Grapes

6
Grapes
(Vitis spp.)
Parshant Bakshi, Darpreet Kour,

S.N.Ghosh, Priyanka Nandi and Kiran Kour
1. Introduction
Grapes (Vitis vinifera) belonging to the Vitaceae family, originated in Western Asia and
Europe. It was introduced to India by the Persian invaders in 1300 A. D. Its association with
man is older than that of wheat and rice. Its great age is confirmed by fossilized leaves and
seeds discovered. Documents concerning viticulture and wine-making in Egypt dated back
to some 5,000 to 6.000 years. In different countries Grapes has various names viz., raisins
(French), Trauben (German), druiven (Dutch), budo Japanese, pu tao (Chinese), trapezou
(Greek), druer (Norwergian), vindruvor (Swedish) Grapes are a non-climacteric fruit that
grows on the perennial and deciduous woody climbing vine. Grapes is a cross pollinated
vine with simple, lobed, cut or toothed leaves (seldom compound) with racemes of greenish
flowers, the fruit consisting of watery or fleshy pulp, stones and skin, four-seeded. Grapes can
be eaten as fresh or used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine; grape seed extracts and
grape seed oil. Current research suggests that wine contains substances that may reduce the
mortality rate from coronary heart diseases (Teissedre and Landrault, 2000). Approximately,
71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit.
However, in India, 90% of the grape is used for table purpose, even though wine making
has made strides. The rest of the grape is used mostly for raisin. Now grape cultivation has
become one of the most remunerative farming enterprises of the present time.
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In old days Kashmir was celebrated for its grapes. Everywhere one would see gaint
vines climbing up poplars and other trees, but they were often wild, and their fruit was
poor and tasteless. The grapes white and red from the state vine yard at Raipur in district
Ganderbal were delicious. The vines were introduced in Kashmir from Bordeaux (France)
during Maharaja Ranbir Singh’s time. In spite of the lavish expenditure the vineyards did
not seem to flourish and the vines were suffering form phylloxera. American vines were at
once imported which replaced the unhealthy Bordeaux plants.
1.1. Composition
Grapes are the most important raw material for making wine. A good understanding of
grape composition is essential to understanding the process of winemaking and making
better quality wine.
1.1.1. Physical Composition
The fruit of the grape is a berry. Berries are attached to the stem. Many berries make up the
cluster or bunch of grapes. The essential parts of the berry include the skin, pulp, and seeds
(Table 1). The skin consists of an outer layer covering the berry. It is made up of six to ten
layers of thick walled cells. The outer surface of the skin is covered with a wax-like coating
called the cuticle, which renders the berry waterproof. The main components in the skin are:
colouring matter (red and yellow pigments), tannins, aromatic substances, and potassium
and other minerals. Below the skin layer lies flesh or pulp which makes up most of the
berry volume. Cells in the pulp have large vacuoles containing the cell sap or juice. When
the berry is gently crushed, the fragile cells in the pulp are broken and the juice is released.
This juice is commonly referred to as the free run. The seeds are localized in the center of
the flesh. The berry contains two to four seeds. They are rich in tannin which is extracted
during fermentation (in red wines).
1.1.2. Chemical Composition
Freshly expressed grape juice consists of 70 to 80% water with many dissolved solids. These
soluble solids include numerous organic and inorganic compounds. The important group of
compounds, from the winemaking point of view, include the following:
»» sugars
»» organic acids
278 Cultivate Minor Temperate Fruits Scientifically
»» phenolic compounds
»» nitrogenous compounds
»» aroma compounds
»» minerals
»» pectic substances
1.1.2.1. Sugars
In grapes, a large portion of the soluble solid is sugars. Glucose and fructose are the main
sugars in the juice. The sugar content of the juice of ripe grapes varies between 150 to 250
g/L. In unripe berries, glucose is the predominant sugar. At the ripening stage, glucose and
fructose are usually present in equal amounts (1:1 ratio). In overripe grapes, the concentration
of fructose exceeds that of glucose. In ripe grapes, there is some variation in the glucose
to fructose ratio among the grape varieties. For example, Chardonnay and Pinot blanc are
classified as high fructose varieties, while Chenin blanc and Zinfandel are regarded as high
glucose varieties. Fructose, glucose, and sucrose differ significantly in sweetness. The order of
sweetness is: fructose is sweeter than sucrose, which is sweeter than glucose. In other words,
on a sweetness scale, if fructose is considered to be 100, then sucrose is 84 and glucose is
66. That is quite a difference. This information is important to a winemaker. For example, if
a winemaker wishes to sweeten a wine, he will need less fructose than sucrose to reach the
same degree of sweetness. Glucose and fructose are fermentable sugars. During the course
of fermentation, the yeast converts these sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide. The amount
of alcohol produced is related to the amount of sugar initially present in the juice; thus, by
controlling the amount of sugar in the juice, one can control the amount of alcohol in the
resulting wine. It should be noted that the relationship between sugar content and alcohol
formed is not precise. Roughly speaking, the conversion of sugar to alcohol is °Brix x .55 =
% of alcohol in wine. The sugar content of the juice is often expressed in terms of °Brix. The
unit °Brix represents grams of sugar per 100 grams of juice. Commonly, it is interpreted as
grams of sugar per 100 ml of juice. The sugar content of the juice in terms of °Brix can be
measured by a refractometer or a °Brix hydrometer. Sugar in the juice can also be measured
by determining specific gravity. Hydrometers calibrated to specific gravity scale are often used.
The relationship between °Brix and the specific gravity value is in the range of 15 to 25°Brix.
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Table 1: The Range of percentage of the physical components in ripe fruit (By weight)
Parts of plant Per cent Remarks

Stem (rachis, branches, 2-6
pedicel)
Seeds 0-10 0-4 seeds per berry, rich in tannins (5-8)
and oils (10-20%)
Skin 5-12 *Cutin or bloom constitutes 1-2% of total
berry weight
Juice 80-90% of crushed Depends mainly on the pulpiness of the
grapes variety
• The skin is covered with a wax-like layer known as cutin and is sometimes referred to
as the bloom.
1.1.2.2. Organic Acids
Next to sugars, organic acids are the most abundant solids present in grape juice. They are
a very important component of juice and wine. They are responsible for the tart taste and
have a marked influence on wine stability, color, and pH. The principal organic acids found
in grapes are tartaric, malic, and to a small extent, citric. Many other organic acids, including
amino acids, are also found in juice and wines, but tartaric and malic acid account for over
90% of the total acids present. During the early period of berry growth, concentration of
both acids increases in the fruit. With the onset of ripening, the sugar accumulates in the
fruit increased while the acid concentration is decreased. Generally the reduction in malic
acid is greater, and consequently, at maturity, the fruit contains more tartaric acid than malic.
Grapes are one of the rare fruits that contain tartaric acid. It is present as free acid and a salt,
such as potassium bitartrate. Bitartrate is an important constituent since it affects pH and
the cold stability of the wine. The acid composition of grapes is influenced by many factors
such as variety, climatic region, and cultural practices. Generally in ripe grapes, the acid levels
are lower in a warmer climatic region than in a cooler region. The acidity is expressed as
titratable acidity (TA). It is an important parameter used in quality evaluation of juice and
wine. Acid content of the juice has an important bearing on juice and wine pH. Acids upon
dissociation liberate H+ ions, which are measured and expressed in terms of pH. Thus acidity
and pH are related. However, the relationship is neither direct nor predictable. Due to the
presence of various kinds of acids and their salts, the relationship between acidity and pH is a
complex one. Understanding the role of pH in winemaking is crucial to making good wines.
1.1.2.3. Phenolic Compounds
Phenolic compounds are important constituents of grapes and wine. Following sugars and
acids, they are the most abundant constituents present in grapes. Phenolic compounds are
a group of substances that are structurally diverse and are present in various amounts. They
play a vital role in determining the wine’s color and flavour. They are involved in browning
reactions in wines and also play a key role in the aging and maturation of wines. The phenolic
substances are primarily located in the seeds and skins of the berry. The juice contains a very
small amount (3 to 5% of total phenols). White wines are usually produced from juice with
little skin and seed contact. Their phenolic content is low, in the range of 100 to 250 mg/L
gallic acid equivalent (GAE). Red wines, on the other hand, are customarily produced with
skin and seed contact. Depending on the length of contact time, the phenolic content of a red
wine generally varies between 1000 to 3500 mg/L GAE. The two main substances included
in this group of compounds are anthocyanins and tannins. Anthocyanins are pigments
and they are responsible for the red and purple color of the grapes and wines. They exist
in both colored and colorless forms. In young red wines, most of the colored anthocyanins
are present in free (uncombined) forms. As the red wine ages, the anthocyanins combine
with other phenolic compounds. In a combined state, the pigment contributes to colour
stability in red wines. Tannins are very complex compounds. They are large molecules with
a molecular weight over 500. They are yellow, brown, and red colour. They are astringent
and bitter. During processing and aging, the tannins polymerize. Polymerization leads to
increased molecular size. Generally smaller molecules are more bitter than astringent. As the
molecular size increases (due to polymerization), the astringency is perceived more than the
bitterness. Increase in molecular size makes these compounds insoluble and, consequently,
they precipitate, and the wine’s astringency decreases.
1.1.2.4. Nitrogenous Compounds
Grapes contain various nitrogenous compounds. These include ammonium cations and organic
nitrogenous compounds: such as amino acids, peptides, and proteins. The nitrogen content
of the grape varies with variety, climate, soil, fertilization, and other cultural practices. The
total nitrogen concentration of the fruit increases during the maturation period. Nitrogen
containing compounds are important because they serve as the nutrient for yeast and
lactic acid bacteria. Nitrogen influences biomass formation (cell population or cell yield),
rate of fermentation, and production of various by-products, which in turn affects the
sensory attributes of wine. Proteins (nitrogenous compounds) are involved in wine stability.
Insufficient nitrogen in must can cause a sluggish or stuck fermentation and the formation
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of a “rotten egg” (H2S) odour. To avoid such a problem, the must is often supplemented with
Diammonium phosphate (DAP). The maximum amount of DAP addition legally allowed
is 8 lbs/1000 gal or 958.7 mg/L.
1.1.2.5. Aroma Compounds
Many volatile odorous compounds are found in wine. These aromatic substances are derived
from three major sources: 1. Grapes (fruits), 2. Fermentation, 3. Aging and maturation. Grapes
contain numerous flavour compounds. Some of these compounds have been reported to give
a variety their distinct varietal character.
Examples of these include:
a. 2-methoxy-3-isobutyl pyrazine - Predominant compound giving bell pepper-like

odours to varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc.
b. 4-vinylguaiacol and 4-vinylphenol - giving spicy, clove-like and medicinal odours

to some Gewtirtztraminer wines.
c. Terpenes - in Muscats and Riesling grapes.
Many varieties such as Chardonnay or Seyval Blanc do not appear to have distinct
varietal odours that can be attributed to one or two compounds. It is possible that in such
varieties, many compounds contribute to the flavour. The odorous compounds in grapes are
largely present in the skin and the layers of cells immediately beneath it. Their concentration
(flavor compounds) tends to increase during ripening. It is important that the grapes be
harvested when the flavour is at its peak. Many factors affect the concentration of aroma
compounds in grapes. Manipulation and control of these factors is necessary for attaining
the desired flavour level at harvest.
1.1.2.6. Minerals
Minerals are taken up by the vine from the soil. They usually make up approximately 0.2 to
0.6% of the fresh weight of the fruit. The important mineral compounds include: potassium,
sodium, iron, phosphates, sulphate, and chloride. Of the mineral compounds mentioned
above, potassium is the most important mineral. It accounts for 50 to 70% of the cations in
the juice. Higher potassium supplies increased the total soluble solids content and decreased
the total acidity of berries (Martin et al., 2004). During ripening, the potassium content of
the grape increases. Its movement into fruit leads to the formation of potassium bitartrate,
which reduces the acidity and increases the juice pH. It should be noted that the tartaric
acid salt of potassium is involved in wine instability problems.
1.1.2.7. Pectic Substances
Pectin substances are cementing agents present in the cell wall. Chemically, they are complex
polysaccharides made of galacturonic acid molecules linked together. During ripening,
pectin is hydrolyzed by naturally occurring pectolytic enzymes, which renders the berry
softer as it ripens. In juice, the pectin causes cloudiness by holding the particles of fruit
pulp in suspension. To allow the suspended solids to settle and clarify the juice, commercial
preparations of pectolytic enzymes are often used.
1.2. Uses
The fruit is utilized in many ways. The principal product is wine. Sufficient quantity of
production is also utilized in other ways, such as, table grapes, raisins, juice and canning.
In India, the majority of fruits are used for table purposes. Grape juice has long been used
worldwide for its potent medicinal values including ocular promotion. Bioactivities of grape
products are highly attributed to the presence of health promoting phytochemicals in them.
Some phytochemicals present in the grape juice have been involved in the maintenance of
intra-ocular pressure, regulation of glucose metabolisms and suppression of pro-inflammatory
cytokines in the system. Particularly, the grape derived phytochemicals involve in minimizing
various eye defects such as macular degradation, uvea, cataract formation, red eye, diabetic
retinopathy and so on (Natarajan et al., 2017).
Grapes are divided into five main classes depending upon their purposes. There is
specific variety for each purpose and certain variety qualifies for more than one purpose also.
1.2.1. Table grape
Table grapes are grapes intended for consumption while fresh, as opposed to grapes grown

for wine production, juice production, or for drying into raisins. In grapes, seedlessness is an
important quality attribute for fresh consumption (Casanova et al., 2009). Vitis vinifera table
grapes can be in the form of either seeded or non-seeded varietals or range widely in terms of
colour, size, sweetness and adaptability to local growing conditions. Common commercially
available table grape varieties such as Thompson Seedless and Flame Seedless are favoured
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by growers for their high yield and relative resistance to damage during shipment. Other
less common varietals such as Cotton Candy, Kyoho or Pione are custom hybrids bred for
size, appearance and specific flavour characteristics.
1.2.2. Raisin grapes
A raisin is a dried grape. Raisins are produced in many regions of the world and may be
eaten raw or used in cooking, baking, and brewing. In the United Kingdom, Ireland, New
Zealand, and Australia, the word “raisin” is reserved for the dark-colored dried large grape, with
“Sultana” being a golden-colured dried grape, and “Currant” being a dried small Black
Corinth seedless grape.
1.2.3. Juice grapes
The juice of some varieties of grapes produces an acceptable unfermented beverage when
it is preserved by pasteurization. Enzyme pectinase treatment facilitate sedimentation in
cold. Grapes-juice-concentrate can be prepared with the help of conventional evaporators
and stored. The juice varieties should have the desired attributes, such as attractive colour,
pleasing grape aroma and nice taste.
1.2.4. Wine grapes
The varieties which can produce satisfactory wine in certain locality are termed as wine-
grapes. As stated earlier, the principal product of grapes is wine. Wine quality is related to
physicochemical properties and sensory qualities that determine the acceptability of these
wines for the consumers (Aleixandre et al., 2000). Grapes of high acidity and low sugar are
suitable for dry or table wines while sweet or dessert wines are prepared from grapes with
high sugar content and moderately low acid. The commercially grown grape varieties in India
have been assessed for enological properties. Early Muscat, Perlette, Thompson Seedless and
Bian Shirai were found to produce good white table wines. Beauty seedless and Rubired
gave good quality red wines.
1.2.5. Canning grapes
Seedless grapes can be canned whole for use in fruit salads and moulded gelatine desserts.
If seeded varieties are used, halve and remove seeds before canning. Grape juice can be
canned both sweetened and unsweetened. If juice will be made into jelly later, it’s best to
can it without sugar—then add the proper amount of sugar at jelly making time. To prevent
mould growth, seal grape jelly with two-piece canning lids and process for five minutes in
a simmering water bath.
1.3. Nutraceuticals
Grapes are significant sources of several phytochemicals (chemicals found in plant foods) that
have been associated with disease prevention in humans. High concentrations of gallic acid,
catechin, epicaechin, ellagic acid, and resveratrol found in the seeds and skins give muscadines
a high antioxidant capacity. A number of components contribute to the antioxidant capacity
of muscadine grapes. Antioxidant compounds include vitamins, phenols, carotenoids, and
flavonols. The most phenolics in the grapes were located in the skins and seeds (Sharma, 2012).
2. Origin and distribution
The exact origin of grapes is unknown, although some believed that they originated from
Asia. Grapes have been distributed largely in East Asia, Europe, the Middle East and North
America. The cultivars were carried to Greece, Rome and France before 600 BC. Also, the
Romans spread grapes throughout Europe, and they were moved to the Far East via traders
from Persia and India. Spanish missionaries brought them to the US in the 1700s.
3. Area and production
The area under grapes cultivation in India is estimated to be 136 thousand hectare with an
annual production of 2784 MT (Anonymous, 2016-17). In J&K, grapes is grown under an
area of 321 hectares with a total production of 648 metric tonnes (Anonymous, 2016-17).
Most of the area of grape cultivation is in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kamataka and
Tamil Nadu. Area and production of grape in different countries have been presented in
Table 2 and 3. Export of wine in different countries has been presented in Table 4. Area,
production and productivity of grapes in different states in India have been presented in
Table 5 and 6. Export of grape from India to ten top countries has been presented in Table 7.
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Table 2: Area under grapes in world
Source: Anon. c. 2017

Table 3: Grape world production
Source: Anon. c. 2017 (OIV expert, trade press, 2017)
Table 4: World exports of wine in terms of volume in 2016 (mhl: millions of hectolitres)
Source: Anon. c. 2017 (OIV expert, trade press, 2017).

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Table 5: State wise Area, production and productivity of Grapes in India

Table 6: State wise productivity of grapes in India
Source: Anon. 2015
Table 7: Exports from India
Source: Anonymous, 2016-17. DGCIS Annual Export, 2017

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Italy is the leading European producer. Only 6 countries are major exporters worldwide
with Italy and Chile at the forefront. Chile supplies mainly to the USA and Italy supplies
to the Europe, notably Germany and the former Soviet satellites. Developments in Italy
include greater production of seedless varieties and the increased use of plastic awnings
and tents to foster early harvesting. The plastic covering reduced the light supply and water
availability at the superficial soil layers, but improved leaf assimilation of CO2 (Mota et al.,
2009). Early crops from Sicily are on sale from early June and production in the different
regions continues to the end of the year (Sarnari, 2001). Conservation of soil moisture
through locally available organic waste, such as mulches, efficient use of irrigation water
by drip irrigation system and integrated pest management by using low cost neem based
pesticides may be helpful for production of fruits for export purpose Atul and Jindal, 2001).
Italy’s main market competitors are Spain and California, which have large home markets,
and Chile and South Africa, which produce mainly for export. Chile has developed the
production of seedless grapes for export to the USA and Europe. Growers have devoted
considerable manual labour to obtain a standardized product. The area planted with the
easier-to-manage cv. Red Globe with seeds continues to expand, as is the case in the rest of
the world (Charmont, 2001).
4. Present status of grape cultivation in India
Grape is grown under a variety of soil and climatic conditions in three distinct agro-
climatic zones, namely, sub-tropical, hot tropical and mild tropical climatic regions in India.
Maharashtra (Nasik, Sangli, Ahmednagar, Pune, Satara, Solapur and Osmanabad Districts)
ranks first in the production of grape followed by Karnataka (Bangalore, Kolar, Bijapur),
Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh (Rangareddy, Medak, Ananthapur). In north India, grape
is cultivated mainly in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. Vegetative
growth takes place only in the spring season; consequently the fruiting is only once in a year
during the summer months.
4.1. Sub-tropical region
This region covers the north-western plains corresponding to 28° and 32° N latitude
including Delhi; Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh; Hissar and Jind districts of Haryana; and
Bhatinda, Ferozpur, Gurdaspur and Ludhiana districts of Punjab. Vines undergo dormancy
and bud break starts in the first week of March while the rains arrive in the first week of
June, and therefore, only 90-95 days are available from the initiation of growth to harvest.
Consequently, ‘Perlette’ is the only early ripening variety grown in this region. Rain damage
is a problem with Thompson Seedless in this region. Single pruning and a single harvest is
the accepted practice here.
4.2. Hot tropical region
This region covers Nashik, Sangli, Solapur, Pune, Satara, Latur and Osmanabad districts of
Maharashtra; Hyderabad, Ranga Reddy, Mahbubnagar, Anantapur and Medak districts of
Andhra Pradesh; and Bijapur, Bagalkot, Belgaum, Gulberga districts of northern Karnataka
lying between 15° and 20° N latitude. This is the major viticulture region accounting for
70 percent of the area under grapes in the country. Vines do not undergo dormancy and
double pruning and a single harvest is the general practice in this region. Maximum and
minimum temperature is 42°C and 8°C, respectively. The major problems in this region are
soil and water salinity and drought. Berry growth is impaired and in certain locations pink
blush sometimes develops on green berries due to temperatures that drop to a low of 8°C.
Thompson Seedless and its clones (Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka), Anab-e-Shahi, Sharad Seedless
and Flame Seedless are the varieties grown in this region.
4.3. Mild Tropical Region
An area covered by 10° and 15° N latitude including Bangalore and Kolar districts of
Karnataka; Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh and Coimbatore; and Madurai and Theni
districts of Tamil Nadu fall in this region. Maximum temperatures in a year seldom exceed
36°C, while the minimum is about 12°C. Principal varieties are Bangalore Blue (Syn. Isabella),
Anab-e-Shahi, Gulabi (Syn. Muscat Hamburg), and Bhokri. Thompson Seedless is grown
only with limited success. Except for Thompson Seedless, two crops are harvested in a year.
4.4. Potential belts in India
The West Bengal, particularly its drier tracts, is emerging as one of the potential belt in
India due its climatic condition some what similar to north India. Both table and wine grape
cultivars are performing well in this tract (Ghosh et al., 2012). Similarly, temperate region
in India is coming as one of the potential area for viticulture where European cultivars may
be adopted for production of good quality wine grapes.
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5. Taxonomy
The grape Vitis vinifera L. belongs to the family Vitaceae. The family has 12 genera and there
are fewer than 60 known species in the genus Vitis, many of them indistinctly separated
from others. Winkler et al. (1974) states that genus Vitis includes two sub-genra: Euvitis
(true grape) and Muscadinia. The members of Muscadinia group have 2n = 2x = 40 while
those of Euvitis 2n = 2x = 38. Later Muscadinia was dealt as separate genus which contained
only three known species restricted to southern USA and Northern Mexico (Olmo, 1976).
Muscadine grapes can be easily identified by observing their plants which have, non-shedding
bark, prominent lenticels; simple tendrils that do not fork; nodes without diaphragm; short
small clusters; berries that detach one by one as they mature; and seeds oblong without
beak. In contrast, the shoots of Vitis (Euvitis) have bark that is longitudinally striate-fibrose,
shedding at maturity; pith interrupted in the nodes by diaphragm; forked tendrils; with
mostly elongated flower clusters; berries adhering to stem at maturity; and seeds pyriform,
with long and short beak (Winkler et al.,1974).
Halfacre and Barden (1979) recognised four distinct types of grapes: European grape
(Vitis vinifera); American grape (V. labrusca); French hybrids (V. vinifera x wild American
species), and the Muscadine grape (V. rotundifolia). Singh and Murthy (1993) considered
it under the genus Muscadinia having somatic chromosomes 2n = 2x = 40. Of all the Vitis
species, Vitis vinifera, Linnaeus is the most widely cultivated one on account of its adaptability
to a wide range of temperate to sub-tropical or tropical ecological conditions. Over 90 per
cent of the world’s grapes are either of Vinifera or Vinifera hybrids.
The species of Vitis easily cross and produce vigorous and fertile F1 progeny. However,
a genetic barrier operates between Vitis and Muscadinia grape due to chromosome number
and genomic difference. M. rotundifolica can be hybridized with V. vinifera to improve disease
resistance of vinifera and the fruit quality of rotundifolia. The other closely related genera are:
Ampelocissus, Carytia, Cissus, Tetrastigma, Leea and Parthenocissus of which Parthenicissus is
morphologically similar to Vitis but has somatic chromosome 2n = 40 (Shyamal and Patel,
1953; Shetty, 1959).
6. Cytogenetics
Ordinary cells of cultivated grape varieties have 38 chromosomes. Since the late 1920s both
spontaneous and induced tetraploids (76 chromosomes) have been obtained in most of our
standard grape varieties. The possibility of producing seedless varieties by using triploids
(57 chromosomes) with poor fertility of pollen and egg cells was not practical because of
irregular berry set and great size variability. However, triploids are extremely vigorous and
may prove useful as rootstocks for infertile and difficult soils. Use of vines with more than
76 chromosomes has not been promising because of an imbalance in growth and yield. The
production of haploid plants (19 chromosomes) would be a great aid in genetic analysis and
breeding but remains elusive. Researchers became interested in doubling the chromosome
number to 76 to produce much larger cells, and hence berry, especially in table grapes.
However, deriving the original chromosome sets from the same species often resulted in
a poor, fragile growth habit and poorly developed clusters. Using different species, as in
crossing an American wild type with the cultivated vinifera, gave a much better balanced
growth and fruiting when doubling occurred. The first tetraploid of this crossing tetraploid
Campbell Early with tetraploid Niagara to produce the Niabell and Early Niabell. The
native Muscadinia rotundifolia or muscadine grape of the humid southeastern United States is
highly resistant or immune to most diseases and insects that plague the introduced vinifera.
Rotundifolia crossed with vinifera pollen, without results. Using the Hunisa and Almeria,
male-sterile varieties, with several male rotundifolia, several hundred very vigorous, but
completely unfruitful, hybrids were obtained. In these hybrids with 39 chromosomes, 20 from
rotundifolia and 19 from vinifera, it was found that, on the average, only 13 chromosomes
of rotundifolia paired or were similar to those of vinifera; the remaining 13 were without
mates. The best explanation seemed to be that the 13 single chromosomes consisted of a
set of 6 plus a set of 7 that were derived from other as yet unknown progenitors. The use of
certain vinifera parents in the cross broke the deadlock, and a few viable seeds were obtained.
It was then possible to continue crossing to vinifera. If a hybrid had a preponderance of
rotundifolia chromosomes, the cross with vinifera pollen was ineffective. On the other hand,
any combination of vinifera-rotundifolia, like rotundifolia itself, would succeed on vinifera.
Beginning in 1971, after three successive backcrosses to vinifera wine grapes, we made wines
from several vinifera-rotundifolia hybrids. A few were of better than average quality. These
and similar selections are being screened for resistance to diseases and insects in cooperation
with a number of experiment stations.
7. Botanical description
7.1. Types of plant tissues
7.1.1. Growth (meristematic) tissue
Meristematic cells divide to make more cells, allowing the vine to grow. They occur in the
buds, root tips and shoot tips (development of organs). The cambium layer of the vine shoot/
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cane is an example of a secondary meristem because it enables organs to grow in thickness.
7.1.2. Protection (dermal) cells
The cells of the epidermis are the outermost layer of cells on all plants. The bark protects the
inner cells from physical damage.
7.1.3. Photosynthetic tissue
Chloroplasts are sugar producing cells which are mainly found in the leaves. The chlorophyll
in them enables photosynthesis to occur.
7.1.4. Support tissue which makes up the cortex
7.1.4.1. Collenchyma (living outer most layer) cells
It form a complete cylinder around the stem. They are elongated and have thicker cell walls
due to additional cellulose, deposited within their walls.
7.1.4.2. Sclerenchyma (support) cells
These are similar to collenchyma cells but have additional lignin fibres in their cell walls. As
these fibres mature and die they leave a hard skeleton of lignin fibres.
7.1.4.3. Parenchyma (storage) cells
These are living cells which have large central vacuoles (storage vessels) and thin but flexible
cell walls. They form the cortex and pith of stems, the cortex of roots and the mesophyll of
leaves.
7.1.5. Vascular or conducting tissue
7.1.5.1. Xylem
Xylem tissue conducts water and dissolved mineral salts. Perforations in cell walls facilitate
the movement of water and dissolved substances from the roots upwards into the shoot
system of the vine.
7.1.5.2. Phloem
Phloem is the food or sugar conducting tissue located on the inside of the bark. Sugars are
moved from the production site to a ‘sink’ or where it is to be utilised.
Secondary Pith
Cortex Phellem
phloem
(layer between phellem and (protective layer)
vascular tissue)
Xylem vessel (through

which water and minerals
are transported) Vascular cambium
(actively dividing cells that
Xylem fibre produce xylem and phloem)
(supporting tissue)
Autumn
Ray wood
(parenchyma cells) Secondary
Spring Xylem
Phloem sieve tube wood
(through which nutrients
are transported)
Companion cell
(cell associated with
Phloem fibre phloem sieve tube)
(supporting tissue)
Lenticel
(pore)
Source: Mary Retallack- Retallack Viticulture. 2012. Grapevine Biology. Fact Sheet. http://
www.viti.com.au/pdf/MVWGG%20Fact%20Sheet%20%20Grapevine%20Biology.pdf.
Grapes 295
Fig.1. Overview of Grape vine Structure
Source: Hellman, E.W. 2017. Grapevine Structure and Function. eVineyard.www.evineyardapp.

