeved.
3) The gun axes were 137.8 in (350 cm) apart.
4) The center gun had a 0.080 second firing delay.
5) Each gun had its own pusher shell hoist and cordite cage hoist. The cylindrical
flashtight charge container held all six charges in line, allowing a single rammer stroke
to load the gun. Two auxiliary hoists were fitted in each turret. Both shells and
propellant bags were hoisted vertically in suitable containers. Transfer of shell in the
gunhouse was effected manually by overhead travellers and chain purchase.
6) The following excerpt is taken from US Naval Technical Mission to Japan report O-45
(N):
The 46 cm (18-inch) triple mount was the first large mount ever designed
and produced by the Japanese which was not practically identical with the

large British mounts prior to World War I and built for the battleship
KONGO. In almost every part of the 18-inch mount a complete departure
from this old design was made. For shell and powder hoists the Japanese
18-inch mount was copied [sic, but probably meant 16-inch mount], but,
generally speaking, the mechanisms were unique. Compared with British
and U.S. practice, (16-inch, 14-inch and 8-inch), the mount was simple in
design. It had no complicated hydraulic safety interlocks and
comparatively few mechanical ones. Reliance was placed on good drill to
avoid accidents. Even taking into account the size of the gun, the general
impression gathered is that an unduly large factor of safety had been
allowed in the design of the turret machinery as a whole, resulting in a very
heavy mount, the total revolving weight on one turret being 2,510 metric
tons.
A very satisfactory rate of fire was obtained for a gun of this size: 1.5
rounds per minute at full elevation. A maximum range of slightly under
46,000 yds was obtained with a 3,220 lb shell.
The most interesting features of the mount were (a) the method of stowing
and moving shells about the shell and shell-handling rooms using a fairly
simple, but bulky and heavy mechanism; (b) the powder cage and rammer,
designed to enable a full charge to be loaded by a single rammer stroke;
and (c) the attachment of the elevating piston rod to the slide which was
designed to avoid the necessity for a complicated slide locking gear, and
to reduce the loading cycle time by cutting out the time usually required for
locking and unlocking the slide.
Other mechanisms worthy of note are as follows:
1) The powder bogie and mechanisms for transferring powder from the
fixed to the moving structure.
2) The gunhouse bogie and rammer.
3) The wormless training gear, with its "coaster" gear substitute for the
normal friction discs.
4) The electric cable leading-in gear.
It was stated by the Japanese that considerable attention had been paid to
flashtightness throughout the turret. Although this was probably not up to
U.S. and British standards, it is difficult to give a definite opinion on this
point without having seen a completed turret. The performance of the
turret in service was considered by the Japanese to have been very
satisfactory with the exception of the large quantities of lubricating oil,

which the Japanese could ill afford, were required by the training and
powder hoist gears. Spreads of salvos were reasonably small, (about 500
to 600 yards at maximum range). The blast effect, particularly on the
bridge, was found to be very severe.
Without having seen one of these turrets in operation or even a completed

turret, an opinion will not be expressed on its probable performance or its
value as a weapon beyond that already given above. The statements of
the Japanese, however, are considered to be well-founded.
Data from
"Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II" by W.H. Garzke, Jr. and R.O. Dulin,
Jr.
"The Big Gun: Battleship Main Armament 1860-1945" by Peter Hodges
"AS: The Battleship Yamato" by Janusz Skulski
---
US Naval Technical Mission to Japan report O-45 (N): Japanese 18" Gun Mounts
US Naval Technical Mission to Japan report O-19: Japanese Projectiles General Types
---
Special help from Mike Connelley, Nathan Okun and Richard Worth

French 100 mm/55 (3.9") Model 1968, CADAM and Model 1968-II
French
100 mm/55 (3.9") Model 1968
100 mm/55 (3.9") Model 1968 CADAM
100 mm/55 (3.9") Model 1968-II
Updated 21 May 2006
The original Model 1968 was a lighter version of the 100 mm/55 Model 1953 but was
capable of fully automatic firing. Later versions added a digital FCS. The Model 1968
mountings can be distinguished from the older mountings by the single local control
cupola on the left face.
The Model 1968 CADAM (short for cadence améliorée - "improved firing") - was an
enhancement program instituted during the late 1980s. During major refits, some
older ships had their Model 1968 mountings removed and replaced with the Model
1968 CADAM.
The Model 1968-II or Model 100 TR (technologie rénovée - "renovated technology")

was an enhancement program of the 1990s to improve reliability and operation. The
gunhouse for this model is made out of composite materials so as to reduce the radar
signature (low RCS). It can be easily distinguished from earlier models by its more
angular design and by the lack of hand grips on its front face. As these mountings
do not have any provision for local control, they lack the control cupolas of the earlier
models.
http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WNFR_39-55_m1968.htm (1 of 6)7/20/2006 15:18:24

100 mm Model 1968 CADAM on Frégate De Grasse (D 612)

The single control cupola can just be seen on the right of the far mounting
Marine Nationale Photograph

100 mm Model 1968-II on Frégate La Fayette (F 710)

The access ladder on the front is removable, giving this mounting a clean look
Marine Nationale Photograph
Gun Characteristics
.
100 mm/55 (3.9") Model 1968
Designation 100 mm/55 (3.9") Model 1968 CADAM
100 mm/55 (3.9") Model 1968-II
Model 1968 and CADAM: Tourville, Georges Leygues,
d'Estienne d'Orves, Floréal and Cassard classes
Ship Class Used On Rebuilt Surcouf (T47) class and Colbert
Model 1968-II: La Fayette class

Date Of Design 1968

Model 1968: 1971
Date In Service Model 1968 CADAM: 1986
Model 1968-II: 1996
Gun Weight N/A
Gun Length oa N/A
Rifling Length N/A
Grooves N/A
Lands N/A
Twist N/A
Chamber Volume N/A
Model 1968: 60 rounds per minute
Rate Of Fire Model 1968 CADAM: 78 rounds per minute
Model 1968-II: 78 - 80 rounds per minute
.
Ammunition
.
Type Fixed
Weight of Complete Round 51.8 lbs. (23.5 kg)
OEA F1 HE - 29.8 lbs. (13.5 kg)
Projectile Types and Weights OPF F4 PFHE - 29.8 lbs. (13.5 kg)
Illum - 29.8 lbs. (13.5 kg)
HE - 2.4 lbs. (1.1 kg)
Bursting Charge PFHE - 2.2 lbs. (1.0 kg) - Shell contains 1,350 high
density steel balls of 1 gram each
N/A
Projectile Length
Complete round - 42.7 in (108.5 cm)
Propellant Charge 9.9 lbs. (4.5 kg)
New gun - 2,844 fps (867 mps)
Muzzle Velocity
Average gun - 2,805 fps (855 mps)

3,000 rounds at high rates of fire

6,000 rounds at lower rates of fire
Ammunition stowage per gun about 600 rounds
Notes:
1) Illumination rounds burn between 30 and 50 seconds at 120,000 candela.
2) These mountings use a 35 round ready-service magazine.

.
Range
.
Elevation With 29.8 lbs. (13.5 kg) HE Shell
Maximum Range @ 45 degrees 18,876 yards (17,260 m)
AA Ceiling 19,700 feet (6,000 m)
.
Mount / Turret Data

.
Single Mount
Colbert (2), Tourville (2), Georges
Leygues (1), d'Estienne d'Orves (1),
Designation Floréal (1), Cassard (1): Model 1968 or
Model 1968 CADAM
La Fayette (1): Model 1968-II

Weight 21 tons (22 mt)
25 degrees per second
Rate of Elevation
29 degrees per second in later models
Gun Recoil N/A

Note: Some Surcouf (T47) class destroyers and the AA cruiser Colbert were rebuilt in
the 1980s and then armed with these guns. For example, Duperré (D633) was
originally completed in 1957 with six 127 mm/54 and six 57 mm/60 guns. In 1980,
these were replaced with a single 100 mm/55 Model 1968 and an Exocet missile
battery.
.
Data from
"Jane's Ammunition Handbook: Ninth Edition 2000-2001" edited by Terry J. Gander and
Charles Q. Cutshaw
"Jane's Fighting Ships: 1998-99" edited by Capt. Richard Sharpe RN
"Defense & Armament Heracles International" Issue #70, February 1988
---
Marine Nationale Press Releases and Articles
---
Special help by Matthew Rodchenko

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Naval Guns and Mountings (Website Capture) WW

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Naval Guns and Mountings (Website Capture) WW

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Definitions and Information about Naval Guns - Part 1

Definitions and Information about Naval Guns

For example, the description: USN 16"/50 Mark 7 Mod 0

Gun and Mounting Designations of the Major Naval Powers

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As examples of Japanese designations for naval guns:

Russia / USSR Designations

United States of America Designations

Additional information may be found in USN Naval Gun Designations.

Bayonet Joint - An interrupted-thread method of attaching the gun

Breech Block, Breech Mechanism or Breech Plug - This is the

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Breech, Single-Motion - See "Breech Mechanism, Smith-Asbury" below.

Breech, Welin - A stepped-thread breech developed during the 1890s

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De Bange Obturator System - See "Obturator" below.

GAU - US Military designation for airborne guns and gun systems.

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Grooves - See "Rifling," below.

GWS - Gun Weapon System.

Life - See "EFC or ESR," above.

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MK or Mk - Abbreviation for "Mark."

MLR - British designation meaning Muzzle Loading Rifle.

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Primer Channel - See "Firing Lock" above.

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Separate Loading - See "Bag Guns" above.

STAAG - Stabilized Tachymetric Anti-Aircraft Gun.

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Mounting / Turret Definitions

Drh Tr - Drehturm. Another German abbreviation for "Turret."

Kst.Drh.L - Küsten-Drehscheiben-Lafette. German for "coastal turntable (turret) mounting."

MPL - Mittel-Pivot-Lafette. German for "central pivot mounting."

Powder Room - A compartment where propellant charges are stored.

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Forward to "Gun Data" Part 2 - Ammunition, Fuzes and Projectiles

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Forward to "Gun Data" Part 3 - Miscellaneous

Back to the Naval Weapons Index Page

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Definitions and Information about Naval Guns

Ammunition, Fuze and Projectile Definitions

AAC - Anti-Aircraft Common.

AHEAD - Advanced Hit Efficiency And Destruction.

Amatol - An explosive mixture of ammonium nitrate and TNT.

APDS - Armor Piercing Discarding Sabot.

APFSDS - Armor Piercing Fin-Stabilized Discarding Sabot.

Arrow Shell - A fin-stabilized HE projectile. In German, "Pfeilgeschoss."

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Ballistic Cap - Often called a "windshield," this is a covering on the

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Ballistic Curve - Actual path or trajectory of a projectile.

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disintegrating or continuous loop.

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● Melanite - French picric acid, roughly equivalent to Lyddite.

● Shimose - Japanese picric acid, roughly equivalent to Lyddite.

● Before and during World War I

● After World War I