com/blog/2017/05/30/overview-of-grapevine-structure-and-function/
Grapevine is an interesting plant not only that it produce some of the best fruit on
earth which can be transformed into the wine, but also as the plant itself. Grapevine is a
permanent plant but differs from other permanent plants in many ways. So, in order to
successfully maintain vine and produce the best possible grapes and thus the wine, it’s
important to know each and every grapevine parts and its functions. Grapevine is a climber
which naturally grows on the trees and bushes, high and in wide shapes. In the vineyard its
growth is maintained with the pruning in order to control the quantity and quality of the
grapes. Like any other plant also grapevine has its underground and above-ground part. The
underground part consists of an underground trunk with the root system. While the above
ground part consists of the trunk, canes, and shoots. On the one-year-old shoots, there are
leaves, tendrils, flowers, and grapes (Edward W. Hellman, 2017).
Dormant Season Growing Season
Fruiting Shoot
Spur
Arm Cordon
Trunk
Crown
Root
System
Figure 2: Source: Hellman, E.W. 2017. Grape wine structure and function. Oregon
Viticulture.5-19.
http://www.gencowinemakers.com/docs/Grapevine%20Structure%20and%20Function.pdf.
7.2. Root system
The roots of a grapevine are multi-branched structures that grow to various depths into the
soil depending on the variety (rootstock), soil and climate. Some varieties develop very deep
and almost vertical roots while others have very flat and shallow roots system and therefore
require deep, fertile soil.
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7.3. Trunk
It is the main stem, it’s permanent and supports the above-ground vegetative (leaves and
stems) and reproductive (flowers and fruits) structure of the vine. The height of the trunk and
also its branched varies with the selected training system. In cane-pruned training system,
the top of the trunk is called the head. Fully developed trunk has arms – short branches
from which canes and spurs originate. Depending on a selected training system arms are
located in different positions. In training system that utilize canes (cane-pruned training
system) – one-year-old wood arise from arms usually near the head of the vines. While in
training system that utilizes cordons (cordon training with spur pruning) arms are spaced at
regular intervals along their length. Cordons are extensions of the trunk that usually grows
horizontally along a trellis wire.
Figure 3: Source: Hellman, E.W. 2017. Grape wine structure and function. Oregon
Viticulture.5-19.
http://www.gencowinemakers.com/docs/Grapevine%20Structure%20and%20Function.pdf
7.4. Canes
When the shoots mature and woody, it becomes a vine cane. Canes if therefore one year old,
woody and matured shoot; after the leaves has fallen off. Canes are the main concerns for
winegrowers during the dormant season. With the winter pruning of canes, winegrowers are
managing vine size and shape and therefore control the quality of crop in the coming season.
7.5. Buds
It develop in the leaf axil, right above the connection between the shoot and leave petiole.
Inside each bud, there are three distinct growing points, each capable of producing a shoot,
also known as primary, secondary and tertiary buds. Bud is actually a highly compressed
shoot with all its parts, including cluster. At bud burst normally primary bud begins to grow,
but sometimes also secondary or tertiary buds, so there can be two or three shoots on the
same axil. In case the primary bud is damaged or freezes, then the secondary or tertiary buds
grow in place of the primary bud. In comparison to the primary bud, secondary and tertiary
buds generally, have little to no fruit.
Smaller secondary
dormant bud
Flower cluster primodia
Apical meristem
of primary bud
Lateral shoot
Tendril
primodia
Diaphragm
Larger secondary
dormant bud
Pith
Leaf petiole
Latent bud
Phloem Xylem
At left, a cross- section of a dormant grape bud attached to a cane, with internal features and the
position of leaf petiole attachment. At right, a shoot showing a lateral shoot that has grown from
the leaf axil and a latent bud.
7.6. Shoots
These are green stems which develop from buds, and represent the primary growth structure of
grapevines. The shoots that arise from primary (winter) buds are normally the fruit-producing
shoots. The shoot consists of stems, leaves, tendrils and fruits. Canopy is a collective term
that is used to describe the shoots, leaves, and fruits of the grapevine.
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Shoot
Tip
Tendril
Internode Node
Lateral
Shoot
Flower
Cluster
Petiole
Leaf Blade
Figure 4. Source: Hellman,E.W.2017.Grape wine structure and function.Oregon Viticulture.5-19.

http://www.gencowinemakers.com/docs/Grapevine%20Structure%20and%20Function.pdf
7.7. Leaves
The leaves of the grapevine, as any other plant, provide nourishment and air for the plant.
Leaves are converting sunlight into usable energy for the plant. The shape and size of leaves
are determined by the grapevine variety and their color varies from light to dark green.
7.8. Tendrils
These are slender structure that appears on the top and sides of stems. They grow until the
grapevine is ready for harvest, after the harvest they become wooden in nature. Since the
grapevine is a climber it needs tendrils to coil around small objects such as fences, trellises,
etc. to reach up for the sun and heat. Tendril and flower cluster have a common development
origin, therefore, we might find flowers design developed at the end of the tendril.
7.9. Flowers and Fruit
Grapevines have small flowers, typically 4 to 5 mm (0.17 to 0.20 in) long, that are grouped
together in a cluster, or inflorescence. Before bloom the calyptra, a cap of fused petals,
encloses the other flower parts. Each calyptra detaches from its base at bloom, exposing
pollen-bearing stamens and a pistil with the ovary, the enlarged basal portion. If pollinated,
the ovary of each flower may grow and develop into a berry. Each cluster is attached to a
shoot by a peduncle; the entire length of the main cluster stem framework is referred to as the
rachis, with individual berries being attached to the rachis by a pedicel, sometimes referred
to as a cap stem. Clusters vary widely in shape and size, depending on the grapevine variety
and by the position of the cluster on the shoot. The classification depends on the number
and length of the lateral branches of the cluster stem. Clusters with several well-developed
laterals near the peduncle are called shouldered. When the first lateral developing from the
peduncle is large and separate from the cluster, it is referred to as a wing.
Callyptra
(cap)
Anther Stigma
Pistil
Ovary
Stamen
Source: Edward W. Hellman, 2017
Calyptra or flower cap Stigma Pollen grains

These are the grape flower petals Style Anther
Stigma
Anther Pollen tube
Ovary Sperm
Embryo sac
Filament
Stamen Nectary Filament Egg
Pedicel Pedicel
Stages of grape flower bloom. (1) Grape flower not yet in bloom with cap attached. (2) Flower in
early bloom with cap dehiscing. (3) Flower in complete bloom showing ovary and stamens. (4)
Pollinator and fertilization of a grape flower.
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8. Plant growth, flowering, pollination, berry set and berry development
8.1. Growth
The grapevine has a definite cycle of growth, flowering, berry set and berry development
leading to ripening and harvest. Under temperate climate and also in subtropical climate of
North India, the vine sheds its leaves and enters dormant period when the temperature falls
below 10°C. Normally the vines are pruned only once during January in North India. In South
India, the grapes do not shed their leaves. The vines are pruned twice in March and October.
The temperature between 28°C to 32°C is most congenial for the development of buds. Full
bloom usually occurs six to eight weeks after bud break in North India depending upon
the cultivar and prevailing temperatures. But in South India grapevine grow continuously
without any dormancy and they may flower twice (March and October) in a year.
The annual growth cycle of grapevines is the process that takes place in the vineyard each
year, beginning with bud break in the spring and culminating in leaf fall in autumn followed
by winter dormancy. From a winemaking perspective, each step in the process plays a vital role
in the development of grapes with ideal characteristics for making wine. Viticulturalists and
vineyard managers should monitor the effect of climate, vine disease and pests in facilitating or
impeding the vines progression from bud break, flowering, fruit set, veraison, harvesting, leaf fall
and dormancy-reacting. If need viticultural practices like canopy management, irrigation, vine
training and the use of agrochemicals should be followed.
A number of pests and diseases (including Plasmopara viticola, Uncinula necator,

Guignardia bidwellii, Botrytis cinerea, Phomopsis viticola, Pseudopeziza tracheiphila, Xylophilus
ampelinus, Armillaria mellea and Eutypa lata) considered harmful to grape yield, wine quality
and behaviour of the vineyard itself (Bugaret et al., 2002). The stages of the annual growth
cycle usually become observable within the first year of a vine’s life. The amount of time spent
at each stage of the growth cycle depends on a number of factors-most notably the type
of climate (warm or cool) and the characteristics of the grape variety. Dhillon et al. (2001)
reported that nitrogen content in different cultivars was comparatively higher during April
than any other period of the growth cycle. Thereafter, a linear decline was observed until 8
June. Nitrogen content increased during the first 15 days from the blooming period in Perlette,
Thompson Seedless and Madeleine Angeveine, and decreased during the same period in
Flame Seedless, PAU-Hybrid, Lomanto and Madeleine Royale. Vines that received more
water during autumn (-0.3 and -0.6 MPa) retained foliage longer. However, they had more
lateral shoots (number and dry weight) than those that were subjected to a tension of -0.9
MPa, which increased susceptibility of their buds to low temperatures during the winter and
affected bud break and yield by 45 and 46%, respectively, in the following years. Water stress
(-0.9 MPa) enhanced early bud break and increased total bud break (Godoy et al., 2002).
8.2. Bud break
The grape starts its annual growth cycle in the spring with bud break. In the Northern
Hemisphere, this stage begins around March while in the Southern Hemisphere it begins
around September when daily temperatures begin to surpass 10 °C (50 °F). If the vine had
been pruned during the winter, the start of this cycle is signalled by a “bleeding” of the vine.
This bleeding occurs when the soil begins to warm and osmotic forces pushes water, containing
a low concentration of organic acids, hormones, minerals and sugars, up from the root
system of the vine and it is expelled from the cuts (or “wounds”) left over from pruning the
vine. During this period a single vine can “bleed” up to 5 litres (1.3 US gal) of water.
Tiny buds on the vine start to swell and eventually shoots begin to grow from the buds.
Buds are the small part of the vine that rest between the vine’s stem and the petiole (leaf
stem). Inside the buds contain usually three primordial shoots. These buds appear in the
summer of previous growth cycle green and covered in scales. During winter dormancy they
turn brown until the spring when the vine begins the process of bud break and the first
sign of green in the vineyard emerges in the form of tiny shoots. The energy to facilitate
this growth comes from reserves of carbohydrate stored in roots and wood of the vine from
the last growth cycle. Eventually the shoots sprout tiny leaves that can begin the process
of photosynthesis, producing the energy to accelerate growth. In warm climates, after about
4 weeks the growth of the shoots starts to rapidly accelerate with the shoots growing in
length an average of 3 cm (1 in) a day.
In temperate climates, where temperatures can reach above 10 °C (50 °F) in mid-winter,
some early budding varieties (such as Chardonnay) can be at risk of premature bud break. This
is a potential viticultural hazard in places like the Margaret River region of Western Australia
where warm currents from the Indian Ocean can coax Chardonnay vines to prematurely
bud in the mid-winter month of July. After bud break, the young shoots are very vulnerable
to frost damage with vineyard managers going to great lengths protect the fragile shoots
should temperature dramatically drop below freezing. This can include setting up heaters or
wind circulators in the vineyard to keep cold air from settling on the vines.
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8.3. Flowering
The grapevine flowers are born in clusters, or panicles, which develop on the third to fifth
nodes of the currently growing shoot. The panicle develops on the node opposite the leaf.
The nodes just above the inflorescence will usually develop tendrils. The young inflorescence
is compact, with the closed individual flowers pressed together. Grapevine inflorescences
from different cultivars can differ considerably in size and shape and length varies from 10
to 30 cm. The flower cluster consists of many small (2 to 4 mm long), greenish individual
flowers which may be perfect, pistillate (reflexed stamens) or staminate. The main parts of
complete flower are calyx, usually with five partly fused sepals; the corolla with fine greenish
petals united at the top to form a cup (or calyptra), which falls at blooming; five stamens
consisting of the filament and the pollen producing anther, and a pistil.
Once flower development is complete, blooming occurs within eight to ten days under
normal conditions. The anthers usually burst immediately after blooming. The pollens are
released in great numbers and pollination takes place. Depending on temperatures, 40–80 days
after bud break the process of flowering begins with small flower clusters appearing on the tips
of the young shoots looking like buttons. Flowering occurs when average daily temperatures
stay between 15–20 °C (59–68 °F) which in the Northern Hemisphere (wine regions) is
generally around May and for the Southern Hemisphere regions around November. A few
weeks after the initial clusters appearance, the flowers start to grow in size with individual
flowers becoming observable. It is the stage of flowering that the pollination and fertilization of
the grapevine takes place with the resulting product being a grape berry, containing 1-4 seeds.
Most cultivated Vitis vinifera grape vines are hermaphroditic, with both male stamens and
female ovaries, while many wild grapes are either male, producing pollen but no fruit, or
female, producing fruit only if a pollinator is nearby. Hermaphroditic vines are preferred for
cultivation because each vine is more likely to self-pollinate and produce fruit.
8.4. Pollination
At the beginning of the flowering process the only part that is visible is the fused cap of
petals known as the calyptra. Shortly after the calyptra is shed, liberating the pollen from
the anthers of the stamen. Wind and insects generally play only a small role in aiding pollination,
with the process being mostly self-contained within the vine. But cross-pollination between
vine species is possible as in the cases of the origins of several grape varieties like Cabernet
Sauvignon (a cross pollination of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon blanc) and Petite Sirah (a
cross of Syrah and Peloursin). During the process of fertilization, the pollen fertilizes the
ovary which produces seeds as the flower begins the transformation into a grape berry,
encapsulating the seed. Once the cap falls, pollen is released and dispersed. Better release of
pollen occurs in dry weather—both rain and strong winds reduce pollen density. If a pollen
grain lands on the receptive tissue of the stigma, it may germinate and produce a pollen tube.
Pollen grains germinate when the temperature is favourable.
Generally the optimum temperature seems to be 26.6°C to 32.3°C. Rain during blooming
and temperature below 15.5°C or above 32.3°C severely affect germination of pollination,
fertilization and fruit set. Berry set usually results from pollination and fertilization and
subsequent seed development. However, some varieties set berries without fertilization.
In the fruit set of seeded varieties the normal sequence of pollination, fertilization and
seed development takes place. In seedless varieties the fertilization occurs but the embryo
subsequently aborts. The berries set without fertilization (Cheema and Jindal, 2001).
8.5. Fruit set
The stage of fruit set follows flowering almost immediately, when the fertilized flower
begins to develop a seed and grape berry to protect the seed. In the Northern Hemisphere,
this normally takes place in May and in the Southern Hemisphere in November. This stage
is very critical for wine production since it determines the potential crop yield. Not every
flower on the vine gets fertilized, with the unfertilized flowers eventually falling off the
vine. The percentage of fertilized flowers averages around 30 but can get as high as 60 or be
much lower. Climate and the health of the vine play an important role with low humidity,
high temperatures and water stress having the potential of severely reducing the amount
flowers that get fertilized. Coulure occurs when there is an imbalance of carbohydrate
levels in the vine tissues and some berries fail to set or simply fall off the bunch. Varieties
like Grenache and Malbec are prone to this abnormal fruit set. Millerandage (or shot berries,
is a potential viticultural hazard problem in which grape bunches contain berries that differ
greatly in size and, most importantly, maturity) occurs when some fertilized flowers do
not form seeds but only small berry clusters. Grape berry size depends on the number of
seeds so berries with no seeds will be significantly smaller than berries containing seeds.
On one cluster there may be berries of various sizes which can create problems during
winemaking due to the varying “skin to pulp” ratio among the grapes. This can be caused by
vine disease, such as fan leaf, or by a boron deficiency in the vine. Gewürztraminer and the
Chardonnay clones IA and Mendoza are both prone to millerandage.
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8.6. Fruit growth and development
There are three clearly marked growth stages. The first stage lasting 5 to 7 weeks is characterized
by increase in the berry volume and seeds almost fully grown. The berries remain green and
firm and accumulate organic acids. The second stage lasting for 2 to 4 weeks is characterized
by slower growth rate and rapid growth of embryo. The berries reach their maximum level
of acidity and began to accumulate sugars during this period. The third stage which lasts for
5 to 8 weeks show rapid increase in size and weight. During this period, the berry acquires
a softer texture, accumulates sugars due to evaporation, decreases acidity and develops skin
colour. These three stages are more pronounced in seeded grapes while seedless berries usually
show less distinctive growth period.
8.7. Fruit
Grape fruit is a non-climacteric berry. The grape berry morphologically consists of epidermis,
an outer wall, an inner wall and placenta. The inner contents such as soluble solids, organic
acids and moisture distribution of grape berries are dramatically changed during the veraison
between the growth and ripening period (Ban et al. 2010).
8.8. Veraison
During fruit ripening on the tree and after harvest some essential processes involve the
production of the anaerobic metabolites, acetaldehyde (AA) and ethanol. These processes
include the production of aroma volatiles and removal of fruit astringency. Acetaldehyde, a
natural aroma component, is present in almost every fruit; it accumulates during ripening even
under aerobic conditions, but to a much greater extent under partially or totally anaerobic
conditions (Pesis, 2005).
Following fruit set, the grape berries are green and hard to the touch. They have very
little sugar and are high in organic acids. They begin to grow to about half their final size
when they enter the stage of veraison. This stage signals the beginning of the ripening process
and normally takes place around 40–50 days after fruit set. In the Northern Hemisphere
this will be around the end of July and into August and between the end of January into
February for the Southern Hemisphere. During this stage the colors of the grape take
form-red/black or yellow/green depending on the grape varieties. This colour changing is
due to the chlorophyll in the berry skin being replaced by anthocyanins (red wine grapes)
and carotenoids (white wine grapes). In a process known as engustment, the berries start to
soften as they build up sugars. Within six days of the start of veraison, the berries begin to
grow dramatically as they accumulate glucose and fructose and acids begin to fall.
The onset of veraison does not occur uniformly among all berries. Typically the berries
and clusters that are most exposed to warmth, on the outer extents of the canopy, undergo
veraison first with the berries and clusters closer to the trunk and under the canopy shade
undergoing it last. There are some factors in the vineyards that can control the onset of
veraison, limited water stress and canopy management that creates a high “fruit to leaf ”
ratio can be encourage veraison. This is because the vine is biologically programmed to
channel all its energies and resources into the berries, which houses its seedling offspring,
so that they may have a better chance of survival. Conversely, very vigorous vines with lots
of leaf shading for photosynthesis and water supply will delay the start of veraison due to
the vines energies being directed towards continued shoot growth of new buds. The effect of
water deficit stress on berry ripening of Chardonnay varies depending on the stage of berry
ripening, which might be caused by different ABA levels in berries (Okamoto et al., 2004).
For the production of high quality wine, it is considered ideal to have an earlier veraison.
During this period the berry of the vine starts to ripen as well changing from green and
springing to brown and hard. The vines begin to divert some of its energy production into
its reserves in preparation for its next growth cycle.
There are some factors which can hasten or delay ripening. Atmospheric factors, like
temperature and light have profound effect on ripening. The maturity can be hastened by
manipulating the vegetative growth by pruning, irrigation and nutrition. Girdling was found
to hasten ripening in cvs. Primus and Regina Bianea, when the crop loads were reduced to 5
to 6 and 7 to 8 kg/vine respectively, but not when the loads were 9 and 15 kg/vine respectively
(Fanizza and Grasso, 1980).
9. Grapevine physiology
9.1. Carbohydrate partitioning
The carbon fixed during photosynthesis is allocated to expanding the leaf and some temporary
storage. Very little is exported when the leaves are young. At maturity when the leaves are
no longer expanding, the carbon is then exported and partitioned to expanded growth, fruit
development, new roots or storage within the large permanent roots and trunk. The “sink”
strength determines the direction of partitioning. The direction of partitioning is governed
by the relative strength of the sink or destination tissues. If the vine is growing extremely
Grapes 307
rapidly, because light, water and nitrogen are plentiful, then the leaf and shoot development
get priority. As the photoperiod of the season changes and the days get shorter, the vine goes
into storage mode, the leaves and shoots stop growing and starch is deposited in the heavy
permanent roots and the trunk. In between these two major developments, the young roots
have priority, usually in late spring or the fruit development has priority, usually in late summer.
All parts of the plant have their turn, and as a manager of a vineyard, the vigneron
(a person who cultivates grapes for winemaking) can manipulate this partitioning to their
advantage. By restricting growth, more energy can be diverted into fruit development. If
this is too much for the capacity of the vine, it will stop growing. If fruit is removed from
the vine in spring, root development will be encouraged. If too much fruit is left on a vine,
root development will be restricted, making the vine prone to drought or mineral deficiency.
If too much fruit is left on the vine to ripen in the fall, not enough starch will be stored for
respiration over winter and the winter hardiness of the vine may be compromised. Everything
is interconnected and it is the knowledge of the vine manager to make all things work to
advantage for vine survival, fruit quality and profitability.
The destination of manufactured carbohydrates as a result of photosynthesis.

9.2. Phenology
Phenology is mainly concerned with the timing of specific stages of growth and development
in the annual cycle. Such knowledge can be used for site and cultivar selection, vineyard
design, planning of labor and equipment requirements, and timing of cultural practices as
part of vineyard management. The annual growth cycle of mature, fruiting grapevines is
often divided into a vegetative and a reproductive cycle. The shoot growth cycle is completed
with leaf senescence associated with the recycling of nutrients from the leaves to the canes
and permanent parts of the vine, abscission (shedding) of leaves, and, finally, dehydration
and cold acclimation of all woody parts in fall. On a seasonal scale, flowering, onset of fruit
ripening, bud dormancy, leaf senescence, and cold acclimation are typical responses to day
length, although each of these developmental processes is also modulated by temperature,
and some can be altered by stress factors such as drought, nutrient deficiency or excess, or
infection by pathogens.
The grapevine grows very rapidly in the spring, between early May and late June and
then flowers during late June and early July. After this, the flowers set and the berries begin
to grow. First the berries increase in size due to cell division (stage I). Then there is a rest
period when the seeds mature (stage II). Then there is the final increase in size due to cell
expansion (stage III) when berries enlarge, colour, soften and begin to accumulate sugar.
The beginning of this ripening stage is called véraison, a French term that really has no
literal English translation, but roughly means “towards ripening”. This beginning of coloration
and softening is a key marker during the growing season. The date of this occurrence is
often referred to in describing the advance of a season or a particular variety. Shoot growth
usually decreases or stops about this time. Fruit maturity itself is a not a fixed point but
depends on the end use of the fruit – juice, wine, table or raisins. After fruit maturity, the
vine prepares for dormancy, stores carbohydrates in the trunk and roots, drops its leaves and
goes into dormancy.
One of the things that distinguish temperate zone perennials from evergreen tropical and
subtropical species is that there is a period of dormancy when there is no active photosynthesis.
This requires a defence mechanism which is the accumulation of starches in various perennial
organs. This acts as a food supply for low levels of respiration which keep the plant alive
during this period of apparent inactivity, be it induced by cold or drought. This starch supply
is directed to storage and dormancy survival. Many tropical are evergreen do not shed their
leaves at one time during the growing season. They are shed asynchronously, as they age, and
Grapes 309
floral development is similar, asynchronous and therefore occurring sporadically throughout

the year, since there is hardly any variability in the growing season (Fisher, 2009).
9.3. Flower cluster development
Grapevines, being perennials, have a period of flower development that stretches over one
year. Flower cluster initiation actually begins during bloom of the previous year’s flowers.
This period of mid to late June is an extremely active period of the grapevine. Shoots are
growing rapidly. The vascular connections of the new shoots with the main structural arms
of the vine are just being completed. The roots are starting to grow now that the soil is warm.
Flower clusters are emerging on the active shoots and new flower cluster primordia are being
developed in the buds axillary to the active leaves on these active shoots. In other words,
flowering and the next season’s flower development are going on at the same time. After fruit
set and the beginning of berry development, these primordial flowers clusters also continue
developing but the detail of the cluster will not be completed until just before flowering the
following year. These clusters are the ones seen in the dormant winter bud. Light intensity
and light quality are also critical to the development of these axillary buds. The exposure
of the leaf in which axil this bud is developing has a profound effect on the fertility of this
bud. If these leaves are developing in the shade, that axillary bud will be much less fruitful.
Remember the wild grapevines, always scrambling to get back into the light and climb
higher on the tree. These leaves must be well illuminated to guarantee fruitfulness of the next
season’s buds. This is where the commercial grape grower can influence the fruitfulness of
next season’s crop. By training vines so that the maximum number of leaves is well exposed
and in full sunlight, the fertility of the following season is assured.
9.4. Flowering and fruit set
The detailed development of the florets with their individual organs occurs in the late spring,
although the axis on which this is all attached is developed the previous summer (floral
primordium). If there is failure or partial failure in the fertilization of the berries at bloom,
then berries of uneven size develop. The fertilization of the ovary and the development of
the seed stimulate the expansion of the berry. If this fertilization is incomplete, the berries
do not fail completely but they do not size, a condition called millerandage. This gives the
appearance of “hens and chicks”, the hens being the completely sized berries and the chicks
the smaller ones. Occasionally berries will grow slightly with no seed at all, but do not fall.
These are very small and are called shot berries. If the fertilization is very poor, the infertile
ovaries shatter and fall, leaving only a few berries set on the whole cluster. This is called coulure.
9.5. Physiology of vine dormancy
To investigate the variation of nitrogenous compounds and relative enzymatic activity in

the buds, phloem and xylem of one-year-old cane, and roots during the period of dormancy
induction and release in Cabernet Sauvignon grapevine was studied by Fang et al. (2011).
Contents of soluble proteins decreased gradually during the dormant induction, and increased
gradually during the dormant release. Nitrate reductase activity of different dormant organs or
tissues from high to low were buds > roots > phloem > xylem. From dormancy to germinating
stage, nitrate reductase (NR) activity generally decreased. In different organs of grapevine,
glutamine synzyme activity in buds was maximal, during the period of deep dormancy, the
glutamine synzyme activity was lowered to a minimum, the general trend of glutamine
synzyme activity in buds was rising with two peaks during the dormant period. In the early
dormancy, protease activity decreased with the deepening of sleep, and increased with the
lifting of dormancy and germination (except buds). A large number of proteins emerged in
the period of grape dormancy.
10. Species
The grape belongs to the family Vitaceae which is made up of 12 genera and about 60 species
widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics with ranges extending into temperate regions.
The genus Vitis is of greatest economical importance and the only one containing food plants.
The genus Vitis is subdivided into two subgenera, Muscadinia Plach., and Euvitis Plach.
The more important species is Vitis vinifera L.
The vinifera has intermittent tendrils, that is, tendrils opposite to two adjacent leaves
but no tendril opposite to third leaf, while Labrusca has continuous tendrils opposite to
every leaf. Likewise vinifera has thin, smooth, shiny leaves with 3,5 or 7 lobes; round or
oval berries with edible skin that adhere to the flesh. However, in the American species, the
skin slips from the pulp and berries are always round or nearly round with foxy odour in
most of the species.
Most grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine native to the
Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American
and Asian species such as:
• Vitis labrusca, the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including
Grapes 311
the Concord cultivar), sometimes used for wine, are native to the Eastern United

States and Canada.
• Vitis riparia, a wild vine of North America, is sometimes used for winemaking and for
jam. It is native to the entire Eastern U.S. and north to Quebec.
• Vitis rotundifolia, the muscadines, used for jams and wine, are native to the Southeastern
United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico.
• Vitis amurensis is the most important Asian species.
Some of the important species are as under:
10.1. Vitis Species
1. Vitis vinifera L. Wine grape
2. V. labrusca L. Fox grape

3. V. aestivalis M. Summer grape
4. V. riparia M. Frost grape
5. V. lincecumii B. Post-oak grape
6. V. champini Pl. Calcarie grape
7. V. longii Pr. Bush grape
8. V. rupestris S. Sand grape
9. V. candicans E. Mustang grape
10. V. monticola B. Sweet mountain grape
11. V. berlandieri P. Spanish grape
10.2. Muscadinia species
1. Muscadinia rotundifolia M. Muscadine grape

2. M. Munsoniana S. Little muscadine grape
3. M. popenoei F. Mexican muscadine grape
11. Climate
Climate is the most significant factor in determining a grape’s inherent qualities. Each grape
species has a uniquely preferred environment for ideal growing. Because climates vary from
country to country, selecting the best strain is an important decision in grape cultivation.
In addition, because climatic factors such as temperature and rain can be unpredictable and
uncontrollable, each year will produce unique qualities and yields of grapes.
The produced wine is unique and its specific characteristics are mainly due to the climate
and soil (Araujo et al., 2004). Grape vines need approximately 1300–1500 hours of sunshine
during the growing season and around 690 millimetres (27 inches) of rainfall throughout the
year in order to produce grapes suitable for winemaking. In ideal circumstances, the vine will
receive most of the rainfall during the winter and spring months: rain at harvest time can
create many hazards, such as fungal diseases and berry splitting. The optimum weather during
the growing season is a long, warm summer that allows the grapes the opportunity to ripen
fully and to develop a balance between the levels of acids and sugars in the grape. Hot and
sunny climates have a frost-free growing season of 200 days or more. These climates allow
grapes to ripen faster with higher sugar levels and lower acidity. Cooler climates have a frost-
free growing season of around 150–160 days. Cooler seasons force the grapes to ripen earlier
which produces a fresher and more acidic harvest. In general, the average yearly temperature
for most crops should average around 15 °C (59 °F) in order for the highest quality to be
achieved in each grape.
11.1. Summer
Ideal temperatures in summer average around 22 °C (72 °F). Ideal summer temperatures
enable fruits to ripen. Temperature and sunshine are the most important factors in ripening.
11.2. Winter
Ideal temperatures in winter average around 3 °C (37 °F). Ideal winter temperatures are
necessary to allow grape vines to enter their resting phase. If temperatures fall too low, the
crops can be injured.
11.3. Spring and fall
Spring and fall are critical seasons for grape development, because the plants are susceptible
to frost damage, which can injure the fruiting buds. Wet weather in spring can increase the
odds of mildew formation. To prevent mildew, some farms introduce devices such as heaters
or large fans in vineyards. However, such solutions can be costly.
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12. Soil
The grape is widely adapted to various soil conditions, but the yield and quality reach to the
highest on good fertile soils have pH 6.5 to 8.5, organic carbon above 1.0%, free of lime
and having a medium water holding capacity. Early but medium yields with high T.S.S. are
harvested on medium type of soils. Permanent vegetation of vineyards is a technique which
has interesting repercussions for the environment. To ensure optimum results for the vine
and high wine quality, the plant species chosen must be well-suited to local conditions viz.,
climate, acidity level and dryness of soil (Chantelot, 2001). Root restriction could change
the composition of coarse, medium and fine roots in the whole root system. Root restriction
resulted in more fine roots and less medium roots. Growth above ground was also affected
negatively by root restriction. Leaf and shoot dry weight, leaf area, photosynthesis decreased
significantly with root restriction (Zhang and Bravdo, 2001).
Grape quality can be optimized through effective soil management practices. Two soil
properties that play a major role in the quality of fruit produced by grapevines are nitrogen
and water availability. Soils that confer high nitrogen and water accessibility can promote
excessive vigour, resulting in shaded canopies and poor fruit quality. Vineyard soil management
techniques can be adopted to reduce soil water and nitrogen levels where these would be
considered too high for production of quality grapes. These practices include regulated deficit
irrigation, partial root drying, root pruning, carbon-organic matter additions and cover crop
competition (Wheeler and Pickering, 2003).
12.1. Macro and micro-nutrient status of the soil
The nutrient status of soil in grapevine in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, was studied
Vijaya et al. (2011). The amounts of available N, P and K in the soil showed significant
variations. N was the most limiting (130-548 kg/ha), and 66% of the samples were deficient
in N. The available P and K concentrations were in excess of the critical values of 25 and
280 kg/ha, respectively. The concentrations of DTPA-extractable Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn were
more than the critical limits of 0.6, 0.2, 4.5 and 0.2 ppm, respectively.
13. Cultivars
Varieties suitable for temperate zone: Thompson Seedless, Perlette, Anab- e- Shahi, Sahibi,
Himrod and Hussani.
Some important cultivars are discussed below
13.1. Perlette
Perlette is hybrid between Scolokertek hiralynoje and Sultanina Marble developed by

H.P. Olmo while working at Davis, University of California in 1936. This is early ripening
seedless cultivar which was released for cultivation in Punjab in 1964. At present this is the
only cultivar under cultivation throughout North India. It bears heavily on short spurs (3 to
4 buds). The bunches are usually compact, prominently shouldered, conical and big in size.
There may be over 300 berries per branch. Berries are green to amber in colour, medium in
size and round in shape. The ripening starts from the beginning of 2nd week of June from
Sirsa Hissar belt to 3rd week of June in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. The
T.S.S. of juice ranges between 14 to 18 percent with 0.5 to 0.7 percent acidity. It is prolific
bearer and can yield 35 tonnes per hectare in bower system of trained orchard. The cultivar
has two drawbacks, i.e., compactness of bunches and shot berries. These draw backs have
been overcome by thinning of berries and bunch dipping in 40 ppm GA3 solution. In cluster
thinning treatments, the crop load was reduced to 60 and 40 bunches by removal of excessive
bunches at berry set stage. Berry thinning was performed by removing the one-third distal
portion of bunches with the help of secateur at berry set stage. The trunk girdling consisted
of removal of 0.5 cm wide ring of bark from the trunk at varaison stage. All the treatments
were effective in reducing the incidence of water berry. However, the treatment of reducing
the crop load to 40 bunches per vine was the most effective in reducing the problem and
improving the fruit quality of Perlette grape (Kumar et al., 2000).
13.2. Thompson Seedless
This cultivar was also released for cultivation along with perlette in north India. But due
to berry shatter problem its cultivation was stopped. The bunches are long and conical. The
berries become golden yellow in color at full ripe stage. These are elongated in shape and
are seedless. It ripens in end June. The TSS of Juice ranges between 15-20 percent with 0.5
to 0.6 percent acidity in north Indian plains. The yield is about 20 tonnes per hectare. Now
the area under this cultivar is again increasing in north India due to its better quality grapes
and changed climate.
13.3. Anab-e-Shahi
This is a vigorous cultivar and does well only on bower system. The bunches are attractive
Grapes 315
and bigger than both the above cultivars. Berries are well sized and become amber in colour
when ripe. Berries have bold seeds, which are not edible. It ripens in July under north Indian
conditions, T.S.S. of juice varies from 13 to 16 percent with 0.5 to 0.6 percent acidity. Average
yield on bower system in northern plains ranges between 35 to 40 tonnes per hectare. In
Punjab most of the area has been uprooted due to its late ripening and berry damage due
to rains.
13.4. Himrod
Himrod, produced from a cross between Ontario and Thompson Seedless, is the most
successful table grape released from the Cornell University grape breeding program (1952). It
produces large bunches of white seedless grapes with excellent, honeylike flavor and melting,
juicy texture. The clusters are loosely filled, but cane girdling, gibberellic acid treatments,
or thinning may be used to increase cluster compactness and improve berry size (Zabadal,
1992). The brittle rachis may break when handled, and the berries may shell in storage.
The rachis is also subject to bunch stem necrosis, a poorly understood disorder that causes
a shriveling of the cluster stem, often just before harvest. Despite these cultural defects,
Himrod is currently the most commercially important of the seedless grapes grown in New
York. Cluster weight = 0.36 lb. Berry weight = 2.1 g.
13.5. Hussaini
Hussaini one of the commonly grown group of cultivars from central Afghanistan. The group
matures in late August in Kandahar. Bunch is medium in size. Berry color is green-yellow
and seed is well developed. The group has good fresh market in Kabul and other provinces
and also exported to Pakistan.
13.6. Flame seedless
It is performing very well in the plains of Punjab and Haryana. The vines are vigorous than
Perlette. Bunches are medium in size and well filled, with light purple, seedless berries. T.S.S.
of juice varies between 16 to 18 percent with 0.6 to 0.7 percent of acidity It ripens in mid
June. It is an excellent table grape cultivar. The average yield per hectare on bower system
is around 25 tonnes. The cultivar can do well on head system of training also. For uniform
colour of berries, the bunches should be treated with 400 ppm ethephon at colour break stage.
13.7. Beauty Seedless
It is a semi-vigorous cultivar. It is early ripening cultivar, which ripens in mid June. Bunches
are of medium in size, with bold, seedless bluish black berries. Berries are responsive to GA3
treatment. The TSS of juice may reach to 18 percent.
13.8. Kishmish chorni
This is a seedless cultivar from Uzbekistan. Very good table purpose cultivar. It bears big
bunches like Perlette but less compact. Berries are brick-red in colour and are variable in
size; Pulp is pinkish yellow, very sweet with 20-24 percent TSS and little acidity 0.4 percent.
It can yield over 20 tonnes per hectare.
Some new cultivars have been developed at Indian Institute of Horticulture Research,
Bangalore; lARI New Delhi and Agricultural universities. The promising hybrids, viz.,
Arkavati, Arka Kanchan, Arka hans and Arka Shyam have been released for cultivation.
List of commercial varieties utilized for specific purposes is given in the following:
Category Varieties
Table grapes Anab-e-Shahi, Bangalore Blue, Beauty Seedless, Bhokri
(Pachadrakshi), Cheema Sahebi, Delight, Gulabi (Panneer Drakshi,
Muscat Hamburg), Himrod, Kali Sahebi,Kandhari, Khalili, Pandari
Sahebi, Perlette, Selection 94, Pusa Seedless and Thompson Seedless.
Raisin Grapes Thompson Seedless, Arkavati
Wine Grapes Bangalore Blue, Thompson Seedless and Arka Kanchan
International wine Cabernet sauvignon, Chardonnay, Gewurztraminer, Merlot,
cultivars Sauvignon blanc and Syrah

Commercial varieties can be grouped under four categories based on colour and seeds:
Coloured seeded - Bangalore Blue, Gulabi (Muscat)

Coloured seedless - Beauty seedless and Shared Seedless
White seeded - Anab-e-Shahi, Dilkhush (clone of Anab-e-Shahi)
White seedless - Perlette, Pusa Seedless, Thompson Seedless and its clones
(Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka & Manik Chaman).
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13.9. Important cultivars in other countries
13.9.1. Zuirenxiang
It is a new middle-late ripening table grape cultivar in China which was selected from the
offspring of Kyoho x Muscat. The cross was made in 1985. Fruit has been observed since
1993. Its cluster is medium in size, weighing 700 g. The average weight of single berry is
9 g, and the largest is 11 g. The soluble solids contend is 18%, with very good and strong
flavour of strawberry and muscat. This variety ripens in early September in Lanzhou. Plants
have vigorous growth with high productivity and disease resistance. It is easy to be cultivated
(Hao et al., 2011).
13.9.2. Shenhua
A new tetraploid hybrid, was bred through crossing between Jingya (maternal plant) and
86-179 (paternal plant). The average weight of cluster is 463 g. The berry is elliptical with
purple skin and pleasant flavor, weighing 13.0 g, containing soluble solids content of 15%
to 17% and titratable acidity of 0.4%. The rate of seedless could reach 100% after treatment.
The fruit ripens around mid-July in greenhouse in Shanghai area (China) condition ( Jiang
et al., 2011).
13.9.3. Heukisul (3x)
A cross made in 2000 between ‘Kyoho’ (4x, Vitis sp.) and ‘Thompson Seedless’ (2x, Vitis vinifera
L.) in a seedless grape breeding program in Korea Republic, released in 2006. ‘Heukisul’
showed low incidence of berry shattering, resulting in a good berry set compared to ‘King
Dela’. ‘Heukisul’ had budburst on April 23, flowering on in June 9, and fruit maturation
in September 29 (almost the same as ‘King Dela’ at Chuncheon), and it was considered a
midseason cultivar. The mean berry weight was 4.0 g, about 0.7 g heavier than ‘King Dela’,
and mean soluble solids were 21.9 degrees Brix, about 2.7 degrees Brix higher than ‘King
Dela’. The skin color was dark violet with abundant bloom and the flesh was very firm.
Although the cluster was compact, it required no cluster thinning. Also the incidence of
berry cracking was very low (Park, 2011).
13.9.4. Ziti 988
It is a new grape cultivar selected from’ Red Globe’ grape’s branch mutation in China. Its
fruit cluster weighs 1000 g on average, and the largest reaches about 3540 g. The berry is
oval, purple-red, thick-wax. The average weight of single berry is 14 g, and the largest reaches
about 26 g. The berry usually has uniform size. It has soluble solids content of 13.90%, up to
20%. The growth period is about 100 d. It has high endurance for storage and transportation.
The fruit is suitable for fresh use. The vine has strong disease resistance and adaptability
(Yuan et al., 2011).
13.9.5. Fengzao
It is selected from ‘Kyoho’ through bud mutation. The fruit cluster is conical and medium,
with average weight of 500 g. The berry with thick, purplish-red peel is, round and the
average weight is 9.0 to 12.0 g. Its flesh is harder, sweet with rose fragrance and containing
total soluble solids of 15.0%. The ripening time of berry is in the beginning of July and the
growth period of berry is about 47 days in Luoyang, China (Li et al., 2014).
13.9.6. Tankeumchu
The ‘Tankeumchu’ (Vitis sp. x V. vinifera) is a new table grape cultivar (in Korea Republic)
that is diploid, mid-ripening and black-fruited with large cluster. It has mean bud burst on
April 24, full blooming on June 1, and fruit maturity on September 10. It has an excellent
taste with abundant juice and soft firmness. The mean weight of berries is 7.0 g, and mean
content of soluble solids is 18.0 degrees Brix. ‘Tankeumchu’ is more suitable to the mild
climate with its moderate resistance to cold (Noh et al., 2014).
13.9.7. Cheonghyang
It a hybrid of ‘Red Pearl’ (4x) x ‘Muscat Bailey A’ (2x), is a new green table grape cultivar,
which was developed and cultivated by the Gangwon Provincial Agricultural Research and
Extension Services (Korea Republic). It is a triploid grape of which the chromosome number
is 2n=3x=57. The color of the upper surface of young leaves is dark bronze, mature leaves
have five blades with a deep upper lateral sinus, and berries have a strong Muscat aroma. It
is classified as an early- to mid-season seedless fruit cultivar. The cluster weight was 283.4
g, the soluble solids concentration (SSC) was 17.0 degrees Brix, and the titratable acidity
(TA) was 0.45%. This cultivar requires some special management techniques: it is a triploid
that has vigorous growth which must be contained, thinning the flower clusters is necessary
at the 50% flowering stage, and a single treatment of 100 ppm GA3 at the flower thinning
stage is essential for achieving effective fruit set.
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13.9.8. Sunbelt
Sunbelt originated from open-pollination of cv. Concord in Clarkesville, AR, USA. Unlike
Concord, Sunbelt ripens evenly under high temperature conditions, whilst yield, harvest date
and soluble solids content of the blue, large, seeded berries are similar to the parent cultivar.
Vines are vigorous and show moderate resistance to black rot [Guignardia bidwellii] and
anthracnose [Elsinoe ampelina], and high resistance to powdery [Uncinula necator] and
downy [Plasmopara viticola] mildews. Sunbelt is recommended as a high quality juice and
jelly grape in southern and eastern Arkansas where Concorde cannot be grown (Moore et
al. 1993).
13.9.9. Sujeong
A green seedless triploid table grape cultivar originated from a cross between ‘Kyoho’ and
‘Thompson Seedless’ made in 2000 at Kangwon National University farm, in Chuncheon,
Korea Republic. ‘Sujeong’ is as vigorous as other triploid grape cultivars and its vines
have relative high disease resistance to powdery (Erysiphe cichoracearum [Golovinomyces
cichoracearumvar. cichoracearum]) and gray mould (Botrytis cinerea). ‘Sujeong’ produces large-
sized and high quality seedless fruits after a single gibberellic acid application, and has the
appropriate number of seedless fruits without cluster thinning (Heo and Park, 2017).
13.9.10. Guipu 4
The cultivar was bred through bud mutation of Kyoho grape in China. Under normal
circumstances, the grape plant began to bear fruit in the second year after planting, with
yield of 2.79 kg per plant and 7449.0 kg/ha in the first harvest season. The average weight
of single cluster was about 300.0g, weight of single fruit was about 7.30 g, the soluble solids
was up to 19.0%., fruit with rich strawberry aroma, high and stable yield with high resistance
to downy mildew and anthracnose (Lin et al., 2016).
13.9.11. Shine Muscat
Shine Muscat (Vitis labruscana Bailey × V. vinifera L. Shine Muscat) is a diploid table grape
cultivar resulted from cross breeding of ‘Akitsu-21’ (‘Steuben’ [V. labruscana] × ‘Muscat of
Alexandria’ [V. vinifera]) with ‘Hakunan’ (V. vinifera) released by National Institute of Fruit
Tree Science (NIFTS) in Japan. It has a large berry size, bright yellow-green pericarp, crispy
and juicy flesh, musky flavor, high soluble solid content and low acidity. Fruit ripening of
Shine Muscat was in middle to late August with a long shelf life. The average mass is 10.0
g and 12.4 g for seeded and seedless fruit production, respectively. The seedless berries can
be commercially produced by applying gibberellin A3 (GA3) to flower and fruit clusters in
full bloom and 10 to 15 days after full bloom, respectively.
14. Propagation
There are two main methods of propagating grapevines. One is sexual which involves
multiplication by seed. The second is asexual or vegetative where the vines are multiplied by
means of vegetative parts, such as, branches, buds, canes, etc. Among the different vegetative
methods the most common method of propagation in grapes is hard wood cuttings. For
rapid multiplication of grapes vines, tissue culture technique is also potential.
14.1. Seed
The sexual method is employed chiefly for evolving new varieties through hybridization.
Freshly harvested seeds are stratified for higher germination percentage and uniform
germination. Exposure to lower temperature between 00C for 5 months breaks the dormancy
for germination.
14.2. Vegetative propagation
As commercial winemakers usually want to work with a desired grape variety that dependably
produces a particular crop, most grapevines are propagated vegetatively by three ways.
14.2.1. Cuttings
In India all the grape cultivars are propagated through hard wood cuttings. For this purpose,
hard wood cuttings from one year old shoots are taken. Only healthy cuttings should be
planted for rooting purposes to get healthy vines for planting. Cuttings should be prepared
from the pruning wood during January under North Indian Condition The length of the
cutting should be between 20-25 cm with at least three nodes (buds). The lower cut should
be near the bud and upper cut away from the bud. The cuttings should be tied in bundles of
100 cuttings each and placed in moist sand for 15 to 20 days for callusing. These cuttings
are then planted in the nursery in the first week of February by keeping 1/3 of cutting above
ground. The planted cuttings are applied light irrigation at regular intervals to keep the soil
in ‘water’ condition for most the time for high percentage of rooting. Weeds are kept under
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control by hoeing. To prevent attack of white ants treatment of chloropyriphos @ 2 litre/

acre is given after 20 days of planting of cuttings through irrigation water and is repeated
in April-May.
Patil et al. (2001) reported that Kismis Chorny had higher survival percentage than
Tas-e-Ganesh. The maximum number of sprouts per cutting was obtained with 300 ppm
IBA and 300 ppm NAA, while 100 ppm IBA and 100 ppm NAA resulted in the maximum
number of leaves per cutting. Combination of the plant regulators IBA and NAA at different
levels was detrimental to the vegetative growth of the crop whereas Liu (2001) showed
that the best rooting (64.2%) was obtained using 50 mg IBA + 50 mg ABD/litre in case of
cutting of Kyoho grape variety.
Results showed that different auxin and planting bed treatments had a significant
influence on grape rooting in cuttings. The maximum number of roots, root length, and root
fresh and dry weight was obtained by applying 4000 mg/l IBA. Studied traits significantly
affected by an interaction effect of IBA and cuttings beds, so that maximum number of roots,
root length, and root dry weight was obtained by using 2000 mg/l IBA + sandy planting bed,
and maximum root fresh weight was obtained by using 4000 mg/l IBA + sandy planting
bed (Galavi, et al., 2013).
14.2.2. Grafting
This involves removing the canopy and most of the trunk of an existing vine and replacing
it with a cutting of a new vine that is sealed by a graft union. This technique, better known
as head grafting, is a quick and relatively inexpensive means of quickly changing over a
vineyard as the new cutting is able to take advantage of an existing root system and is usually
able to start producing a crop by the next growing season.
14.2.3. Layering
In established vineyards where only a few vines need to be replaced within a row (such as
vine lost to machine damage or disease), a new vine can be propagated by bending a cane
from a neighboring vine into the ground and covering it with dirt. This segment of vine will
soon begin sprouting its own independent root system while still being nourished by the
connecting vine. Eventually the connection between the two vines is severed allowing each
vine to grow independently.
14.3. Micro-propagation
In micropogation thousands of plants can be generated from a tissue (shoot-tip, anther or

node). This method not only enables the nurserymen to produce large number of plants
from a limited material but also helps in the elimination of virus infection in the newly
produced plants.
Blazina et al., (1992) reported a potential production of 1,00,000 plantlets in 12 months

from only one node of cv. Zelenon on half-strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium
containing 2% sucrose and 1.1 u M IAA MS medium supplemented with 3 % sucrose, 0.7
% agar, 5 u M benzyl adenine and 1.1 u M IAA resulted in greatest meristem proliferation.
Shoot apical meristems were used to establish regenerative axillary bud cultures of 9
muscadine grape cultivars. Meristems taken from 10-cm-long shoots had less contamination
(3%) and a higher survival rate (94%) than those from shorter or longer shoots. Of 4 media
tested, MS, half-strength MS and C2D [see Chee, R. et al, New York’s Food and Life Science
Bulletin (1984) 109, 1-9] resulted in equivalent shoot proliferation rates whereas woody
plant medium (WPM) produced stunted shoots. When results were pooled for 3 cultivars,
5, 10 and 20 micro M BA or 5 micro M TDZ (thidiazuron) produced the highest average
number of shoots/cultured apex (3.4-3.8). However, shoots produced with TDZ treatment
were stunted and did not root well. For rooting of shoots directly in a potting mixture, a
rooting powder pretreatment significantly increased the number of roots/shoot but did not
affect % rooting or root length. For rooting in vitro, 1 micro M NAA significantly increased
all parameters measured. Although more shoots rooted in vitro than in vivo (77% vs. 46%),
the latter was judged preferable since acclimatized plants were produced in less time and a
major culture step was eliminated (Gray and Benton,1991).
Routine methods were developed to propagate through tissue culture large numbers
of V. labrusca cv. Delaware cuttings on a 10-week production cycle. A 35-fold increase
in the number of shoots was achieved in 4 weeks through axillary bud proliferation of
rejuvenated cultures using a modified MS medium. Additive root-stimulating effects from
the combination of NAA at 0.001 mg/litre and IBA at 0.005 mg/litre in half-strength MS
resulted in > 95% rooting of microcuttings in 10 days. More than 95% of the rooted plantlets
were successfully acclimatized within 14 days using greenhouse trays fitted with humidity
domes and containing a soilless growing medium. The clonal production of approximately
3000 plants per month using simplified methods and reduced intervals between sequential
stages of development was achieved (Lewandowski, 1991).
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Jia et al., (1992) standardized the in vitro propagation techniques for grapes. Research
was conducted into the best culture conditions for grape, with temperatures of 25-28 degrees
C, photoperiods of 8-10 h and light intensity of 1500-2500 lux. Media used were MS,
half-strength MS or improved B5 with added growth regulators, namely benzyladenine
(BA) or kinetin (0.5-1.0 mg/litre) or IAA (0.05-0.2 mg/litre). BA had a positive effect
on differentiation; IAA (0.2 mg) and BA (1.0 mg/litre) in MS medium were best in this
respect and, when the MS medium was at half-strength, for promoting the formation and
development of plantlets..
Rapid expansion of grapevine plantings in many parts of the world has led to increased
demand for desirable planting stocks. In countries that rely on importing new varieties and
have strict quarantine rules, such as Australia, vines need to stay under quarantine for ~2
years before they are released, at which time there is very limited wood available. Hence,
rapid expansion of propagating stock after release is the key to multiplying up new varieties.
A novel method, referred to as Semi-sterilized Tissue Culture (SSTC) using immature
single-node cuttings, was established and evaluated as a way of rapid expansion of grapevine
(Vitis vinifera L.) planting stock. In the SSTC method, immature single-node cuttings were
surface-sterilized using methylated spirits and then cultured in the root pulsing medium [1/2
Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 40 micro M indole-3-butyric acid
(IBA)] for 24 hours. They were then planted in sterilized aerobic rooting medium (sphagnum
peat:coarse river sand:perlite=0.5:1:2) and cultured in a tissue culture room for ~4 weeks
for root initiation and development. The rooted immature single-node cuttings were then
transferred to normal propagation beds in a greenhouse and potted on for acclimatization.
Tube stock generated by SSTC easily acclimatized with a 15 times higher root strike rate than
cutting propagation. It also took at least 50% less time than fully sterilized micropropagation
methods to produce planting stocks. The advantages of the SSTC method are that it can be
conducted under semisterilized conditions, avoiding degeneration and bacterial contamination
problems encountered in micropropagation methods. By removing the time-consuming
steps of the explant establishment, proliferation, and maintenance in vitro, the propagation
process was simplified compared with conventional sterile tissue culture procedures. The
SSTC procedure removed the need for high operator skill levels, reducing expense and
allowing easier commercial adoption (Shan and Seaton, 2014).
14.3.1. Meristem culture
Meristem is the extreme tip of 0.1 to 0.5 mm in size, which are utilized for the production
of virus free plantlets. The meristem is the region containing actively dividing cells, which
do not have plasmodesmata connections with other cells by the virtue of that viruses cannot
enter these cells. Secondly, the viruses cannot divide at the pace with which these cells are
dividing. Thirdly, the fast diving cells produce antimicrobial compounds, which inhibit viral
spread. This technique is of immense value for the production of certified planting materials
free from viral diseases.
15. Rootstock
Over application of commercial fertilizers in peninsular India or use of bad / degraded

soils used for cultivation of sugarcane has led to build up of salinity in both soil and ground
water. Depleting ground water resources due to increased evapo-transpiration and reduced
precipitation made water as the scare resource in major grape growing regions of India.
Though efficient management of water through use of drip irrigation, irrigation scheduling,
and addition of soil amendments to reduce soil salinity are some of the measures to overcome
salinity and water scarcity, use of drought and salt tolerant rootstocks is an alternative and
environmentally safer strategy to overcome adverse effects of soil salinity and water scarcity.
Prior to 1990’s, majority of the area under grape cultivation was on own roots of
commercial cultivars such as Thompson Seedless and its mutants. Drastic reduction in yield
and productivity of own rooted vines in major grape growing regions of India owing to soil
and water salinity and water scarcity (Maharashtra, Northern Karnataka) necessitated use
of drought and salt tolerant rootstocks to sustain productivity. It has been established from
several studies that, rootstock can influence the scions behaviour in terms of controlling
vigour, physiological and biochemical process of scions in bud burst, rate of photosynthesis,
fruit quality etc. Whole plant biomass was affected by rootstock genotype, but to a lesser
extent than by N supply. Biomass allocation to roots declined with increased N supply for
all stock-scion combinations, but the magnitude of that response varied with rootstock
genotype (Zerihun and Treeby, 2002). Roots contained the highest starch concentrations,
followed by the trunk, cordon, canes and rootstock trunk (Hunter, 2000).
Bud burst is the main constraint in some of the grape growing region. Use of rootstocks
which triggers uniform and quick bud burst is one of the means to improve vineyard production
and productivity. ‘Niagara Rosada’ yielded grapes in a fair quantity and only when grafted
on IAC 572 and IAC 313 (Terra et al., 2002).
To get an insight into the influence of certain rootstocks and their clones on agrobiological
and technological characteristics of scion cultivars, numerous investigations were conducted
focusing primarily on percentage of first class grafts in the nursery, fruit quantity and quality,
Grapes 325
resistance to phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae [Viteus vitifoliae]) and other biotic and abiotic
factors, and the influence of genetic origin on yield and other agrobiological characteristics
(Avramov et al., 2003). Though Dogridge introduced from USA was the prominent rootstock
employed by grape growers in major grape growing regions of the country, over the years there
was reduction in the productivity in areas where it was affected by soil salinity. Further it is
known to impart more vigour to scions and uneven bud break, thus reducing productivity
in long run (Krishisewa, 2013). Evaluation of rootstocks has resulted in identifying 110
R rootstock as an alternate rootstock in regions where soil salinity and water scarcity are
major constraints in grape cultivation. Rootstock 110 R is known to impart less vigour to
Thompson Seedless, imparts uniform and quick bud burst, increases fruitfulness and also
restricts uptake of sodium ions from soil thus considered as salt tolerant. Thus use of such
rootstocks is also one of the means to increase production and productivity of grape cultivars.
Moretti et al. (2003) studied that shoot growth was higher on plants grafted onto Kober 5
BB, and pruned cane weight was higher on 325 Ru and Kober 5BB. Examination of the
roots revealed that no phylloxera or nematode damages occurred. Some of the rootstocks
were able to give higher performance than those of rootstocks traditionally used and are
worthy of more interest and further testing.
15.1. Precoce
This new Romanian rootstock variety was bred by open pollination of Coarna Neagra and
X irradiation of the hybrid seed. It ripens early and is resistant to Uncinula necator, drought
and root damage by phylloxera [Viteus vitifoliae], moderately resistant to leaf damage by
phylloxera, and moderately to weakly resistant to Plasmopara viticola. It grafts well with
varieties of Vitis vinifera resulting in good yields. It moderates the vegetative growth of
vigorous varieties and accelerates shoot maturation (Calistru et al. 1992).
15.2. Effect of rootstock
Sultana (Thompson Seedless) grapevines, either own-rooted or grafted onto Dog Ridge or
Ramsey rootstocks, were trained to 4 trellis systems: 0.3-m narrow T, 0.9-m wide T, arch cane
or swing-arm. The swing-arm trellis generally gave the highest yields over the 9 years of the
trial. Vines on Ramsey rootstocks had higher average annual yields than own-rooted vines
and vines on Dog Ridge rootstocks. There was no significant trellis x rootstock interaction.
Trellis effects on yield were primarily due to effects on bunch number, while rootstock had
a greater effect on berry and bunch weight. Grafted vines had more canes/vine but fewer
bunches/node than own-rooted vines (Prior et al., 1993).
Kamiloglu (2012) reported that the 110R and 1613C rootstocks yielded higher values
for the cluster properties than the other rootstocks, whereas the 110R rootstock yielded higher
values for the berry properties than the other rootstocks. The effects of the rootstocks on the
acidity and pH of the juice and on the TSS/acidity value were not statistically significant.
The highest yield values among the rootstocks were shown by 110R (5.88 kg vine-1) and
41B (5.65 kg vine-1). ‘Round Seedless’ grapes grafted on 110R produced the highest yield
and good fruit quality.
15.3. Salt and nematode resistant rootstocks
1. Dogridge- a variety of V. champini

2. Salt Creek (syn. Ramsey)
3. 1613 (syn. Courder 1613)
15.4. Phylloxera resistant rootstocks are
1. Riperia Glorie, a seedling selection from Vitis riparia

2. St. George- a variety of V. rupestris
3. AXRI (syn. Ganzin No. I)
4. 99-R ( SYN. Richter 99)
Characteristics of some important hybrid rootstocks have been presented in Table 8.

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Table 8: Description of grapevine rootstocks of commercial importance
S. No. Rootstock Parentage Salient features

1. SO4 V. berlandieri x Vigorous rootstock, popular in neutral or mild
V. riparia alkaline soils. Good nematode and phylloxera
tolerance.
2. Kober 5 BB V. berlandieri x V. Vigorous rootstock suited to areas where
riparia scion vigor is a problem. Moderate nematode
resistance. Very resistant to phylloxera and
perhaps has some resistance to Cotton Root
Rot.
3. 99 Richter Berlandieri x This rootstock is drought tolerant and performs
Rupestris well in acid soils. It does not tolerate salt.
High resistance to phylloxera and rootknot
nematodes and moderate resistance to dagger
and lesion nematodes.
4 140 Ruggeri Berlandieri x Very drought tolerant, well adapted to acid
Rupestris soils, and resistant to salinity. Highly resistant
to phylloxera. Moderate resistance to rootknot
nematodes.
5. 110 Richter V.berlandieri x Vigorous stock that tends to delay maturity,
V. rupestris drought tolerant and tolerant of up to 17%
lime in the soils.
6. 1103 Paulsen V. berlandieri x V. Vigorous (similar to 110 R), adaptable to clay-
rupestris lime soils and reported to be somewhat salt
tolerant.
16. Cultivation
16.1. Land preparation
Land is levelled by a tractor or bulldozer as per the requirement, soil type and gradient. In
case of drip irrigation, levelling need not be perfect. The size of the plot will vary with the
type of training system used. In case of bower and telephone or “T” trellis the ideal size
could be 60 X 80 m. and 90 X 120 m. respectively.
16.2. Raising of planting materials
In temperate regions, grape vine are usually grown from cuttings of the previous season’s
growth. Usually 30-45cm long cuttings having 5-6 buds from dormant pruning are taken
and these are put in bundles of 100- 200 each. The bundles are then buried in the soil at a
well- drained location for a month and are planted in spring season in the nursery beds. The
nursery soil should be dug up to 45 cm depth and the cuttings are placed in the soil leaving
two buds above the soil. The cuttings should be treated with any fungicide/ insecticide before
planting to avoid any fungal attack. The cuttings are planted at 25 and 45 cm distance and the
nursery beds are irrigated frequently depending upon the requirement and weather conditions.
16.3. Planting
The grapevines are usually planted in pits. The size of the pit depends upon the spacing of
the vines and also on the specific requirements of the variety. The depth may vary from 60
to 90 cm. depending upon the soil type. Wider spacing (1.2 m. X 1.2 m.) is required in
case of vigorous varieties like Anab-e-Shahi and Bangalore Blue. A little less than that (i.e.
90 X 90 cm.) is required in case of varieties viz. Thompson Seedless, Perlette and Beauty
Seedless. In central Maharashtra and northern parts of Karnataka the spacing adopted for
Thompson seedless and its mutants is 1.8m X 2.4 m. The pits need to be opened about a
month before planting.
The effect of vine spacing on the vegetative and reproductive performance of Vitis
vinifera L. (cv. Pinot noir) was studied by Archer and Strauss,-H-C.(1991). Vines of cv.
Pinot Noir on rootstock cv. 99 Richter were planted at 1.0 x 0.5, 1.0 x 1.0, 2.0 x 1.0, 2.0 x
2.0, 3.0 x 1.5 or 3.0 x 3.0 m. Data concerning growth, yield, grape composition and wine
quality are presented for 5 years. Closer spacing reduced cane mass and yield per vine but
increased them per hectare. Less dense canopies as well as a larger leaf area:fruit mass ratio
with more closely spaced vines augmented grape and wine quality. A vine spacing resulting
in between 1.0 m2 and 2.0 m2 soil surface/vine proved to be optimum for Pinot Noir.
Planting is usually avoided during the rainy season. The best time for planting is
February-March in North India, November-January in the peninsular India. In Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu it is usually planted during December-January, due to the fact that rainy
season lasts upto end of November.
Growth of the plants starts 10-15 days after planting, depending upon the season of
Grapes 329
planting. Growth occurs earlier in case of those planted during warm season as compared
to those planted in cold season. After one month of planting, the young plants need staking.
16.4. Training system
In India systems like bower, kniffin, telephone, head and slanting trellis have been tried in
the past, but the bower & telephone system are being followed on a large scale. About 80%
of the vineyard area in India is on bower system. The grapevines are usually irrigated and
cultivated using the pergola training system and also covered with a plastic screen to protect
against hail, birds and bat attacks (Conceicao and Marin, 2009).
The training system and intensity of pruning recommended for different varieties is given
in Table 9.
Table 9: Training system at different planting distance with intensity of pruning in some
cultivars
Distance of System of No. of canes to be No. of buds to be

Varieties
planting training left on each vine left per cane
Thompson Seedless 2x3 Kniffin 16-20 8-10
Beauty Seedless 2x2 Head 16-20 3-4
Anab-e- Shahi 3x6 Arbour 60-80 5-6
Perlettee 3x3 Head, Kniffin 30-40 3-4
In temperate regions, grapes are trained to head, Kniffin, telephone or bower system
depending upon the requirement. For first five years grape vine should be pruned for training
it to a specific training system.
1st year: The newly planted vine is cut down to three buds and allow the plant to grow freely
supported by a stake. When the shoots are 15 cm long, pinch out other tips of all buds except
the best thicker shoot. This enables production of one strong leader.
2nd year: When the leader is about 2 meters long cut it back to six buds to give enough
strength to the growing vine. Maintain the new leader to a particular training system in
growing season.
After 3rd year the training is restricted as per the system of training adopted.
Grape vines bear on one year’s growth. Hence annual pruning of vine is most desirable
to get good quality grapes.Depending upon the fruiting behaviour of different cultivars
planted at same distance, intensity of pruning to be followed has been presented in Table 10.
Table 10: Training system and pruning intensity in different cultivars having same
planting distance
Planting Training Pruning No. of canes to be

Varieties
distance system regime left on a vine
Anab-e-Shahi /
3x3m Bower 8 buds 11- 20
Sahibi
Thompson Seedless 3x3m Telephone 6- 8 buds 15- 20
Himrod /
3x3m Kniffin 6- 8 buds 15- 20
Thompson Seedless
Perlette 3x3m Head 4- 5 buds 15
Himrod 3x3m Head 5 buds 12
Source: Anonymous, 2002
During summer it is essential to remove undesirable growth to improve air circulation

and penetration of light to facilitate vine yard operation.
16.4.1. Bower
This system is most widely used in commercial cultivation of grapes and particularly for the
vigorous varieties with high degree of apical dominance. As the shoots start growing from
the newly planted rooted cuttings in the main field, only the best shoot growing vertically
is allowed to grow along the stake provided upto the bower height.
16.4.2. Kniffin (also called Espalier System)
The system is less expensive than Bower, yet it is less commonly followed. It is suitable for
training moderately vigorous varieties having less degree of apical dominance. Close planting
of vines within a row at spacing of 1.80 to 2.40 m. depending upon the vigour of the plant is
followed keeping the row to row distance at 3 meters. As in the case of Bower, the vigorous
and vertically growing shoot is trained along the vertical support.
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16.4.2.1. Advantages and disadvantage of Kniffin System over Bower System
It is Less expensive; disease incidence and spread is less and easy to carry out spraying and
other cultural operations.
The main drawback is that yield is about half of what is obtained on bower system. Though
the vine canopy is exposed to light, the lower laterals are less productive due to shading by
the foliage on the upper laterals. Damage to the branches is more due to sunburn and birds.
16.4.3. Telephone System
T-trellis is used in this system of training. It is a mini discontinuous bower with shoots
hanging downwards with three topped wires and T-shaped support, the trellis looks like a
telephone pole and wires. It is as expensive as kniffin system and is suitable for moderately
vigorous varieties with slightly more apical dominance.
16.4.3.1. Advantages of Telephone System over Bower System
Better ventilation and light interception; more convenient to carry out cultural operations
and spraying and less expensive.
16.4.3.2. Disadvantages of Telephone System over Bower System
Less yield as there is no provision for developing as many number of canes per unit area as
in Bower; during summer months, sunburn of berries is observed in very hot and dry places.
16.4.4. Head System
This is the least expensive of all the training systems. It is suitable for less vigorous varieties
with less degree of apical dominance and for those in which the basal buds in a cane are
fruitful, such as Beauty Seedless, Delight and Perlette in North India and Gulabi in South
India. Plants are spaced very closely to accommodate about 4000 – 4500 plants per ha with
a spacing of 1.80 m. and 1.20 m to 1.50 m between the rows and within a row respectively.
The vines are supported to vertical stakes of eucalyptus or bamboo poles of 1.50 m. length.
These supports are fixed very close to the vine 30 cm. deep in the soil leaving 1.20 m above
the ground. The return on investment made is less as compared to the Bower system. Size of
the berries produced on this system is larger as compared to that of other systems. Incidence
of diseases is much less on this system.
16.4.5. Y-shaped training system
Total leaf area and its distribution inside the canopy are known to influence the photosynthesis
capacity as well as grape quality and health. Palliotti (2012) evaluated the effectiveness of
a simple and innovative training system characterised by an open canopy called ‘SAYM’ (a
closing Y-shaped training system derived from the spur-pruned single cordon and trained
to an inclined shoot-positioned trellis type) as well as the possibility of using traditional
machines during harvesting and pruning after closing the structure just before grape harvesting.
The SAYM was applied on eight rows of 80 vines from an experimental Sangiovese
vineyard and compared to vertically shoot-positioned (VSP) trellis type during the 2004-
2008 seasons. In comparison to VSP vines, the SAYM was able to reduce the incidence of
botrytis rot and improve grape and wine quality (alcohol, anthocyanins, phenolics, tannins and
colour intensity), while maintaining an adequate yield (about 13t/ha) without significantly
increasing the management operations of the vineyard. Conclusions: The SAYM was able
to bring together economically and easily the advantages guaranteed by training systems
characterised by horizontally divided canopy with the limitation of production costs by the
use of traditional mechanical harvesters and pruners. Significance of the Study: SAYM can
be proposed as a functional training system able to improve grape and wine quality, which
is easy and inexpensive to manage.
16.4.6. Other training system followed in different countries
Mahmoudzadeh et al. (2010) reported eight grapevine training systems in Vitis vinifera L.
in Iran. Training systems were Guyot, Low cordon spur pruned (LCSP), High cordon spur
pruned (HCSP), Geneva double curtain (GDC), Head training spur prune (HSP), Simple
cordon spur pruned (SCSP), Y system (Y) and Traditional training system (TTS). Vines
were annually spur-pruned in all systems of training. The greatest year-to-year variation in
yield occurred in Head spur pruned (5.2 kg/vine) and Geneva double curtain training (2.25
kg/vine). Fruit bearing index of SCSP was greatest (1.45) and lowest in Geneva double
curtain (0.85). Individual berry weights were consistently least in TTS (0.86 g), and greatest
in Guyot (1.21 g). Fruit from Y training systems had more rates of sugar accumulation
(TSS) during four seasons (24.5) in which repeated measures of fruit maturity were made
and lowest rate of TSS observed in LCSP and TTS (21.25). Titratable acidity of fruit juice
was lowest in HS and Y systems (0.546 mg/100 cc). Fruit from Y system had highest pH
(4.15) and lowest pH observed in HCSP (3.24). Vegetative vigor of vines (kg/vine) were
least in Guyot (2.19) and greatest in TTS (2.45). The greatest year-to-year variation in bud
break reduction occurred in HCSP (24.58%) and lowest in HS (16.15%).
Grapes 333
Three training systems were reported by Luby (2012) from Vermont, USA, these are:
Geneva Double Curtain (GDC), Single Wire (SW) and Vertical Shoot Position (VSP). GDC
trained vines produced the highest yields without compromising fruit quality in ‘Marquette’
and ‘La Crescent’ (Vitis spp.) wine grape cultivars grown in Vermont, USA.
16.5. Pruning
Pruning refers to the judicious removal on any plant part to establish and maintain desired
vine shape, to increase productivity and facilitate various cultural operations; to distribute
proper amount of bearing wood over the vine, and to regulate the crop for maintaining the
vitality of vine for consistent productivity. The pruning requirement of different varieties
differs according to their growth behavior. Hence, separate standardization of pruning
requirement is a must for all the grape cultivars for harnessing desired yield and quality.
The recommendations were made on the basis of trials without finding out the fruitfulness
of the individual buds on a cane. Fruitfulness of a bud is a product of complex interaction
of various factors leading to the formation of fruit bud. Fruit bud formation in grape takes
place for the next year on current season’s growth, concurrent with fruit set under temperate
conditions. It is the consequence of transformation of vegetative primordium in to reproductive
primordium in a bud. The transformation is carried out in three stages namely, anlagen
formation, formation of inflorescence primordium and formation of flower. Among the three
stages mentioned above, formation of inflorescence primordium is the most sensitive stage,
though formation of anlagen itself considered to be the stage of initiation of inflorescence
axis. Any imbalance among the factors responsible for formation of inflorescence primordium
would make the anlagen to differentiate in to either tendril or school. Bud fruitfulness varies
with the inherent capacity of the variety. Under given environmental conditions, the number
of fruiting primordial which develop in a bud are influenced by cultivar. Different grape
cultivars vary widely in their ability to initiate flowers. Hence, studies on varietals variation
with regard to the most fruitful zone on a cane is of paramount significance. In general,
varieties of central Asiatic origin have their fruitful buds located farther from the base of
the cane, whereas, in those of West European origin, the lower buds are as fruitful as those
in the distal region. It is essential to find out the bearing zone of newly developed hybrids.
The knowledge that the fruit buds in grape differentiate and develop early in the previous
season has led to the studies on the possibilities to forecast the fruitfulness of the buds in
the ensuing season for meaningful pruning recommendation on the basis of an examination
of dormant buds (Palanichamy et al., 2011).
Spur pruning resulted in the better vegetative and reproductive growth of Cabernet
Sauvignon (Barbagallo et al., 2004). Commercial manual pruning resulted in 25% more
live nodes per vine and a 19% larger yield than manual balance pruning. Severe mechanical
pruning, when used in combination with cane positioning, manual follow-up pruning after
hedging, and shoot positioning, was an acceptable, sustainable practice for managing Concord
vines (Zabadal et al., 2002). The prevailing pruning practices in India can be broadly grouped
into the following categories:
16.5.1. Single Pruning- Single cropping
This system is prevalent in North India. Since only one growing season is available, grapevines
are pruned with the onset of spring or during late winter (mostly January-February). Floral
differentiation on the current shoots and the fruit set take place simultaneously. If all the
bearing shoots are retained on the vine and pruned in the next winter for fruiting, the
fruiting wood multiplies faster and the vine canopy becomes denser year after year, leading to
barrenness within just 3 to 4 years. In order to regulate vine canopy and extend its productive
life span, half of the mature shoots are pruned for fruiting and the other half are pruned for
renewing the spurs to give rise to shoots that develop into fruiting canes for the next year.
Alternatively, the fruiting canes are pruned back to renewal spurs and the mature shoots
developed from the previous spurs are pruned to fruiting canes year after year.
16.5.2. Double pruning – Single cropping
This system is predominantly followed in Maharashtra, north interior Karnataka in case

of Thompson Seedless, and Andhra Pradesh on Thompson Seedless and Anab-e- Shahi
grapes. After harvest in summer, the vines are forced to undergo rest for about a month,
during which period water is withheld to help concentrate the reserves in the mature parts
of the vine. All the fruiting canes are pruned back to spurs retaining only one basal node.
This is called as “back pruning “or “foundation pruning” or “summer pruning “. Buds on the
shoots growing from these spurs differentiate into floral primordial and the shoots mature
in about five months. These mature shoots are pruned for fruiting before the onset of winter
(September- October). This pruning is called “forward pruning” or “fruit pruning” or winter
pruning”. All the mature shoots are subjected to fruit pruning. Thus, in this system of pruning,
a cycle of two pruning resulting in one crop is practiced.
Grapes 335
16.5.3. Double pruning – Double cropping
This system is in vogue in Anab-e-shahi and Bangalore Blue grapes in the South interior
Karnataka and in Anab-e- Shahi, Bhokri and Gulabi in Tamil Nadu. Barring Bangalore
Blue, the pruning practices in other varieties are common. Mature shoots are pruned to canes
of 7-8 buds after harvesting the crop in summer. The mature shoots arising from these 3-4
buds along spurs are pruned for fruiting canes in the next winter. In the Madurai region
and other parts of Tamil Nadu, pruning is done during November-December for summer
crop harvested during March-April, and during May-June for the second crop harvested
during August-September. In the south interior Karnataka, the forward pruning is done
during October-November for summer crop harvested during February-March and during
April-May for the second crop harvested during July-August. In Bangalore Blue, the recently
mature shoots are pruned to 3-4 nodes at every pruning. There is no alternative system of
backward and forward pruning in this variety. Only forward pruning is practised. Time
of pruning could be any time of the year excepting December. In this variety, the crop is
harvested about 5 months after pruning. As a result, three crops are harvested in two years,
and the crop is harvested almost throughout the year.
16. 5.4. Shoot Pinching
Shoot pinching is mainly done to regulate the growth, and provide better ventilation and
light interception into the vine canopy. Shoot pinching is done during the growth as well as
fruiting seasons in peninsular India but only during the fruiting season in North India and
other temperate regions as there is only one growing season in these regions.
16.5.5. Summer pruning
Summer pruning in table grape (Vitis vinifera L.) has more effects than winter pruning,
above all with regard to plant productivity and final number of bunches for harvesting.
Thinning is one of the most cultural technique and it consists in the elimination of vegetative
or reproductive organs in excess. Other summer canopy management techniques include
leaf removal, fruit shoots positioning, shoot trimming and girdling (Lorenzo et al., 2011).
Spur-pruned cultivars
Cultivars Buds retained

Perlette, Beauty Seedless, Delight, Banglore
4-5
Blue, Bhokri, Gold, Cardinal
Cane- pruned cultivars
Cultivars Buds retained

Thompson seedless and its mutant. 6-10
16.5.6. When to prune
Depending upon the other vineyard operations, pruning can be done any time during the
dormant season but before the start of growth and after the leaf-fall. Pruning is done once
in North India during the month of January, while in South India, pruning is done twice a
year; once in summer and again in winter. Summer pruning is done during March –April
in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra, but in June in Tamil Nadu.
The canes are cut back to 1- to 2- bud level for vegetative growth. It is called back pruning
or growth pruning. The winter pruning is done in the last week of September and the first
week of October in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, during the second and the third week
of October in the northern districts of Karnataka and in December in Tamil Nadu. In this,
the canes are headed back depending upon the bearing zone of the variety. Banglore Blue
and Anab-e- Shahi can give two crops a year. In such cases, instead of back pruning, the
normal pruning is done in summer also.
16.5.7. How and how much to prune
Pruning consists of mainly thinning out and heading back. All the mature shoots (canes)
are to be headed back to certain level which largely depends upon bearing zone of the
variety. Some of the canes are to be severely headed back to retain one or at the most two
buds to serve as renewal spur. This is called heading back. All the overcrowded, diseased and
damaged canes are to be completely thinned out. The extent of thinning out or the number
of fruiting canes/spurs to be retained after pruning largely depends upon the health and
vigour of the vine, system of training, space provided for each vine, fertility of the soil and the
desired fruit quality. Cluster thinning increased the concentrations of cyanidin-3-glucoside,
Grapes 337
peonidin-3-glucoside, and, to a lesser extent, petunidin-3-glucoside (Guidoni et al., 2002).

The increase in anthocyanins positively correlated with total soluble solids, and polyphenols
and total nitrogen observed in 20% and particularly in 40% cluster-thinned vines assumes
great importance for producing high quality red wine (Palliotti and Cartechini, 2000).
16.6. Irrigation
Irrigation practices vary considerably in different regions of India depending upon the rainfall
pattern, time of pruning, different growth stages, water-holding capacity of soil, variety grown,
training system followed and spacing of vines. The objective of efficient water management
in vineyards is to save water, increase yield, and improve berry quality. Irrigation is provided
once in every three days in newly planted vineyards by allowing water into a small circular
basin of 50 cm. radius. With the increase in growth rate the size of the basin increases to
a radius of 2m. In case of drip irrigation, only one emitter is placed at the base of the vine.
The number of emitters gradually increases to two and then four which are shifted about 30
or 40 cm. away from the stem depending upon the variety and spacing of the vines. Heavy
irrigation is provided soon after pruning in order to wet the entire root zone thoroughly and
induce active growth in the vine. Light irrigation of 50-75 mm. (5.0-7.5 L./ha.) is given at
an interval of 10-12 days during winter and 5-7 days in summers. Moderate amounts of
irrigation from flowering to verasion improve productivity and limited the negative impacts
on must quality (Oliveira and Sousa, 2009). In the event of rainfall, the next irrigation is
either omitted or delayed. Irrigation frequency is reduced during anthesis, fruiting stage
and also after berry softening to improve fruit quality. Zabihi (2004) reported that different
irrigation schedules had a significant effect on fruit yield and quality in grapes. Maximum
yield (30.1 t/ha) was obtained with the treatment of one irrigation at winter followed by
another one before blooming; the next irrigation was on 23 May after flowering, followed by
20-day intervals irrigation periods applied until harvesting time. The irrigation treatments
also had a significant effect on physical and chemical characteristics and maximum values of
berry length, weight and soluble solids were obtained with the above-mentioned treatment.
GIS (geographic information system) is considered as an effective tool in irrigation

planning. GIS facilities to acquire, store, analyse and display spatial data were used to produce
the soil class map, soil profile map, crop map and water requirement map (Gawaher et al.,
2005). Ball Advanced Imaging and Management Solutions (AIMS) has been involved in
the acquisition and processing of CASI-2 hyperspectral imagery for vineyard applications
since 1999. The image products developed so far provide an additional tool in aiding vineyard
managers and growers alike in the application of precision viticulture practices. Another
significant advantage of the use of such imagery is the ability to harvest segments of a vineyard
block at optimum times in terms of ripeness which may be dependent on the condition of
a given management unit. Partitioning harvesting times according to vine condition also
avoids the mix of higher quality grapes with the lesser ones increasing the overall value of
the harvest, which can be significant in the premium wine market (Arkun et al., 2001).
16.7. Nutrition
The grapevine removes an appreciable quantity of nutrient from soil both in terms of wood
and fruits. It has been estimated that an average quantities of nutrients removed by one tone
of grape worked out 4.4 kg, 1.1 kg and 4.8 kg of N, P2O5 and K20 respectively (Chadha and
Shikhamany, 1999). The values are in addition to the nutrients removed by wood and leaves.
Therefore, to maintain the soil fertility for consistent yield, it becomes necessary to replenish
these nutrients. It can be done with the application of manures and fertilizers applied through
soil or foliar application, in addition to that already used for pit filling.
To identify reasonable fertilizer rates and application periods, it is necessary to find

out the nutrient absorption, utilization and accumulation in grape vines. Field experiments
were conducted analyzing yearly biomass, nutrient contents and accumulation in different
parts of grape vines (red globe) which were cultivated for about 7 years. The results show
that total nitrogen absorption rate is 97.13 kg/ha in one year of the growing period. 39% of
that is absorbed during the new shoots flourishing period, and 30.5% is uptaken during the
fruit growing period. A total of 33.1 kg/ha potassium was absorbed in a year, about 3.1 kg/ha
absorbed by leaves, and 11.9 kg/ha by fruits. Of 33.1 kg/ha phosphorus absorbed, 15.4 kg/
ha was absorbed during the fruit growing period, being about 47% of total uptake. A total
of 140.52 kg/ha phosphorus was absorbed in a year, about 38.59 kg/ha absorbed during the
new shoots flourishing period, and 64.29 kg/ha during the fruit growing period, representing
27.5% and 45.8% of the total uptake. The initial recommendation for N, P2O5, and K2O
applications required to offset nutrient removal within the orchard would be 129.5 kg/ha,
55.1 kg/ha and 175.6 kg/ha, respectively (Tong et al., 2010).
In temperate regions, grapes need substantial amount of nutrients which vary as per
the kind of soil. It is always advisable to analyze the nutritional status of the soil and then
supplement the nutrients accordingly. In absence of analysis of the orchard soils the general
schedule of manures and fertilizers is recommended on an average (Table 11).
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Table 11: Fertilizer schedule of different age group
Age FYM N P205 K20 Urea DAP MOP

(yrs) (kgs) (g/vine) (g/vine) (g/vine) (g/vine) (g/vine) (g/vine)
1 10 70 34 59 120 75 100
2 20 144 68 118 250 150 200
3 30 222 91 176 400 200 300
4 40 434 160 294 800 350 500
5 & onwards 50-80 555 227 470 1000 500 800
Source: Anonymous, 2002.
• Mix biofertilizers viz. Azotobacter, PSB or AMF (Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi mixed
culture) @ 1.0 g each/ kg of fully decomposed FYM to improve fertilizer use efficiency.
• For nursery plantation prepare the slury of Gur @ 450g in 1 litre of water, and Azotobacter
or Azospirillum @ 100 g in this slurry and dip the seedlngs for 1-2 minutes and plant
them immediately or dry them in shade before planting. Add AMF or PSB @ 1.0g per
kg of FYM.
• Before application of inorganic fertilizers and other nutrients, the orchardists should
consult the horticulture experts for obtaining the best results.
• 1st dose of fertilizers comprising one-third dose of Urea along with full dose of
DAP and one- half dose of MOP should be applied about 3 weeks before expected
bloom as a basal dose. Second dose comprising one -third of urea and remaining
MOP may be applied about 3 weeks after fruit- set. 3 rd dose of urea may be applied
during June-July.
16.7.1. Determination of requirement
The fertilizer requirement of a grapevine is influenced by various factors, such as, the fertility
status and other characteristics of the soil, plant age, vigour and yield potentially, climate of
the region and the vine management. Therefore, the recommendations made for a region
may not hold good for the entire or different climatic zone, variety or the conditions. Tissue
analysis is the most reliable and dependable tool to find out the nutrient status of vines. Leaf
petiole is an ideal part for tissue analysis in grape. Crop production and quality are affected
by mineral nutrition directly and indirectly. The major indirect effect is via alternation of
the vigour and the capacity and thereby on the crop load. Elements such as Zn and B, affect
fruit set; K and Mg affect bunch stem necrosis directly. Nitrogen affects the production and
quality of the berries, must and wine both directly and indirectly (Bravdo, 2000).
Recommendations made from the actual fertilizer trial of a specific cultivar under a
given set of conditions are the most reliable. In All India Coordinated Fruit Improvement
Project, some fertilizer trails were started which have come with some recommendations. At
a workshop under the same project held at Nagpur, following recommendations were made
for Anab-e- Shahi under South Indian Conditions (IIHR) (Anonymous, 2007).
i. For vines in the age group of 3-5 years, application of 500 kg N+ 125 kg P2O5 +
750 kg K20/ha/year.
ii. For vines above five years of age, application of 500 kg N + 500 kg P2O5 + 1,000
kg K20/ha/year.
These are for a vine population of 750/ha (4.5 x 3 m spacing). The fertilizers are to be
applied in split doses, i.e at April pruning 60 per cent N, 50 per cent K; the rest of 50 per
cent K should be applied at fruit-set.
16.7.2. Method of application
The grapevine has a deep widespread root system. The active feeding zone has been found
in the range of 30-40 cm depth. Therefore, at the initial stage, the vine mainly takes nutrient
applied for filling the pits. Whenever needed, extra manure and fertilizers are applied at a
distance of 30 cm from the trunk in a circular ring. In the subsequent years, these are applied
in the 15 cm deep furrow opened in the rectangular or square plots made around the vines
and then covered with soil from the alternating ridges. The fertilizer should thoroughly be
spread and mixed in the soil over the root area of the vine.
Another method of supplying nutrients to the grapevine is through foliar applications.

This method is comparatively more effective for rapid recovery of plants and efficient use
of fertilizers. The important micronutrients generally supplied by this method include iron,
zinc, boron and manganese.
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16.7.3. Critical limit of nutrients in leaves
The nutrient status of grapevines in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, was studied by
Vijaya et al. (2011). The N, P and K concentrations in the petiole of cv. Thompson Seedless
were classified as optimum (0.87-1.60, 0.29 to 0.65 and 2.0 to 3.0%, respectively). The Ca
content varied from low to high (0.68-1.86%), whereas Mg, Zn and Mn contents varied
from low to optimum.
16.7.4. Effect of nitrogen application
Applications of nitrogen to vineyard foliage or soil at veraison can improve grape juice yeast
assimilable nitrogen (YAN) concentrations and may prevent the excessive vine growth,
delayed maturity, and adverse changes in fruit properties sometimes associated with high
applications of N earlier in the growing season. Over two years in drip-irrigated Merlot
and Pinot gris vineyards, grape juice amino acid concentrations were measured by Hannam
et al. (2016) from vines to which urea had been applied three times around veraison at 3.8
g N/vine to either the foliage or the soil surface. Foliar-applied urea (applied as a 2% w/v
solution) was usually more effective at boosting grape juice ammonium and amino acid
concentrations, although soil-applied urea improved some grape juice amino acids at the
Pinot gris site. Changes in the amino acid profiles of grape juice, observed in response to
foliar N applications but not soil N applications, may have implications for wine quality.
Applications of 15N-labeled urea at the Pinot gris site demonstrated that a greater percentage
of fertilizer N was incorporated into grape juice amino acids when urea was applied to the
foliage than when it was applied to the soil surface. Late-season foliar applications of urea
are a reliable, efficient, and effective method of improving grape juice YAN.
16.7.5. Fertigation
Fertigation schedule for a vineyard requiring 500 kg N, 500 kg P O and 100 kg K O/ha/
2 5 2
year is given in Table 12.
Table 12: N, P and K Fertigation in grape
Required doses through fertigation:

N P2O5 K2O
1. Required nutrients (kg/ha) 500 500 1000
2. Through organics (40%) 200 200 400
3. Through inorganic nutrients in soil (30%) 150 150 300
4. Through fertigation (20% equivalent to 30%) 100 100 200
Source: Annon.a 2017
16.7.6. Integrated Nutrient Management
Depending on variety and region, the recommended nutrient doses range from 435-1100
kg N, 240-1332 kg P O and 120-1337 kg K O. To avoid over-fertilization of vineyards,
2 5 2
the annual dose of nutrients is fixed based on the petiole nutrient contents determined at
the initiation of bud differentiation (45 days after spur pruning) in the tropical regions, but
at full bloom in the subtropical region. Petiole of the fifth leaf from base is to be sampled
on the 45th day after April pruning, while that of the leaf opposite to the cluster if at full
bloom. The proportion of N, P O and K O are different at different stages of vine growth.
2 5 2
Low levels of N, more of P O , medium of K O are applied during the growth cycle while;
2 5 2
high N, medium P O and high K O levels are applied during the fruiting season.
2 5 2
Indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers has aggravated the problem of soil salinity,
particularly in saline-alkali soils and heavy clayey soils irrigated with water containing more
salts. In such situations, the best results are obtained by supplying the nutrients through
organic sources and soluble fertilizers that have low salt-index. Approximately 40-60 per
cent of the nutrients can be supplied through organic manures (cattle manure, bone meal
and green manure).
Magnesium deficiency is common in vineyards and magnesium is given through soil.

Iron and Zinc are the micronutrients mainly given through foliage.
Similarly as much quantity of soluble fertilizer as possible should be used. It is

recommended to use 40 per cent of the annual dose in organic forms, 30 per cent as inorganic
fertilizers and the rest 30 per cent (equivalent to 20 per cent of the absolute dose on account
of 33.3 per cent increased efficiency) in the form of soluble fertilizers through fertigation.
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16.7.7. Symptoms of common deficiency of macro and micro nutrients

(Source: Anno. 2017, b)
16.7.7.1. Nitrogen
Leaves are pale green, turning yellow
16.7.7.1.1. Deficiency symptoms
1. Overall reduction in growth.

2. Leaves become uniformly light-green or yellow. Reddening of petiole
3. Berries may be small
16.7.7.1.2. Management
1. Soil application of urea @ 20-60 Kg/acre

2. Foliar spray of urea (0.3 – 0.5%) 1- 4 times along the growing season, depending
on the deficiency severity.
16.7.7.2. Potassium
Yellow coloration of leaf edges Burning of leaf edges

1. Starts as yellowing (white varieties) or bronze-reddening (red varieties) of older

leaf margins.
2. As the deficiency worsens, leaf margins become necrotic and curl upwards and
inter-venial chlorosis develops.
3. Berry set can be poor.
1. Soil application of 200- 320 Kg K2O/acre for 2-3 years
2. Foliar sprays of sulphate of potash (0.4 -1%), 3-4 times every 15 d before and after
flowering.
3. Other commercial fertilizers containing K can be used
16.7.7.3. Magnesium
White cultivars Red cultivars
1. Bright yellow (white varieties) or red (red varieties) wedge-shaped areas extend
inwards between the veins on older leaves.
2. When severe, necrosis extends inwards from the leaf margins.
3. Fruit cluster stem necrosis and berry withering

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1. Soil application of 20-40 Kg MgO/acre
2. Foliar application of Magnesium sulphte (2% if MgO =32% or if MgO = 16%) or

magnesium chloride /nitrate (1-1.5%) 3-6 times every week, beginning from fruit set.
3. Sprays against stem necrosis by magnesium sulphate (as above).
16.7.7. 4. Phosphorus
1. Vines may have stunted shoots and fruitfulness is likely to be poor.
2. Appearance of red dots on basal leaves, especially on the mid or terminal lobes and
at first distant from secondary veins.
3. The red dots, at first randomly distributed, later line up at right angles to the secondary
veins and form dark red bars, which coalesce into islands between green veins.
1. Apply ammonium mono phosphate as an N source (11-52-0).

16.7.7.5. Sulphur
1. Reddening of young leaves. Red dots near the edges of adults leaves. Red dots may
coalesce later into red bars at right angles to the vein leaves can drop
2. Reduced growth and lignification is impaired
3. Small and loose cluster, due to reduced fruit set
1. Soil application of 20-40 Kg/acre P2O5 with single super phosphate which contain sulphur
also
16.7.7.6. Boron
1. Shoot tip death and short internodes, resulting in shoots with a zigzag appearance.
Grapes 347
2. Yellowing or reddening dots rolling down, corrugation and odd shapes in young leaves
3. Fruit set is often poor and bunches often have „hen and chicken‟ berries
4. Browning of hypodermal cells and breaking of berry
1. Soil application of borax(Sodium tetraborate) 12-32 Kg/acre
2. Foliar application of solubor (20.5% B), 0.25% 3 times every 15 days, beginning
from 5th - 6th leaf development stage.
16.7.7.7. Iron
1. Young leaves show interveinal chlorosis.
2. When severe, leaves are likely to be very pale with necrotic blotches. Shoots are
likely to be stunted in their growth.
3. Loose cluster shot berries
1. Soil application of Fe-EDTA or foliar application of Ferrous Sulphate (250g/100 litre

water) + citric acid (50g) + liquid detergent.
16.7.7.8. Manganese
1. Stunted growth
2. Interveinal chlorosis or reddening of adults leaves. mosaic like arrangement of yellow/

red spots, bordered by the smallest green veins
3. Delay of berry ripening
1. Foliar sprays of manganese sulphate (0.2 -0.5%), 3 times, one before and two after
flowering
2. Foliar sprays of Manganese chelates.
16.7.7.9. Zinc
1. Short internodes, resulting in shoots with a zigzag appearance
2. Shoot tips have small upward curling of leaves.

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3. Mottled, light coloured interveinal colouring on leaves. Small, poorly developed

bunches with hen and chicken berries.
1. Soil application borax (sodium tertaborate) 12-16 Kg/acre
2. Foliar sprays of zinc sulphate (0.5 -1.0%) neutralized with calcium carbonate,3
weeks before flowering.
16.7.8. DRIS (Diagnosis and recommendation integrated system)
One of the main plant mineral nutrition objectives is increasing net incomes through efficient
fertilization management. To attain this goal, it is initially necessary to correctly determine
the yield-limiting impact of a given nutrient. The search for an effective method to determine
plant nutritional status has been the target of many researches in plant nutrition. Current
methods include both soil and tissues analysis. Soil testing alone is not generally useful
in predicting vine nutrient status, due to a variety of issues such as differences in nutrient
uptake or requirements of different varieties, clones and rootstocks, differing irrigation
and soil management practices, and the plasticity of vine roots to explore soils in different
environments. Leaf analysis is a well- accepted tool for diagnosing the nutritional status of
nearly all crops. Several approaches have been developed to evaluate the composition of the
various plant organs (Lagatu and Maume, 1934). All of these systems followed the common
philosophy of ‘’sufficiency range’’. An important advance was achieved with the introduction
of the DRIS- system (depended nutrient ratios) by Beaufils (1973), which was further
improved by Walworth and Summer (1987). The DRIS approaches diagnosis individual
nutrient status in the order of their effect on yield limitation (Walworth and Summer, 1987).
It computes dual- ratio functions that average to nutrient indexes. The DRIS method uses
nutrient ratios instead of absolute and/or individual nutrient concentrations for interpretation
of tissue analysis. In general, the DRIS has some advantages over other diagnosis methods:
presents continuous scale and easy interpretation; allows nutrient classification (from the
most deficient up to the most excessive); can detect cases of yield limiting due to nutrient
unbalance, even when none of the nutrients is below the critical level; and finally, allows
to diagnose the total plant nutritional balance, through an unbalance index (Baldock &
Schulte, 1996).
Preliminary norms for DRIS in vineyards were determined in Germany (Schaller &
Lohnertz, 1984). The indexes were calculated based on approximately 7,000 groups of leaf
samples. The reference population (high productivity) was defined as that presenting high
sugar content in the fruit must. The developed norms allowed the detection of limiting
nutrient concentrations for productivity and quality, which could not be detected using the
conventional methods. On the other hand, it was not possible to demonstrate coincident
results between soil analysis and DRIS norms. By means of simple and multiple regression
analyses, DRIS norms provided precise estimates for the next year yields.
In India, DRIS preliminary norms were derived from `Thompson Seedless’ grape, which
indexes were evaluated in a low yielding vineyard (Chelvan et al., 1984). The DRIS norms
were determined from a population in 48 plots, with three-year-old plants, cultivated with
four N rates (300; 600; 900 and 1200 kg ha-1), four K2O rates (0; 500; 1000 and 1500 kg ha-
1
) in a factorial, and a unique P2O5 rate (500 kg ha-1). Plots that showed yields higher than
20 kg per vine plant (9 m2) were considered as high-yielding plots and those lower than 15
kg per vine plant in the same area, as low-yielding plots. Overall, for low productivity plots,
high P- and low K-indexes were obtained. The most limiting nutrients were K and N in the
plots that received only N in the rate of 900 kg ha-1. In another research in India, new criteria
was developed to classify the N nutritional status of two grapevine cultivars based on the
DRIS indexes calculated with soil and leaf analysis data (Bhargava and Raghupathi, 1995).
Besides the new nutrient level adopted, new fertilization procedures were also recommended.
16.7.9. Nutrient Guidelines for Wine Grapes
Following Table 13 provides a guide for interpreting tissue nutrient concentrations for
grapevines. The values in the table were derived from numerous sources, including research
conducted in Oregon on wine grape nutrition, and represent the current understanding of
sufficiency or deficiency for wine grapes.
Data shown are based on nutrition research for wine grapes. Nitrate N bloom-time
petiole guidelines shown above serve as rough guide, as petiole nitrate levels have not been
thoroughly investigated in Oregon. (a) 2.5% bloom leaf N and 1.8% véraison leaf blade N is
critical for Pinot Noir in western Oregon. (b) Potassium (K) can vary considerably depending
on crop yields and irrigation.
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Table 13: Leaf nutrient norms of grapes
Source: Schreiner, 2014. R. Paul Schreiner, USDA-ARS, Hort Crops Research Lab, Corvallis, OR.
16.7.10. Nutrient considerations
16.7.10.1 Nitrogen (N)
Surprisingly, N can be a limiting nutrient in some vineyards, particularly those on lighter

soils with low organic matter. Nitrogen status must be interpreted with respect to vine
vegetative vigor and assessment of the visual characteristics of the vine. If N appears to be
deficient based on tissue analysis, it is not advisable to give N to vines with high vigor. Adding
some N fertilizer or using N-fixing cover crops should only be considered if vines have low
vigor and low N levels upon analysis. Excessive nitrogen at bloom has been observed to
cause inflorescence necrosis. In addition, low grape must N concentrations (YAN) are not
always associated with low levels of N in the vine.
16.7.10.2. Phosphorus (P)
In some cases, low soil P does not always result in low vine P due to the influence of
mycorrhizal fungi. However, because P is important for flower and fruit formation and
differentiation, keep a close watch on P levels. Low P status in grapevines may be best
diagnosed by comparing leaf and petiole P at véraison because P will generally occur at
a similar or higher concentration in petioles compared to leaf blades when P is adequate.
16.7.10.3. Potassium (K)
Low K levels can be a result of drought and/or overcropping vines the previous season.
Amendments of vineyard K levels must be approached with care. Grape clusters are a strong
sink for K. If a vineyard is cropped to very low yields, it is easy to over apply K fertilizers,
which may lead to increased pH in musts. High K in musts can also be associated with
vigorous, shaded canopies and can be corrected by better canopy management.
16.7.10.4. Boron (B)
Some growing regions have low B due to low B levels in soil. In these cases, growers can
apply foliar sprays of B to the vine canopy in spring, prior to bloom or later in the season,
post-harvest. It is recommended to apply these sprays at low doses to prevent toxicity.
16.7.10.5. Zinc (Zn)
Low Zn can be associated with high Mg levels. Foliar sprays of Zn are applied in dormancy
with a follow-up spring spray if deficiency is severe.
16.7.10.6. Iron (Fe)
Fe is difficult to diagnose based on tissue tests. The form of Fe in the leaf is most important,
and leaf size is often reduced when Fe is limiting. Low Fe is diagnosed by a combination of
interveinal leaf chlorosis (bleaching) and high soil pH.
16.8. Shading of vineyards
It is general hypothesis that shading of the fruiting zone of the plants might reduce yield
losses caused by excessive exposure to sun while avoiding the most damaging effects associated
with reduced radiation. To verify the hypothesis Oliveira et al. (2014) shaded the a number
of grapevine rows with a double layered white plastic netting on their south-facing side, from
the ground to about 20 cm above the cluster zone. Shading significantly increased yield but
did not alter significantly the must characteristics. Partial shading of the grapevine canopy
Grapes 353
reduced yield losses attributable to excessive radiation. The must obtained from shaded
berries had a lower concentration of anthocyanins, and the wines made from these musts
had a lighter colour which may be detrimental to their quality.
16.9. Improvement in bunch / berry quality (size)
16.9.1. Shoot and Cluster Thinning
Only one or two clusters are retained per cane depending upon the density of the latter.
Irrespective of the number of clusters, only the apical two or three shoots are retained. In
vines trained to the flat roof gable, individual shoot length is encouraged rather than the
total canopy size for preventing sunburn of the berries (Shikhamany 2017).
16.9.2. Production of Loose Clusters
Pre-bloom GA sprays of 10 ppm and 15 ppm are given respectively on the 11th to 14th day
after bud break for cluster elongation. Rachides of the clusters are trimmed to retain 8-10,
depending on the number of leaves available per cluster. Clusters are dipped in GA solution
of 30-40 ppm when 10-20 percent of the flowers open in each cluster for berry thinning
(Shikhamany 2017).
16.9.3. Increasing Berry Size
Manual means are used to supplement chemical thinning to ensure adequate berry thinning
and improve the quality of grapes. Approximately 90-120 berries are retained per cluster
depending upon the number of leaves available to nourish it at 8-10 berries per every leaf
depending on its size. Clusters are dipped in GA solution of 40-50 ppm concentration
once at 3-4 mm size of the berries and again at 7-8 mm size. When berry diameter is to be
increased to more than 16 mm, clusters are dipped in a mixture of 10 ppm BA + 25 ppm
GA or 2 ppm CPPU + 25 ppm GA or 1 ppm brassinosteroid + 25 ppm GA instead of GA
alone at these two stages (Shikhamany 2017).
In addition to the treatment with growth regulators, berry size and crispiness are
increased by girdling. The width and depth of girdling are 1-1.5 mm. Girdling is done at
4-5 mm diameter of the berries (Shikhamany 2017).
16.9.4. Increasing the TSS Content
Berry thinning and cluster thinning to maintain adequate leaf/fruit ratio (5 cm2), while
girdling will ensure a TSS content of 20°B (Shikhamany 2017).
16.10. Application of plant growth regulators (PGRs)
Plant growth regulators play an important role in grapes. The better quality grapes can be
produced through the management of nutrients, water, canopy and more precisely by use of
plant growth regulators. To achieve the better results the stage and optimum concentration
of bioregulators are very important because the less or overdose causes no effect or adverse
effects, respectively on the vine health and berry quality. Therefore, it is always advisable to
use the bioregulators judiciously in viticulture. The bioregulators are being used for fruit bud
differentiation after back pruning to control vigor of shoots, for elongation of rachis, berry
growth and development etc.
16.10.1. Effect on dormancy break
Hydrogen cyanamide is used to hasten and increase the bud-break at winter pruning. Buds
are swabbed with cotton soaked in 1.5% solution of hydrogen an amide 48 hr after pruning/
Hastening the bud-break with hydrogen cyamide also hastens the ripening of grapes in the
north. Thiourea (4.0%) mixed with 1% Bordeaux mixture is also used to increase bud-break
in south India (Shikhamany 2017).
Reddy and Shikhamany (1989) noted that the 5 apical buds of Thompson Seedless
grapevines under tropical conditions, dipped with 3% hydrogen cyanamide resulted in the
highest percentage budbreak (88%) and lowest mean number of days to budbreak from pruning.
Single, 3-year-old vines of 18 cultivars of table grapes were sprayed with Dormex R,
a commercial formulation of hydrogen cyanamide (49% a.i.), at a rate of 20 ml/litre. The
treatments were applied during the fourth week of July over a 3-year period. Budbreak,
flowering and fruit maturity were advanced for all cultivars. Advance of flowering varied from
2-24 days and was correlated with harvest date. Depending on cultivar, cumulative bunch
production of the treated vines was up to 3 times greater than that of the controls. Yield
increased with each year of application and was correlated with increased numbers of spurs,
numbers of shoots/spur, and a higher number of bunches/shoot on spurs. Cultivars of Vitis
labrusca responded better to cyanamide than those of V. vinifera or the hybrids. There were no
Grapes 355
adverse affects on growth or fruit quality over the 3-year period (George and Nissen, 1990).
16.10.1.1. Physiology of dormancy due to application of hydrogen cyanamide
The effect of hydrogen cyanamide (HC) on dormancy release, antioxidant enzyme’s activity
and proline and free polyamine contents were investigated by Mohamed et al. (2012) in
‘Superior Seedless’ grapevine buds. HC application caused a sharp decrease of catalase (CAT,
EC 1.11.1.6) activity and a transient stimulation during the 5 days following treatment of
peroxidase (POD, EC 1.11.1.7) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11) activities.
This coincided with an accumulation of total free polyamines, especially putrescine (Put).
Proline content increased dramatically. There was a strong correlation between APX and
POD activities and total free PAs and Put contents implying a possible stimulating effect
of the latter compounds on these enzymes. These observations indicate that HC triggers an
oxidative stress leading to bud endodormancy release. Afterward, as budbreak started, observed
a rapid proline and Put degradation; this could be responsible for reactivation of growth.
16.10.2. Effect of PGRs on bud fertility
Entire vines of the promising cultivar Muscat Seedless on Ramsey rootstocks, trained on
an overhead trellis, were sprayed with GA3 at 10 p.p.m. at the full bloom stage, followed
by a second spray at 20 p.p.m. 10 days later, or else the inflorescences were dipped in GA3
at the same concentration and times. In the following year, bud burst of previously-sprayed
vines was delayed by up to 4 weeks and average bud burst by 2 Nov. was reduced by 36%,
compared with unsprayed controls; buds at positions 2-4 from the apex were the worst affected.
Inflorescence numbers/bud were also markedly reduced by previous spraying, especially at
bud positions 1-5, and this was reflected in a reduction in average bunch mass from 443 to
171 g. Dipping in GA3, however, caused no delay or reduction in bud burst and inflorescence
numbers/bud position and bunch mass were not adversely affected (Orth,1990).
The CCC is used to suppress the vigour of vines and increase the fruitfulness of buds. It
is sprayed at 500 ppm concentration at 5-leaf stage after back pruning. If weather is cloudy,
cool and rainy, it is sprayed on the foliage once again at 10-leaf stage.
16.10.3. Improvement in berry size by PGRs
The market acceptability of the grape Orlando Seedless, produced in Florida, is limited by
its small berry size and the occasional presence of gritty seed traces. In experiments with
3-year-old vines of this cultivar, grafted onto cv. Tampa rootstocks, spray applications of
gibberellic acid (GA3) at 10 mg/litre at flowering had no effect, but 40 mg/litre given after
flowering increased berry weight by nearly 30% and decreased the weight and number of
seed traces, compared with untreated controls. Berry weight showed no greater increase with
applications of 80 than with 40 mg GA3/litre after flowering, but seed traces were further
reduced (Halbrooks and Crovetti, 1989).
Gibberallic acid (GA) is used invariably in all seedless varieties. It is sprayed at 10

ppm to elongate the clusters, 22-25 days after forward pruning (4-5_leaf stag). It is also
sprayed on clusters @ 40 ppm at 50% bloom stage for thinning the berries. For increasing
the berry size, the clusters are dipped in 60ppm GA alone or in a mixture of GA (30 ppm)
+ 10 ppm BA + 2 ppm CPPU at pearl millet or bajra grain-size berries and again at red
gram sized berries. Care must be taken not to treat the Clusters with GA before bajra
grain-sized berries. Otherwise, berries of uneven size form in a cluster. For increasing berry
size, vines are girdled. Girdling is a process of removing 2-3 mm wide strip of bark around
the stem without injuring the wood. This is also to be done at the bajra grain-sized berries
(Shikhamany, 2017).
16.10.4. Fruit quality improvement by PGRs
Application of growth regulators helps in improving the fruit quality. Application of 20 ppm.
of Gibberellic acid (GA) (2g/100 L water) at full bloom followed by dipping of bunches
in 75 ppm of GA solution at fruit set stage increases the bunch and berry size of seedless
varieties. Similar kind of treatment given to seeded varieties does not give the same kind of
result. Pre-bloom application of SADH (1500 ppm.) and CCC (1200 ppm.) increases fruit
set and yields in Thompson Seedless and Anab-e-Shahi cultivars of grapes. Berry length; berry
diameter; and the ratio of berry length and diameter were significantly affected by growth
regulator and boric acid application. Berry diameter (1.26 cm) and weight were highest for
NAA at 25 ppm; whereas the highest berry length (1.60 cm) was obtained for gibberellic
acid at 25 ppm in Arkavati grapes (Mohammed and Hulamani, 2000).
The effects of brassinosteroid and N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N’-phenylurea either alone

or in combination with benzyladenine on bunch parameters viz. bunch weight, berry
weight, berry volume, and number of berries per bunch were evaluated by Bhat et al. (2011)
on seedless grape variety ‘Tas-A-Ganesh’ (a clone of ‘Thompson Seedless’). The growth
regulator treatments were applied by dipping the bunches at either 7 or 15, or both 7 and
15 days after fruit set. The results showed that two dips, i.e., (7th+15th) days after fruit set
Grapes 357
were more effective than single dips. The treatments having a combination of either higher
or lower concentration of both BR (0.4 ppm) and CPPU (4 ppm) along with brassinosteroid
20 ppm produced maximum bunch weight (371.13 g), berry weight (4.90 g), berry volume
(4.22), and number of berries per bunch (90.88).
Hou et al. (2012) showed that 25 mg L-1 GA3 + 5 mg L-1 CPPU treatment could
obviously improve diameter and length of grape fruit than others. CPPU or GA3 level in
grape fruit gradually decreased during development, and exogenous GA3 treatment had no
effects on the changes of endogenous GA3 in grape fruit. The dissipation rate of CPPU in
grape treated with 25 mg L-1 GA3 + 5 mg L-1 CPPU reached 90% higher after 15 days of
treatment. CPPU levels after 10 days of treatment was below maximum residue limit (0.03
mg kg-1) of USA, and GA3 residue below MRL (0.2 mg kg-1) of USA and Japan after one
day of treatment. All treatments increased total soluble solids content and decreased titratable
acid content. GA3 treatment could significantly enhance total anthocyanin content of grape
peel, but CPPU treatment inhibited it.
Application of Fantac, a bio stimulant, containing 5% N-Acetyl thiazolidine carboxylic

acid (N-ATCA) and 0.1% folic acid) in Thompson Seedless during berry developmental
stages revealed that foliar spray and bunch dipping of this agrochemical on grape fruit had
significant impact on pedicel thickness, berry length and total soluble solid at 1 ml per liter,
1.5 ml per liter and 2 ml per liter respectively. Higher grape yield per plant was recorded
by treatment of 1.5 ml per liter of water followed by 1 ml per liter of water over control
(Ramteke et al., 2012).
16.10.4.1. Fruit quality improvement by application of Abscisic acid
Juices produced by American grapes add a great value to producers and has great advantages
over the wine, since alcohol free and having the same nutraceutical properties, the juice can
be consumed at any time by anyone. The cultivar ‘Isabel’ (Vitis labrusca) is the foremost among
the cultivars used for the preparation of grape juice, however, has poor color. Rufato et al.
(2016) applied abscisic acid in the veraison stage in five levels of abscisic acid (0, 200, 400
600 and 800 ppm). The application of abscisic acid provided increased levels of polyphenols,
anthocyanins and the color intensity in the ‘Isabel’ grape and juice produced, increasing
linearly to 70% anthocyanins, 119% polyphenols, 61% of the intensity of the color of the
juice produced from ‘Isabel’ grapes.
Inadequate colour in red table grapes is a problem that depreciates its visual aspect and
market value. Anthocyanins are responsible for red coloration, and their levels are influenced
by the thermal amplitude of the growing region. Kretzschmar et al. (2016) noted that
application of ABA at veraison stage conferred the best colour hue values for ‘Rubi’ grape
berries at the doses of 600 ppm to 800 ppm.
Wang et al. (2016) studied with exogenous application of abscisic acid (ABA) at different
concentrations viz., 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 mg/L to determine the stress resistance
response in grape leaves and fruit quality of 3-year-old ‘Red Globe’ grape, cultivated under
the plastic rain shelter grapes. It was found that addition of ABA significantly decreased
the level of electrolyte leakage and lipid peroxidation, enhanced the activities of superoxide
dismutase, peroxidase, proline content and soluble sugars. Meanwhile, exogenous ABA
improved the anthocyanin, soluble solids, titrable acidity and AsA. Nevertheless, it had less
effect on fruit shape index and weight of grape fruit (bunch and single berry). It was concluded
that exogenous ABA may increase stress resistances and improve fruit quality of grape.
16.11. Following are the recommendations of the Institute based on research data generated
on use of bio regulators----After October Pruning: (Ramteke, 2010)
1. Swabbing of the buds only once with 1.5 to 4.0% (a.i) of Hydrogen Cyanamide
within 24-48 hours after forward pruning for early and uniform bud break on cane
thickness and prevailing temperature. Farm workers should use hand gloves while
using this chemical.
2. Application of 6BA @ 10 ppm along with CCC @ 250 ppm to increase panicle size
and to reduce the foliage.
3. Application of Gibberellins and Cytokinins for bunch and berry development as

shown in Table 14 and 15.
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Table 14: Pre- bloom application of GA3 for better panicle growth
Concentration pH adjustment Compatibility with

Stage of plant Purpose
of chemical using chemical other chemicals
Parrot green Urea phosphate + any
stage of GA3 @ 10 ppm 5.0- 6.0 fungicide for control Elongation
panicles of downy mildew
Citric acid or
3-4 days after 1
st
phosphoric and
15 ppm GA3 5.0- 6.0 Rachis elongation
spray depends on situation
any fungicide
3-4 days after
20 ppm GA3 5.0- 6.0 As above Rachis elongation
2nd spray
This should be
selective that
means if rachis
50 % flowering 40 ppm GA3 5.0- 6.0 Nil
are not elongated
enough then only
it should be given.
Table 15: GA3 application for berry growth
For meeting Agmark quality grades

Concentration of pH adjustment Compatibility with
Stage of plant
chemical using chemical other chemicals
30 ppm GA3 + 2
ppm CPPU or 1 ppm Berry elongation and
3-4 mm berry size Acidic
Homobrassinolide or for round berries
6BA @ 10 PPM
40 ppm GA3 + 1
ppm CPPU or 1 ppm
6-7 mm berry size Acidic Berry elongation
Homobrassinolide or
6BA @ 10 PPM
For local market

40-50ppmGA3 +
3- 4 mm berry size Acidic Berry length
+ 10 ppm 6BA
6-7 mm berry size 40 ppm GA3 Acidic Berry length
• Application of CPPU, Homobrassionolide and 6BA has to be decided based on the

canopy.
• While dealing with bioregulators, time of application and dose are important and are
to be complied for their better bioefficacy and ultimate benefit.
16.11.1. Shelf life enhancement
1. Application of calcium @ 0.5 to 1.0 % to increase shelf life in export quality grapes.
2. Application of NAA (Naphthaline acetic acid) @ 20 ppm 8-10 days prior to harvest
for reducing berry drop in raisin grapes.
16.12. Canopy management practices
Yield is a product of number of fruit bunches / clusters over unit area and the mean weight
of cluster. In other words, a fruiting cane/shoot is the unit of production. Even though, yield
per unit area is more in tropical and subtropical regions of India, the cluster/cane ratio is
far less as compared to temperate regions of the world. Over all, the measures to increase
productivity of vines are discussed under following headings:
16.12.1. Increasing the number of fruiting canes per unit area (vines)
As cane is the fruiting unit in grapes, yield depends on number of fruiting canes/unit area. In
addition to fruiting cane number, thickness of cane determines the shoot length and number
of leaves put forth on the bearing shoot during fruiting season. Optimum cane density of 5
canes per m2 area of canopy is ideal with minimum thickness of at least 8 mm. On the other
hand, increased number of canes/unit area has adverse effect on fruitfulness of buds, cane
size and cane maturity. To achieve the desirable number of fruiting canes/unit area proper
canopy frame work development is essential in the beginning.
16.12.2. Increasing cluster cane ratio
This is one of the measures to increase the productivity of vines. In some of the varieties
like Thompson Seedless, it is not possible to increase the number of clusters per unit area
by increasing cane density. The cluster/cane ratio is very poor in peninsular India as
compared to temperate regions of the world. It is 0.5-0.6 in Thompson Seedless and 1.0 in
Anab-e-Shahi as against 10-12 in temperate regions. Such poor cluster/cane ratio is due to
poor bud fruitfulness in a cane and poor bud break.
Grapes 361
16.12.3. Fruit bud differentiation
Fruit bud formation takes place for next year on current season growth in temperate
conditions and 45 to 60 days after pruning on current season growth in peninsular India.
Bud fruitfulness varies with inherent capacity of variety. Studies on fruiting habits of different
varieties have shown that first two or three buds from the base contain fewer inflorescence
primordia than upper bud. Jones et al. (2009) studied that in spite of buds entering apparent
dormancy, cell division and inflorescence development continued throughout the winter
months. The proportion of fruitful bud increases progressively towards the middle of cane
and falls off towards the tip. Shoot vigour, light and temperature play a major role in fruit bud
differentiation. More the vigour of shoot with respect to its internodal length and weight, less
will be the productivity. Experiments have also revealed that light and temperature are the
contributory factors for increasing fruitfulness of buds. The development of the buds for the
succeeding season begins at the end of dormancy in autumn and is affected by temperatures
prevailing at that stage (Carbonneau et al., 2003). According to Lopez-Miranda et al.(2004),
bud productivity tended to increase from the proximal to the distal part of the bearing units.
Spur-buds were more productive (by 130%) than basal buds of canes, mainly due to higher
bud break rate in the former.
16.12.4. Mean to increase bud fruitfulness
16.12.4.1. Use of growth retardants
Use of appropriated dose of nitrogen and required quantity of water, spraying growth
retardants like CCC after back/foundation pruning (March-April) can increase fruitfulness
and thickness of canes. These sprays increase bud fruitfulness through reducing vegetative
growth; increasing shoot thickness; reducing internodal length by counteracting the effect
of endogenous ‘GA’ and increasing endogenous cytokinin levels and consequently ratio of
cytokinin / gibberellin congenial for formation of inflorescence primordia.
16.12.4.2. Increasing light regime in vine canopy
Orientation of growing shoot should be in such a way that, the buds on them should get
maximum available sunlight. Training grape vines to trellis such as T, Geneva Double Curtain,
Tatura & ‘Y’ can result in open canopies with diagonal shoot orientation to harvest more
sunlight by buds.
16.12.4.3. Promotion of cytokinin/GA ratio
Application of 6 BA to shoot apices will prevent the formation of tendril primordia and favours
the formation of inflorescence, since cytokinin plays a vital role in controlling the process of
inflorescence formation, differentiation of flowers and pistil development. However, 6-BA
is yet to have CIB ( Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee) label claims.
16.12.4.4. Nutrient management
Nutrition has been considered the major factor in determining the productivity in vines.
Appropriate quantity of nitrogen induces the flower initiation through synthesis of proteins
and nucleic acids favourable for inflorescence formation. Combination of N, with P and K
will induce early flower bud initiation.
16.12.5. Bud break
It is the basic requirement for initiation of new growth by vines. Extent of bud break refers
to percentage of sprouted buds to the total buds on a cane of vine. Bud break is not a
problem after summer pruning in tropics as there will be only one/two buds on spurs and
the atmospheric temperature will be high. However, this is problem after forward/fruit
pruning (September – October). Soil temperature had no effect on the time of bud break,
anthesis, or the number of flowers per inflorescence (Field et al., 2009). In the past, several
measures like twisting, ringing and bending of canes were some of the practices followed to
increase bud break but these operations are labour intensive and sometimes it also damages
sprouted buds. Hence, use of appropriate and optimum dose of chemicals with CIB label
claims is more effective. Among all the chemicals, use of hydrogen cyanamide is the common
practice to obtain quick and uniform bud break and also having CIB label claim. Swabbing
buds with Hydrogen Cyanamide @ 1.5% with cotton or sponge to the buds within 48 hrs
after pruning will enhance bud break.
Marquez et al. (2003) reported that application of 300 mg TDZ litre-1 produced the best
bud break, highest daily growth rate and highest shoot length 70 days after application. Grape
yield is formed mainly from buds with initiated 2 and 1 racemes of 550 micro m to 750 micro
m and 350 micro m to 550 micro meter (µm). Mixed pruning is mandatory, fruiting cane
should be 9 buds long at least. Cv. Mavrud is characterized with low percentage of primary
bud necrosis and good potential fruitfulness of wintering eyes. Grape yield is formed by the
high percentage of fruit buds and mainly by initial shoots with 1 and 2 racemes. Good quality
wine production requires to prune back knots and suckers (Roychev and Braykov, 2001).
Grapes 363
16.12.6. Sub cane development
This is one of the means to increase fruit cluster/cane ratio. After foundation pruning during
March – April, pinching off the shoots after five node at 7 to 8 leaf stage and encouraging
one or two buds to grow laterally in addition to apical bud is the process of developing sub
canes. Spraying of 500 to 1000 ppm CCC at 5 leaf stage also increases lateral buds. When
these lateral buds reach 5 leaf stage, it is again pinched to arrest the growth of lateral shoots.
On maturity, canes and sub canes are pruned to 2 or 3 nodes from the point of origin, since
fruit buds are at the first or second node of these laterals and apical shoots.
16.12.7. Increasing fruit set in clusters
All the flowers seen at the time of panicle emergence do not develop into fruits/berries. Many
flowers fail to set because of poor pollination and fertilization or other causes. Endogenous
growth regulator also regulates berry set. Some of the measures to increase fruit set are:
16.12.7.1. Shoot pinching and topping
This helps in increasing the fruit set by reducing the food competition for carbohydrates
and other organic nutrients between the growing apices and the developing berries, thus
reducing the drop of berries.
16.12.7.2. Girdling
It consists of removing complete ring of bark 3 to 6 mm wide from the lower part of the trunk
or from an arm or a cane below the cluster. This promotes accumulation of carbohydrates in
the plants above the girdle; thereby increase the berry set and development. This practice is
followed in temperate countries only for production of table grapes. The increase in cluster
weight, cluster length and number of berries per cluster was found to be higher with girdling
(Coban, 2001).
16.12.7.3. Use of growth promoters
Use of growth regulators such as gibberllic acid (GA3) and cytokinins (CPPU, 6BA) with
appropriate concentration at right stage will increase fruit set and produces good quality
bunches. GA3 and CPPU are having CIB label claims.
16.12.7.4. Increasing berry weight
Sixty per cent of berry weight increases during third stage of its growth after berry softening.
This is by influx of sugar and water into the berries. Efficient nutrition and irrigation
management practices during this period will improve berry weight. Apart from this,
maintaining optimum leaf fruit ratio, girdling, shoot tipping and growth regulator application
will increase the berry weight.
Amutha and Rajendran (2001) revealed that two sprays of methanol, one at 45 and
another at 60 days after pruning recorded the highest yield, and that the vines that received
two sprays of either ethephon or Raseek or methanol produced fruits of superior quality in
terms of increased content of sugar (sweetness) and decreased content of starch and acidity.
Earliness in ripening was observed in single spray of ethephon given at 60 days after pruning.
16.12.7.5. Leaf/fruit Ratio
Leaf area available on bearing shoot during fruiting season has remarkable bearing on the
development of bunch, berry size, and dry matter accumulation. The optimum leaf area for
proper development of bunch and berries is about 2600 cm2 depending on size of leaves (»
12-15 leaves). Reduction in available leaf area will reduce berry size, its crispness and TSS
content. Since the nourishment to the developing bunch is from leaves on the shoot, it is
necessary to maintain at least 12 leaves of appropriate size on shoot at the time of fruit set. This
is possible only when cane is about 8 mm thickness at fruit pruning (September – October).
Partial defoliation of vines means thinning or removal of basal leaves in the area of
development clusters in order to ensure greater transparency, better access of light and
thereby reduce the chances of getting gray mold and achieve a better berry color. In time
conducted defoliation increases photosynthetic activity of the remaining leaves what has a
positive effect on the maturation and a better quality of grapes. The sugar content increases
and the total acidity decreases. Mesic et al. (2013) conducted a study to determinate the
effect of different levels and terms of partial defoliation in vineyards Kutjevo on dynamics
of maturation, yield and quality of grape varieties Sauvignon, following parameters of sugar
content and total acidity, tartaric, malic and citric acid in the must. The experiment was set
up as a case of block schedule in four repetitions with the following treatments: without
removing leaves, removed four basal leafs after flowering, removed eight basal leafs after
flowering, removed four basal leafs in early stages of veraison of grapes and removed eight
basal leafs in early stages of patterns of grapes. Early and late partial defoliation of eight
Grapes 365
basal leaves had an impact on reducing sugar content. Early partial defoliation of eight basal
leaves in adverse weather conditions affected to the reduced total acidity. Partial defoliation
did not influence on the content of tartaric acid in must and the content of malic and citric
acid in case of early and late partial defoliation with eight basal leaves was significantly lower
with unfavorable climatic conditions for ripening grapes.
Shoot topping, girdling and judicious use of growth regulators such as gibberellic acid
and cytokinins at right concentration at right stage are also essential practices to increase
berry weight thus improving production and productivity of vineyards. The use of growth
regulators not only enhances the productivity of vines but also helps to produce quality
grapes suitable for exports. Choice of growth promoters and regulators to be used depends
upon the traits desired in the grapes based on their market requirement in domestic and
international market.
16.13. Yield and Quality improvement strategy under temperate areas
Pruning time, variations in climate during the growth period (temperature, humidity and
frost), use of various chemicals to control diseases and pests are the main factors which
determine the quality of the produce. Good variety bunches of Grapes for eating should be
from medium to big sized, seedless grains. Varieties like Perlette tend to bear very compact
bunches and require considerable thinning of berries for proper development of berry and
bunch. Removal of distal end of the bunch helps in uniform ripening of berries.
Among the various vineyard treatments adopted in recent years for table-grape cultivation,
there has been a significant use of plant growth regulators (PGRs) and girdling to increase
berry size and yield. In particular, an increase in the application of forchlorfenuron (CPPU) and
gibberellic acid (GA3) for many seeded and seedless table-grape cultivars has been registered
in several countries. Ferrara et al.(2014) studied with girdling at berry set, gibberellic acid (10
mg/L) applied at berry diameter of 10 to 11 mm, and forchlorfenuron (9.75 mg/L) applied
at berry diameter of 11 to 12 mm to verify their effects on berry size, yield, and chemical and
metabolic characteristics of Italia grapes. In general, at harvest all treatments significantly
increased berry diameter, length, and weight and consequent cluster weight and yield/vine
compared to an untreated control. The treatments showed significant differences for the
colorimetric parameters, in particular a higher value of hue for berries treated with GA3 and
CPPU, thus shifting the skin color from yellow toward yellow-green. Metabolomic study
carried out by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy combined with principal component
analysis indicated that metabolic profile depends on the year and, in each year, the effect
of treatments consisted of a slight variation of amino acid content. Treatments effects were
more pronounced in the year characterized by a cooler summer.
‘BRS Nubia’ is a new seeded table grape with dark black color, high yield, neutral flavor,
and crunchy large berries. However, this cultivar frequently presents very dense bunches,
limiting its commercialization. Silvestre et al.(2017) concluded from an investigation that the
inflorescence tipping before anthesis would be an useful practice by facilitating and saving
time to perform berry thinning of ‘BRS Nubia’ table grapes, while the bearing shoot tipping
after the anthesis may accelerate the bunches ripening. Combined to these practices, berry
thinning is a mandatory procedure in order to obtain medium loose bunches of ‘BRS Nubia’
table grape, with larger and uniform berries.
Lu et al. (2017) studied the effects of V and T trellis on growth and yield of wine grape
variety Lingfeng in order to provide reference for wine grape planting in southern humid
area. They found that in V trellis cultivation, the distribution of branches and leaves are even,
relativity light intensity is high, which can improve grape yield and quality.
Phenolic compounds play a key role in grape and wine organoleptic properties, being
therefore a key parameter in wine quality. Elicitor application constitutes an interesting field
of research since it is indirectly involved in the accumulation of phenolic compounds. Portu
et al. (2016) compared the effect of the application of three different elicitors on both grape
and wine phenolic content. Methyl jasmonate, chitosan, and a commercial yeast extract were
applied to the canopy at veraison and one week later. Results showed that foliar treatments
carried out with methyl jasmonate and yeast extract achieved the best results, increasing grape
and wine anthocyanin content when compared to the control. Moreover, the application of
the yeast elicitor also enhanced grape stilbene content. In contrast, the chitosan treatment
did not have a substantial impact on the phenolic compounds. The study indicated that
methyl jasmonate and yeast extract applications could be a simple practice to increase grape
and wine phenolic content. Zhu et al. (2016) also noted that exogenous application of 200
mg/L abscisic acid at veraison stage offered opportunities to improve phenolic contents and
nutritional values of grape skins and wines. The wines made from ABA-treated grapes were
consequently enhanced in total phenolics, anthocyanins, flavonols and antioxidant activities.
To improve berry colour and quality of grape cv. Christmas Rose, Sun et al.(2016)
concluded from their experiment that spraying of aqueous solution of 50 mg prohydrojasmon
(PDJ) /litre uniformly on the berries twice at the beginning of veraison and 7 days later after the
first application resulted in improving the coloration and quality of grapes at satisfactory level.
Grapes 367
Shine Muscat cultivar of Japan has a large berry size, bright yellow-green pericarp,
crispy and juicy flesh, musky flavor, high soluble solid content and low acidity. Under natural
conditions, however, the berries of Shine Muscat are smaller, and grape clusters are relatively
sparse. Besides, Shine Muscat grape has the problem of rusty spot incidence, which occurs at
the maturation stage just before harvest. Tiny reddish-brown blotches appear on the surface
of berries and considerably affected its production quality and commodity value. Li et al.
(2016) studied the effects of different concentrations and collocations of GA3 and N-(2-
chloro-4-pyridyl)-N′-phenylurea (CPPU) treatments on fruit setting and fruit quality of
Shine Muscat grape of 3-year-old. The results in sum comprehensive consideration for the
fruit cluster compactness, fruit size, sugar degree, aroma component and cost saving, the
better co-treatments in production were as follows: (1) 25 mg/L GA3+10 mg/L CPPU for
one time at 5 days after full bloom, or (2) 25 mg/L GA3+5 mg/L CPPU at 1-3 days right
after full bloom, and 25 mg/L GA3 at 10-15 days after full bloom, or (3) 25 mg/L GA3+5
mg/L CPPU at 1-3 days right after full bloom, and 25 mg/L GA3+5 mg/L CPPU at 10-15
days after full bloom.
16.13.1. Grape production under HT
Economic and environmental sustainability of table grape production can be improved by

advancing the harvest season to capture high-value niche markets and by reducing pesticide
inputs. High tunnels (HT) have the potential to achieve both goals. Garcia et al. (2016)
investigated the performance of four table grape cultivars under HT and field conditions.
The table grape cultivars (Vitis labrusca L. and Vitis vinifera L.) ‘Hope’, ‘Faith’, and ‘Mars’
were planted as bare root cuttings in spring 2011 in a Geneva double curtain (GDC) trellis
system. Results indicated a great potential for table grape production under HT. Under HT,
fruit was harvested in 2012, but vines under ambient field conditions had no fruit. In 2013,
fruit was harvested from the HT planting, but not from the field due to below freezing
temperatures in March and April. Yield for the red-fruited cultivars ‘Faith’ and ‘Mars’ was
43.6 and 37.3 kg plant-1, respectively. Yield for the white table grape cultivar, ‘Hope’ was
36.9 kg plant-1. The vines in the field had no crop due to a late spring freeze event. For
comparison, in field grown vines at the Fruit Research Station from 2009 to 2011, ‘Faith’
averaged 15.2 kg plant-1 and ‘Hope’ 21.1 kg plant-1. In addition, pesticide application was
reduced to three fungicide applications and two insecticide applications in HT, whereas
field grown table grapes receive on average, eight fungicide applications and five insecticide
applications. Higher yield levels compared to field production may contribute to economic
sustainability if costs of HT production are not concomitantly higher.
16.13.2. Protection of vines from frost injury
‘Edelweiss’ is an important grape cultivar grown in the Midwestern part of the USA. This
grapevine is tolerant to the extreme winter temperatures which can be experienced in the
areas where it is most widely grown. However, ‘Edelweiss’ is one of the earliest cultivars in
the vineyard to break bud, making it very susceptible to late spring freezes. The primary
buds of ‘Edelweiss’ produce a significant amount of fruit, while unlike many other hybrids,
the secondary and tertiary buds will have diminished yields, thus making it important to
protect the primary buds from a late freeze. ‘Edelweiss’ vines were treated with one, two,
and three applications of Amigo Oil or NAA at monthly intervals starting in early January.
The Amigo Oil was applied at 10% concentration (v/v) and the NAA at 1,000 mg/L with
a custom built all-terrain vehicle (atv) sprayer. In previous studies single applications have
led to significant delay in bud break on several different cultivars ranging from 3 days up to
3 weeks. No negative effects have been found when using 10% v/v oil or 1,000 ppm NAA
on fruit characteristics, harvest date, or bud health (Loseke et al., 2014).
16.14. Weed control
Weeds compete for nutrients, water and sunlight. In addition they may affect the crops
by producing toxic compounds through a mechanism called allelopathy. Their presence
leads to huge economical losses, but on the other hand their control, especially through
herbicides, could negatively affect the environment. Therefore weed control through different
strategies of prevention, control and eradication by means of sustainable approaches is
a priority worldwide. Due to the specific agro-ecological conditions in perennial
plantations, weed community of orchards and vineyards has seasonal dynamics. Hand
tillage and mulching were carried out to control the perennial weeds infesting the
orchards and vineyards areas. Due to the susceptibility of young plantations to herbicides,
chemical treatments were not applied until the plants were 4-year-old (Konstantinovic
and Meseldzija, 2004). Weed control is an important task, especially for young vineyards;
otherwise the weeds will compete for nutrients, water and may act as a secondary host
for many pests and diseases. Pre- emergence herbicides should be applied after pruning
of vine and before the monsoon. Several herbicides like simazin, diuron, nitralin, trifluralin,
paraquat, dalapan, etc. are in use for control of weeds in vineyards. Simazin, atrazine, caragard,
monuron, diuron, terbacil, prefix and the sequential application with dalapon gave an
effective control of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous weeds. Ammonium glufosinate
had the advantage over NAA of achieving good weed control between vine rows (Lembo
and Ravizza, 2000). Caragard A-3587 at 5 kg/ha showed good control of annual weeds
Grapes 369
when applied at any time during the growing season; at 7.5- 10 kg/ha it was also effective
against perennial weeds.
Masoud and Aal (2014) concluded that the best means for controlling weeds and
improving productivity of the vines was soil mulching with black polyethylene sheets
followed by sawdust, hand hoeing and chemical control, in descending order. Controlling
weeds by weeds control treatments along with application of humic acid and EM1 (Effective
Microorganisms) was superior than using weed control treatments alone in this respect.
Soil mulching with black polyethylene sheets as well as application of humic acid and EM1
each at 5 mL per vine is suggested for controlling weeds and improving productivity of Red
Globe vineyards.
16.15. Mulching
Yields of grapes were 51.9, 40.7 and 33.7 t/ha, respectively, when 3-year-old plants of cultivar
Anab-e-Shahi were mulched with 400-mm-thick black polyethylene (PE) film, rice straw
(10 t/ha) or were unmulched (Srinivas et al., 1990).
16.16. Insect pests and their management
16.16.1. Grape Berry Moth (Paralobesia viteana)
The larvae of this insect can cause serious damage to commercial vineyards by feeding on
the blossoms and berries. Infested berries may appear shrivelled with fine webbing. Damage
by grape berry moth may increase mould, rots and numbers of fruit flies. While grape
berry moth larvae may only damage a few berries in a cluster, it is impractical for growers
to remove damaged berries and webbing from clusters. Hosts include wild and cultivated
grapes. T. evanescens could be a potential candidate for biological control of the grape moth
in vineyards (El-Wakeil et al., 2009).
16.16.2. Grape Phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae [Viteus vitifoliae])
Grape phylloxera is native to eastern United States, but has been distributed to other grape
regions of the U.S. and is also established in Europe where it is of great economic importance.
It induces galls on young grape vine roots (Forneck et al., 2003). The leaf galls caused by
grape phylloxera are unsightly and do little damage, however, infestation of the roots can be
difficult to control and can lead to decline of vines. Severe infestations can cause defoliation
and reduce shoot growth. Hosts include cultivated and wild grapes. The presence of grape
phylloxera is best recognized by characteristic galls it produces on the leaves or roots. Leaf
galls are wart-like, about 1/4 inch in diameter, and are familiar to anyone growing grapes.
Root galls are knot-like swellings on the rootlets, and may lead to decay of infested parts. V.
amurensis var. yanshanensis was highly resistant to phylloxera, just as high as the highly
resistant rootstocks (Zhang et al., 2009). Root galls cause stunting and/or death of European
varieties of grape vines. American varieties of grapes or European grapes on American
root stock are tolerant to the root gall form of the insect. Some varieties are resistant to
root galls, leaf galls or both. In vitro conditions, phylloxera populations showed increased
fitness on the rootstock 5C, which is the original host plant (Fader et al., 2003). The most
important tolerant to Phylloxera infestation rootstock in Germany are ‘125AA’, ‘5 BB’ and
‘SO4’ (Schwappach, 2010).
Active control of radiculae phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae Viteus vitifoliae) in

vineyards with chemical agents is environmentally problematic and is already or will soon be
banned in many countries. Apart from breeding rootstocks with a high resistance, developing
additional procedures to control phylloxera are urgently required, in particular in replant
situations. According to Herrmann (2003) Roundup infiltration into the trunk, up to 85%
of the root system died off within 20 months. Therefore, Roundup infiltration into the trunk
is a potential method to kill vine roots effectively and prevent young freshly planted vines
from infection. For effective control of grape phylloxera in an infested vineyard, Wang et al.
(2015) advised intercropping grapes with tobacco.
16.16.3. Grape Rootworm (Fidia viticida Walsh)
Grape rootworm is distributed from the Mississippi River eastward. Larvae devour small
roots and pit the surface of larger roots, causing an unthrifty condition of the plant, and
reduction in yield. Vines may be killed in 3 or more years when damage is severe. Adults
make chain-like feeding marks on leaves and may also feed on the surface of green grape
berries. Hosts include wild and cultivated grapes. Chain-like leaf feeding damage by the
adults is diagnostic and can alert growers to adult activity. Foliar sprays when adults are
active can provide effective control.
16.16.4. Grape Flea Beetle (Scelodonta strigicollis)
Grape flea beetle is found in the eastern two-thirds of the United states. Adults eat buds
and unfolding leaves, causing leaves to be ragged and tattered. Larvae feed on flower clusters
and skeletonize leaves in a manner similar to adult rootworm feeding. Hosts include grape,
Grapes 371
plum, apple, quince, beech, elm & Virginia creeper. Adults are dark metallic greenish-blue,
jumping beetles about 1/5 inch long; larvae are brownish and marked with black spots;
eggs are pale yellow, and fairly conspicuous on upper leaf surface or under loose cane bark.
Damage is often restricted to vineyard borders, particularly near wooded areas. Scheduled
sprays for grape berry moth and leafhoppers provide effective control. Where flea beetles
have been a problem, a spray timed at bud swell can provide control.
16.16.5. Grape Cane Girdler (Ampeloglypter ampelopsis)
Grape cane girdler is common in central and eastern United States. Adults girdle canes with
a row of punctures, that causes canes to break off at the girdled areas. It is only a minor pest
on grape, preferring Virginia creeper. Hosts include grape and Virginia creeper. The adult
is a black snout beetle about 1/8 inch long. The grub is slightly larger when full grown, and
is white with a brown head and legless. It is very similar in appearance to the closely related
grape cane gall maker. Girdles are usually beyond the fruit clusters and does not cause
significant yield loss. Look for broken off, pencil-sized canes with a grub in the pith of each
broken off section, or wilted canes with a series of punctures. Pruning canes a few inches
below the lower girdled area is usually sufficient control for this pest. Pruning should be
done before adult emergence in late July or August.
16.16.6. Grape Cane Gall maker (Cecidomyia viticola)
Grape cane gall maker is a common pest of grapes in Kentucky. This insect produces noticeable
red galls on new shoot growth just above nodes. While these are commonly found in vineyards,
the majority of the galls are beyond the fruit clusters and usually cause no serious yield
loss. Canes with galls are capable of producing a crop the following year. Galls are usually
found along vineyard borders near wooded trashy areas or at the ends of rows. If galls will
be removed by pruning, it should be done by mid-July before emerging adults exit galls.
16.16.7. Grape Root Borer (Vitacea polistiformis)
Grape root borer is potentially the most destructive insect attacking grapes in Kentucky.
Larvae of this insect tunnel into the larger roots and crown of vines below the soil surface.
Borer damage results in reduced vine growth, smaller leaves, reduced berry size, and fewer
bunches of grapes. Because damage is restricted to below ground, problems often go unnoticed
until vine decline is observed. Damage caused by larval feeding can range from just a few
feeding sites to complete root system destruction.
Injury by root borers is often most severe in low, poorly drained areas of the vineyard.
In mid-summer, growers should examine around the bases of vines out to a distance of 18
inches for empty pupal skins of grape root borer. If pupal skins are found beneath 5% of
the vines then an insecticide application is recommended next year underneath vines. It is
best to apply the insecticide just as the adults are beginning to emerge, but the pre-harvest
interval may make it necessary to spray after harvest. The insecticide should be applied as
a course spray to a 15 square foot area surrounding the vine. Treat with an insecticide only
if necessary. If grape root borer is not a problem, there is no reason to risk destroying the
natural control processes and increasing production costs.
16.16.8. Red banded Leaf roller (Argyrotaenia velutinana)
Red banded leaf roller is an occasional pest of clusters and fruits, and its symptoms are very
similar to grape berry moth. Larvae of this insect will feed on both foliage and clusters.
Unlike grape berry moth larvae, red banded leaf roller larvae do not crawl into the berry but
remain concealed in webbing on the cluster stem and feed on the stem as well as berries.
While red banded leaf rollers are numerous in Kentucky, they are only an occasional pest
of grapes. Growers can control for red banded leaf rollers at petal fall or when presence of
the pest is detected. Pheromone traps are available to monitor for red banded leaf roller.
Trap catches are an indication of moth activity and can be used to more accurately time
insecticide applications.
General management guidelines
There are a number of cultural control practices that grape growers need to use to reduce
problems caused by insect pests. These cultural practices include:
• Burying or removing leaves under the vines during the winter.

• Summer pruning vines to remove grape cane gall maker and grape cane girdler before
adult emergence.
• Use American rootstocks resistant to grape phylloxera.
• Regent, Rondo, Johanniter and Gf 48-12 show a better wine quality than Pinot Noir
or Silvaner and can be recommended for organic viticulture as well as conventional
viticulture to reduce copper and fungicide applications (Schwab et al., 2000).
• Maintain good weed control during the season, and eliminate weedy or trashy harbourages
around the vineyard that serve as over wintering sites for pests.
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The use of chemical herbicides in the maintenance of vineyard soil can have varying
effects in areas which are of concern to the general public today, i.e. food safety, user safety
and the impact on the environment. Water quality is a priority issue. Regional plant protection
product groups have been set up to identify priority zones or to carry out monitoring actions,
experiments and actions aimed at regaining water quality. As far as herbicides are concerned,
action plans can include the limitation of runoff by more efficient land management, the
adoption of alternative techniques to chemical weed control, the rational use of chemical
herbicides (Bourgouin and Gille, 2001).
Use systematic scouting of vineyards to monitor for grape insects on a regular basis.
Particular attention should be made to the ends of rows and rows bordering wooded areas.
It is on these vines that insect problems may develop initially and with the greatest severity.
During mid-summer, growers should examine around the bases of vines for evidence of grape
root borer emergence. Growers should record and maintain notes of each visit to the vineyard.

16.17. Diseases and their management
16.17.1. Anthracnose (Elsinoe ampelina)
This disease is prevalent in all grape-growing regions of the country attacking mainly the
leaves and young shoots. Small light brown or grayish black lesions develop on tender shoots,
young leaves, flowers and young berries. It causes short holes in the leaves and thus reduces
the effective leaf area. Affected blossoms fail to set fruits. The fungus also causes cankers
on the petioles and veins, and leaves become twisted and deformed. On berries, the disease
causes circular brown sunken spots with dark brown margins. If severely attacked, berries
may crack exposing the seeds. Bunches with anthracnose affected berries lose their export
value. Rain and dew are highly favourable for the spread of the disease.
16.17.1.1. Control
Prophylactic measures should be followed for effective control. All affected twigs or canes
showing cankers should be removed while pruning. The pruned twigs and leaves should be burnt
or buried deep in the soil. This disease is more problematic during October and November.
The new shoots and young branches should be given protective sprays during this period.
Spraying of the grapevines at 3-4 leaf stage with fungicides like Bordeaux mixture @ 0.8%
or Copper Oxychloride @ 0.25% or Carbendazim @ 0.1% are effective against this disease.
16.17.2. Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola)
Light and continuous rains or heavy dew associated with high humidity and low temperatures
favours the development of the disease. The disease attacks the leaves, flowers, cluster and
young fruits. Initial symptom appear as light yellow spots on the upper surface of young
mature leaves with corresponding white spots on the lower side. Affected portions of the
leaves turn brown and cannot support the bunch development due to reduced photosynthetic
activity. The losses are very high when the clusters are attacked before fruit set. Entire clusters
decay, dry and drop down. Infected small berries turn brown and become mummified. Once
berries begin softening and change colour, they cease to get infected.
16.17.2.1. Control
Pruning of the vines after the second week of October helps to minimize the damage by
this disease. All affected portions of the vine should be removed at the time of pruning and
destroyed immediately. Bordeaux mixture (1%), Copper Oxychloride (0.2%), Mancozeb
(0.2%), Metalaxyl (0.2%) or Fosetyl Al (0.2%) are effective against this disease. Systemic
fungicides are more effective than non-systemic ones. However, more than 2-3 sprays of
systemic fungicides should be avoided. Continuous sprays with systemic fungicide encourage
the disease to develop resistant to these fungicides and help in the resurgence of new diseases
like Alternaria, Botrydiplodia and others.
16.17.3. Bacterial Leaf Spot (Xanthomonas campestris)
The disease is more prevalent during June-August and again in February-March. Temperature
range of 25-300C and relative humidity of 80-90% is favourable for the development of
the disease. The young growing shoots are affected first. Disease infects leaves, shoots and
berries. The symptoms appear as minute water soaked spots on the lower surface of the
leaves along the main and lateral veins. Later these spots coalesce and form larger patches.
Brownish black lesions are formed on the berries, which later become small and shrivelled.
16.17.3.1. Control
Collecting and burning the infected plant parts minimizes the spread of the disease.
Streptocycline (500 ppm) is very effective as a prophylactic spray. Weekly sprays of copper
fungicide and Bordeaux mixture given from last week of October are effective to prevent
the incidence and spread of the disease.
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16.17.4. Powdery Mildew (Uncinula necator)
It is the second most destructive disease after downy mildew but more important one in
the viewpoint of export of fresh grapes, as it leaves blemishes on the affected berries and
deforms them. The disease develops under warm and dry conditions. Shade or diffused light
also helps in the development of this disease. The diseases is characterized by the presence
of white powdery (ash like) coating in patches on both sides of the leaves, young shoots
and immature berries. The affected leaves turn pale and curl up. Affected shoots remain
weak and immature. The buds affected during growing season, fail to sprout after October
pruning. Thus the productivity of the cane and the number of productive canes are reduced.
If blossoms are affected they fail to set fruit. When young berries are attacked they become
corky. Berries attacked at 50% maturity turn dark and become distorted in shape. Grape
powdery mildew is an adequate food source for generalist mite survival and development
(Pozzebon et al., 2009. If severely attacked they are enveloped with a white powdery coating
and crack eventually. Loss of yield results from both berry drop and reduced size of berries.
16.17.4.1. Control
Powdery mildew can be controlled easily by spraying Wettable Sulphur (1.5 kg /200 litres
of water). Care should be taken while spraying as they scorch the berry skin leaving minute
black specks. Sulphur dusting (20 kg/ha) in the morning hours controls the disease effectively.
The affected plant parts should be thoroughly coated with the dust. Systemic fungicides like
Bayleton (1g/litre of water) or Calaxin (3-4 ml/10 litres of water) or Benomyl (5g/10 litres
of water) offer better and prolonged control of the disease. Fungicidal spray against this
should be done from November to February. No single chemical should be sprayed more
than twice. In between two successive systemic fungicides a spray of non-systemic fungicide
as Wettable Sulphur is taken to avoid the development of disease resistance. Northover and
Homeyer (2001) using a discriminating concentration of 0.18 micro g myclobutanil /ml,
the proportion of resistant isolates increased from 53% in control plots in June to 97% in
myclobutanil-treated plots in September. The efficacy of AQ10, a formulation containing the
hyperparasite Ampelomyces quisqualis, against grapevine powdery mildew (caused by Uncinula
necator) and reported that the biological control agent, applied during the vegetative period,
was effective when sprayed in alternation with endotherapic fungicides (Zanzotto et al., 2005).
Experiments have shown that monopotassium phosphate [potassium dihydrogen

phosphate] (MKP) sprayed alone, as a tank mix or in alternation with fungicides has been
successful in the control of powdery mildew in grapes. The action of MKP as a biocompatible
fungicide appears to be synergistic with that of the fungicide, often improving disease control.
The method of MKP application depends largely on the disease pressure and the crop to be
sprayed. The benefits of incorporating MKP into a spray programme include good disease
control, reduced fungicide applications (cost effective), reduced fungicide residues on food
crops, less fungicide resistance pressure, promotion of integrated pest management and
enhanced plant nutrition (Napier and Oosthuyse, 2000).
16.17.5. Leaf blight and bunch necrosis (Alternaria alternata)
It appears in the month of June and December. The disease attacks both leaves and fruits.
Small yellowish spots first appear along the leaf margins, which gradually enlarge and turn
into brownish patches with concentric rings. Severe infection leads to drying and defoliation
of leaves. Symptoms in the form of dark brown-purplish patches appear on the infected
berries, rachis and bunch stalk just below its attachment with the shoots.
16.17.5.1. Control
If the disease on the berries is not controlled in the field, it can lead to berry rotting during
transit and storage. Bordeaux mixture (1.0%), Mancozeb (0.2%), Topsin-M (0.1%), Ziram
(0.35%) or Captan (0.2%) is to be sprayed alternatively at weekly intervals from Jun-August
and again from December until harvest to keep this disease under check. Two to three sprays
of systemic fungicides should be given per season.
16.17. 6. Rust (Phakopsora vitis)
The weather conditions in Bangalore present during July-December favours the development
of the disease. The symptoms are in the form of numerous orange coloured pustules on
the lower surface of the leaves. The incidence of the disease on grapes was correlated with
precipitation. Relative humidity and temperature were also correlated with disease incidence,
but to a lesser extent. Traditional management resulted in greater susceptibility of plants
and more rapid senescence compared with integrated management in Ginebra (Liliana et
al., 2001). In case of severe infection such pustules cover the entire leaf surface leading to
severe defoliation.
16.17.6.1. Control
Rust on Bangalore Blue is being successfully controlled in vineyards by applying 3-4 sprays
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of Baycor (0.1%) or Chlorothalonil (0.2%) at fortnightly intervals during July- August and
January February gives effective control of rust under Bangalore conditions.
16.17.7. Bitter Rot (Greenaria uvicola)
The disease causes considerable losses in field, storage and in transit. The disease infects the
leaves, canes and berries. The disease is most serious on older leaves. Initially the infection
starts as dark brown water soaked spots covering the entire leaf lamina on either side of the
veins and veinlets. The infection on the cane is prominently visible which initially becomes
white and later turns black. The infected cane shows reduced growth and wilts. The young
infected green berries get shrivelled, turn black and become mummified. The raisins made
out of the infected berries taste sour and have a poor shelf life.
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore recommends pruning of the

canes followed by sprays of Rovral (0.2%), Baycor (0.1%) and Thiophanate Methyl (0.1%)
for effective control in the field and the storage.
16.17.8. Black Rot (Guignardia bidwelli)
Warm and moist climate with extended periods of rain and cloudy weather favours the
development of the disease. The disease attacks the leaves, stem, flowers and berries. All
the new growth on the vine is prone to attack during the growing season. The symptoms
are in the form of irregularly shaped reddish brown spots on the leaves and a black scab on
berries. Occasionally, small elliptical dark coloured canker lesions occur on the young stems
and tendrils. Leaf, cane and tendril infection can occur only when the tissue is young, but
berries can be infected until almost fully-grown if an active fungicide residue is not present.
The affected berries shrivel and become hard black mummies.
16.17.8.1. Control
Mummified berries left on vines should be collected and destroyed. Cultivation practices
should ensure free circulation of air. Spraying Bordeaux mixture (4:4:100) once or twice
on young bunches prevents the infection. Copper fungicides are preferred for spraying on
bunches, as they do not leave any visible deposits on the fruit surface.
16.17.9. Dead Arm (Phomopsis viticola)
The disease is mostly prevalent in South India. The disease is first noticed as angular small
spots on the leaves, stems, canes and flower clusters. Most of the spots have yellowish margins
with dark centres. Frequently the spots grow together and form large brown areas on the
canes. Later on the canes start to dry rapidly. In severe cases the fungus spreads on the woody
part where it gradually attacks the water conducting tissues. In case of severe infection the
drying extends to the roots and the whole plant wilts.
16.17.9.1. Control
The pruned canes should be collected and destroyed. The dead canes should be pruned to
the region where healthy tissues are seen and it can still be further pruned so as to avoid any
chance of mycelial growth left out in the canes. Such pruned cane should be pasted with
Bordeaux paste immediately after the pruning. Later on the vines should be sprayed with
Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50) followed by Difolatan (0.2%) or Daconil (0.2%) or Dithane Z-78
(0.2%) at fortnightly intervals till the canes become hard.
16.17.10. Botrytis Rot/Grey Mould (Botrytis cinerea)
Botrytis cinerea (anamorph of Botryotinia fuckeliana) is a filamentous ascomycete that

causes grey mould on grapevine (Albertini and Leroux, 2004). It is one of the most important
diseases in storage and is capable of growing at low temperature. In the vineyards, the fungus
attacks the shoots and clusters or destroys stalks leading to premature fruit drop. In the early
stages of infection the skin of the affected berries just below the infection become loose.
When rubbed with fingers the skin slips from the berry leaving the firm pulp exposed. The
infected berries shrivel, rot and turn dark brown showing the presence of greyish growth
of the fungus.
16.17.10.1. Control
Careful handling in the field, precooling and refrigeration helps in controlling the disease.
Pruning and thinning of the vineyard reduces humidity around the clusters. Prophylactic
sprays with Captan (0.2%) and Benomyl or Bavistin (Carbendazim) (0.1%) minimize the
development of the fungus during transit and storage. Fungicides applied at flowering
should be considered less effective than fungicide treatments applied late in the season for
controlling grey mould of table grapes (Latorre et al., 2001). Rogiers et al. (2005) reported
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that cyprodinil/fludioxonil fungicide was effective in controlling B. cinerea infection, but

when combined with an adjuvant, was less effective in the grape cultivars.
16.17.11. Black Rot (Aspergillus niger)
It is a post harvest disease. High storage temperatures and humid conditions favour the
development of the disease. The fungus enters the berries through the injuries caused due to
poor post harvest handling operations. The pulp of infected berries is reduced is reduced to
watery consistency. Careful handling and prompt refrigeration to 1-2 C or below prevents
the disease in storage. Inclusion of SO2 releasing pads in the 2 boxes while packing helps
to control the disease.
16.17.12. Rhizopus Rot (Rhizopus sp.)
It is another post harvest disease. Under warm and moist conditions the fungus grows rapidly
producing a coarse grey mat of mycelium. Injury caused to the berries by tight packing and
storage temperature help the fungus grown during storage. If the infected berries are trimmed
at harvest, it does not occur after harvest under ideal storage conditions.
Pre-harvest fungicidal sprays of Captan or Benomyl reduce the disease inoculum on berries.
Inclusion of SO2 releasing pads in the boxes 2 while packing; removing of diseased berries
during grading; avoiding injury to the berries while packing and handling helps to restrict the
growth of fungi. Maintaining cold storage temperature between 0-1 C prevents fungal growth.
16.17.13. Crown gall (Agrobacterium spp.)
The production of crown gall tumors in plants caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens and
Agrobacterium vitis represents a unique disease involving the transfer of DNA from the
bacterium to the nucleus of the plant. These species may systemically infest nursery propagating
material, which remains asymptomatic until conditions conducive for tumor induction are
met. Use of pathogen-free propagation material is a key factor to reduce the spread of crown
gall disease in vineyards. The cold, dry weather from winter increase crown gall infections in
vineyards. The pathogen lives in soil, and is systemic in the grapevine. It may form galls in
vine tissues subjected to mechanical damage, especially freeze damage. Galls on roots, trunks
and cordons can disrupt the vine’s vascular tissues, and severe infections may result in yield
reductions or vine death. The unusually low temperatures, which occurred in the absence of
precipitation, provided optimal conditions for crown gall (Vizitiu and Dejeu, 2011).
V. riparia cv. Gloire de Montpellier (Gloire) was the most resistant Vitis species and
clone tested following inoculations with strains of Agrobacterium vitis and A. tumefaciens
(Sule et al.,1994).
16.17.14. White rot of grape
It is an important disease worldwide. It is caused by two species of Pilidiella (formerly Coniella),

predominantly P. diplodiella and P. castaneicola. Symptoms consistent with grape white rot on
Kyoho grape were observed in a commercial field in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China. Early
symptoms appeared as brown circular rot lesions on the fruits. Then, the lesions expanded
gradually and eventually led to complete rotting of the fruits. Under moist conditions, black
fruiting bodies and whitish conidial masses developed on the lesions (He et al., 2017).
16.18. Disorders
Some of the disorders observed in case of grapes are post harvest berry drop, berry cracking,
leaf cholorosis, dead arm & trunk splitting.
16.18.1. Water berries
Water berry is associated with fruit ripening and most often begins to develop shortly after
berry softening. The affected berries become watery, soft, and flabby when ripe. They are
almost normal in size but their flesh is not firm. They shrivel and dry by the time of harvest.
Such berries mostly confine to the tip of the main rachis or its branches. This disorder occurs
due to excessive cropping and inadequate nourishment available to all the berries in a cluster.
Excessive irrigation and nitrogenous fertilizers should be avoided during berry development
to reduce the water-berry formation.
16.18.2. Cluster-tip wilting
Thompson Seedless variety is more susceptible to this disorder. Light brown lesions on
the apical end of the rachis affect the conductivity of the rachis. This results in shrivelling
and drying of the rachis at the tip of the bunch. In severe cases the tip of the bunch up to
30-40% dries up completely leaving hard small and light brown berries at the tip. Cluster
pinching or berry thinning is recommended to reduce excessive crop load on the vines.
Ensuring adequate irrigation during the berry development and protection bunches from
direct sunlight also help in reducing the incidence of cluster-tip wilting. Cluster thinning,
Grapes 381
performed just before veraison, can be also applied to accelerate ripening improving the
overall fruit phenolic composition (Valdes et al., 2009).
16.18.3. Shot berries
Shot berries are smaller, sweeter, round and seedless as compared to normal berries. They are
formed due to delay in pollination and fertilization of a few flowers or due to inadequate flow
of carbohydrates into the set berries. Boron deficiency, incorrect stages of GA application
and girdling are the known reasons for shot-berry formation. Boron or Zinc deficiencies
should be corrected. Similarly application of GA at proper stage should be ensured.
16.18.4. Pink berry
This is a serious problem of Thompson Seedless in Maharashtra. As the bunch approaches

maturity some berries in the bunch develop pink colour at random. The pink colour changes
to dull red colour rendering the bunch unattractive. Incidence of pink berries is low in the
early season crop and increases with the rise in temperature late in the season. Indiscriminate
use of Etherel for berry colouration can also cause this disorder.
16.18.5. Bud and flower Drop
This phenomenon has been reported from North India in the states of Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan. Flowers drop from the clusters just before and after opening. The buds drop on
shaking the panicle. Excessive bud and flower drop results in reduction of yield. Association
of a number of factors such as atmospheric temperature, high phosphorus and total salt
contents of the soil has been reported as the factors causing this malady. Therefore, judicious
irrigation practices and canopy management practices to improve ventilation during the
flower development helps to minimize the flower bud and young berries drop.
16.18.6. Poor Cane Maturity
Poor cane maturity is a common phenomenon observed in peninsular India. In this type of
disorder shoots fail to mature and their barks remain green until late in autumn. Such shoots
turn pink-red due to low temperature in winter. It is more serious in vineyards, where the shoot
growth is vigorous and dense; vines are planted closely and excess nitrogen and irrigation are
provided. Previous season’s crop load was also found to affect the shoot maturity. Judicious
shoot pinching to check excessive vegetative growth; shoot thinning 30 days after summer
pruning to prevent mutual shading of the shoots and promote light interception are some
of the suggested remedial measures. Avoiding excess irrigation and nitrogenous fertilizers
during 40-70 days after back pruning helps to overcome cane immaturity.
17. Harvesting
Grapes do not ripen after they are harvested, so must be left on vine until they are fully ripe.
Full ripe stage is defined as the stage at which a particular variety develops its characteristics
colour, flavour and aroma. There are many harvesting indices, such as berry size, pH, sugar-
acid ratio, etc. In table grapes, consumer acceptability should always be considered above the
entire maturity standard. Ripening is indicated by an increase in sugars (o Brix) and decrease
in acidity. The most accepted criterion for maturity is the Brix-acid ratio, characteristic to the
variety. Delaying harvest to optimum maturity of ‘Vidal blanc’ and ‘Seyval blanc’ decreased
the variability and shifted the distribution of berries with higher soluble solids (Bishop et
al., 2005).
In North India, plants start fruiting after two years of planting. Berries start ripening
from the end of May in early varieties. However, most of the varieties are harvested after
they have changed colour near the tip and have become sweet. A day prior to picking, the
broken, decayed, deformed, under-sized berries are removed. The clusters are usually harvested
during the early hours of the day before the temperature rises above 200 C. During ripening
of grape (Vitis vinifera) berries, softening occurs concomitantly with the second growth phase
of the fruit and involves significant changes in the properties of cell wall polysaccharides
(Nunital et al., 2001). Increases in the concentrations of malic acid, gluconic acid, citric acid
and glycerol were markedly pronounced in musts obtained from selected harvest berries and
selected harvest dry berries (Tupajic, 2001).
18. Yield
A properly managed vineyard can be expected to start yielding after 3 years under North
Indian conditions and even less than 2 years under tropical conditions of peninsular India.
It can satisfactorily be maintained at least for more than two decades. However, individual
vine may live up to half a century or more. In some cultivars like Thompson Seedless, Pusa
Seedless or other related ones, there is a tendency that the bearing potentiality decrease with
increasing age after taking about 4-5 full crops. In such cases, the vines can be renovated by
heading back near ground level after taking 5-6 crops and then training the most vigorous
shoot to the pergola. Yagmur et al. (2002) studied that foliar application of Zinc (0.3%)
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increased the yield by 39% in seedless grapes (Vitis vinifera cv. Sultani cekirdeksiz).
Interestingly enough, the productivity per hectare in India is much higher than in many
countries. The yield of the order of 60 tonnes/ha, probably the highest in the world, is not
uncommon in well maintained Anab- e- Shahi vineyards. Yield varies according to variety
and climatic conditions etc. The average yield of Anab-e-Shahi and Bangalore blue is 40-50
tonnes/ha while that of seedless varieties is 20 tonnes/ha. Average yield of 20-25 tonnes/
ha is considered good. Victoria grape variety is a Romanian variety, derived from the cross
between Cardinal and Borgal. The vines are very productive and adaptive, the production of
3-year-old vines could reach 32 tonnes/ha (Pei, 2002).
19. Post harvest management
19.1. Grading
Grading is mainly done based on the size and colour of the grapes to maintain uniformity
of berries in a package. While grading, size of the berry is the criterion but not the size or
shape of the bunch.
19.2. Pre-Cooling
Pre-cooling is done to reduce the field heat, moisture loss and subsequently increase the
storability of grapes. Fruit needs to be pre-cooled to a temperature below 4.40 C within six
hours after harvesting in cold rooms, forced air coolers, refrigerator cars and tunnels. Cooling
of grapes is generally carried out in special rooms attached to the cold storage units. Mobile
pre-cooling units (refrigerator cars) are also in operation to cool the grapes during their
transport to the cold storage units situated away from the production site.
19.3. Storage
The shelf life of grapes is only one week at room temperature. The storage life of grapes can
be increased by employing suitable means to reduce desiccation, decay due to growth of fungi
e.g. Botrytis, Cladosporium, Alternaria etc. and bio-chemical deterioration. Harvesting the
over-ripe grapes during hot hours of the day, careless handling to cause bruises and injuries
to the berries at harvest and packing stage can reduce the storage life of grapes. The level
of SO2 damage was reduced by 25% when GA3-treated grapes were stored in perforated
instead of non-perforated outer bags (Burger, 2005).
The main post-harvest problem with table grapes is fungal decay caused by Botrytis cinerea
(Munoz et al., 2000). The method used to avoid it is the use of sulfur dioxide (SO2) generators
at low temperature. The lowest temperature (4 degrees C) was the best for preserving the
quality of table grapes. High temperatures increased weight loss, stem colour, decay and SO2
residue. Under optimum conditions of storage, the maximum storage life of Anab-e-Shahi
variety is 40 days, Muscat 45 days, Thompson Seedless 30-60 days etc. Ideal conditions for
storage are low temperature (00 C) and high humidity (92-96%). During cold storage at 5
degrees C for six months, the contents of ascorbic acid and total polyphenols significantly
decreased. Ascorbic acid added to thickened extracts of elderberries and red grape skins
caused higher degradation of red anthocyanins during storage for 167-194 days due their
reduction to colourless leucoanthocyanidin forms (Lachman et al., 2000). Gao et al. (2003)
studied the relationship between bleaching index, fumigation concentration and exposure
time was not linear. However, the bleaching index was strongly correlated with fumigation
concentration and exposure time. Furthermore, the effects of fumigation concentration on
bleaching were more significant than the effects of exposure time. Bleaching increased with
increase in fumigation concentration, exposure time and temperature.
For increasing shelf life of grape some recommendation has been suggested in Table 16.
Table 16: Shelf life enhancement of grape
Period of
Type of treatment Effect
Application
Spraying of fungicides- Captan (0.2%), 3-4 days before Reduce decay of berries in
aureofungin (500 ppm.), DCNA harvest storage.
(2,6-dicholoro-4-nitroaniline)-0.2%
Application of growth retardants- Before harvest Reduce berry drop during
NAA (500 ppm.), kinetin (50 ppm.) storage.
Spraying of growth retardants- B-9 At harvest or berry Retain the freshness of
(2000 ppm.), CCC (2000 ppm.), Alar softening stage grapes for a longer period.
(500 ppm.), maleic hydrazide (500
ppm.), phosphon-D (500 ppm.)
Sraying with Calcium nitrate (1%) Ten days before Reduce the physiological
harvest loss in weight.
Source: NHB, 2017
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Grape as a perishable fruit is susceptible to fungal infection especially Botrytis cinerea,

as an agent of gray mould, and berry dehydration. There are limitations in use of synthetic
chemical compounds to control postharvest losses in grape and other fruits. Geransayeh et
al. (2012) evaluated the use of non-chemical and safe methods for this purpose. Therefore,
ozone soluted at 0.3 ppm concentration with three treatment times (5, 10 and 15 min), in
water was applied on ‘Bidaneh Qermez’ grape cultivar. The results showed that treated fruits
with ozone had lower decay percentage, weight loss, berry dehydration, abscission, cracking
and higher reducing sugars and storage quality compared to controls. As a general result,
ozone treatment caused lower decay incident and longer storability.
Postharvest life of table grapes is usually shortened by berry softening, berry drop,
stem browning and its desiccation, and also by fungal decay. Ranjbaran et al. (2011) studied
the effects of salicylic acid (SA) treatment on grape postharvest storage life and its quality.
Harvested clusters of ‘Thompson Seedless’, or ‘Bidaneh Sefid’ in Iran, were treated by SA at
four concentrations, 0, 1, 2 and 4 mM, stored for 45 days at 0 degrees C and then exposed
for two days at 20 degrees C to estimate as their shelf life. The SA treatment significantly
increased the storage life of the clusters. All of the three SA concentrations were effective to
reduce water loss, fungal decay and the softened berry rate. SA used at a concentration of 4
mM effectively inhibited development of decay infection. SA applied at concentrations of
2 and 4 mM significantly delayed rachis browning. The lowest berry shatter was observed
in all of the SA-treated clusters. SA used at the high concentration of 4 mM obviously
maintained berry appearance. In addition, SA treatment also enhanced the increase of total
phenolic content of berry skin after the shelf life period. The highest contents of phenolic
components were detected in the berries treated by 4 mM SA. The concentrations of quercetin
and catechin were higher in SA-treated berries.
Isci et al. (2014) showed that organically grown table grape cultivars (Vitis vinifera) could
be stored successfully for 30 days in modified atmosphere packing (MAP) i.e., placed in plastic
cases and kept at -0.5 degrees C and 90% relative humidity (RH). MAP technology could
be proven as an economical application for organic grapes. MAP was aimed to investigate
as an alternative mean for chemical based treatment such as SO2.
Imlak et al. (2017) concluded from an experiment that grapes pretreated with 2%
CaCl2 followed by stored at 5% CO2 level retained maximum firmness, acidity and phenolic
substances with minimum increase in soluble solid contents and significantly reduced
incidence of browning caused by gray mold as compared to water washed control sample
that was spoiled at the 8th day of storage.
Gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea and rachis browning due to desiccation are the
two main factors that reduce table grape quality after harvest. For over 90 years treatments
with the gas sulfur dioxide (SO2) have been in use to control decay. In Israel, two methods
have been developed by Lichter et al. (2016) for grape storage: one for short-term storage
and shipping, and one for extended storage of late ripening cultivars. The first is based on
storage in cardboard boxes without liners, which shortens the forced air cooling time due to
the reduction in packaging material. After cooling the pallets are wrapped around with linear
low density polyethylene to contain the SO2 and the humidity. The second method involves
storage in plastic boxes with modification of commercially available dual release SO2pads,
so that the pads release a continuous low rate of SO2 for a long period of over 4 months in
cold storage. In this case as well, the pallet is wrapped on all sides in order to maintain the
level of SO2and high humidity. Moreover, for late season grapes, they established the efficacy
of a postharvest disinfection treatment with ethanol in order to reduce the inoculum load
before extended storage and to clean the grapes from accumulation of dust particles. These
techniques allow prolonged storage for more than 3 months with minimal decay development
combined with retention of grape quality.
19.4. Packing
Table grapes meant for local market are picked and packed directly in containers in the field.
Table grapes meant for long distance markets and those for overseas markets are packed
differently in the packing shed. Raisin, juice and wine grapes are subjected to suitable
treatments and processed. Dokoozlian and Peacock (2001) studied that a single application
of 2.5 g ha-1 GA3 near full bloom may be used to reduce fruit set and increase berry size of
Crimson Seedless cultivar without detrimental effects on packable yield or cluster number
per vine in the subsequent year. The critical points (CPs) for wine quality are the stages of
grape growing, grape harvesting, de-stemming, juice separation (white wine), must storage,
fermentation, blending, aging, and bottling (Christaki and Tzia, 2002).
Different types of containers are used for packing grapes in India. Bucket shaped
baskets (36 cm. diameter at the top, 20 cm. at base and 25 cm. height, capacity =5 kg) made
of thin bamboo strips are commonly used in Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) and Bangalore
(Karnataka). Wooden boxes, rectangular in shape and capacity to accommodate 5 to 8 kg
of fruits are also used. The most commonly used containers are ventilated card board boxes
of corrugated fibre board (CFB) cartons which absorb moisture released by the grapes and
provide insulation against minor fluctuations in temperature during cold storage. Size of
the box varies to accommodate 2 to 4 kg of fruit. The inner dimensions of the CFB carton
Grapes 387
accommodating 4 kg grapes are 37 cm. in length, 25.5 cm in width and 11.5 cm. in height,
and those of the carton accommodating 2 kg grapes are 25.5 x 18.5 x 11.5 cm. Irrespective
of the size of the carton, each contains two holes of 2 cm diameter on either side. Table
grapes for overseas markets are packed in five-ply corrugated fibre board boxes, printed
and labelled attractively. The standard dimensions of the carton are 50 cm x 30 cm x 12
cm to accommodate 5 kg grapes. Fully ripened Perlette grapes are harvested and packed in
cardboard boxes with paper cuttings, paper lining and fresh neem [Azadirachta indica] leaves
as cushioning materials (Sihag and Mehta, 1999).
For the European market, bunches of grapes of approx. 300 to 700 g are packed in food
grade plastic pouches. They are then wrapped in polythene sheet along with grape guard and
tissue paper. Grape guard is used as per international norms to prevent fungal and bacterial
infection to grapes due to moisture, if any.
20. Transportation
Table grapes are mostly transported through roadways for local, short distance or long
distance markets. About 5 % of the produce is transported by rail and the quality of produce
transported through air cargo is almost negligible. The cold chain for grapes is maintained
meticulously right from pre-cooling state to selling of the same. The produce for international
market is sent through refrigerated vans by road up to the sea port and then again by sea in
refrigerated containers in the ships to their respective destination.
21. Marketing
The producers sell the fruit either to the pre-harvest contractor or to the wholesaler through
an agent with these middlemen sharing profit. The responsibility of harvesting, packing,
transportation and marketing vests with the contractor to whom the produce is sold on
the basis of price agreed for unit weight of the produce or without weighing for a mutually
agreed price.
Co-operative grape marketing societies are in existence in many grape producing states
of India. The advantage of marketing by producers’ cooperative are:
• Reduction in the price gap by avoiding the commission agent and wholesaler;
• Regulate supplies to different markets; and
• Minimize marketing problems arising out of unhealthy competition among producers.
Two channels of selling grapes exist in the international markets viz., (i) through
producer’s co-operatives who collect, pack, cool, transport, market it abroad and share the
profit with the growers and (ii) through traders who purchase, pack, pre-cool, store and then
ship these in refrigerated containers to overseas markets.
With the end of community support for wine and the emergence of a more discriminating
public, the pricing of grapes and wines has become critical. In a climate of intense competition,
it is vital to make full use of new methods of assessing grape quality. The relative merits of
fixed or variable pricing for a given grade are discussed and the relative returns are displayed
graphically. Methods of assessing the production of a vineyard include: pre-harvest inspection
of the potential (probably not feasible every year); visual assessment of fruit quantity; tests
of pH and total acidity; indices of phenolic quality (for red wines); tests for Botrytis (kits
available) and aromatic tests which are not yet available but soon may be. The data can be fed
into a computer that is programmed to come up with a price. It is figures and calculations
rather than subjective assessments that will determine prices in the future (Gily, 2004).
22. Crop modeling
Continued pressure on agricultural land, food insecurity and required adaptation to climate
change have made integrated assessment and modelling of future agro-ecosystems development
increasingly important. Various modelling tools are used to support the decision making and
planning in agriculture. An important component in this is crop modelling. Accurate yield
estimates are of great value to vineyard growers to make informed management decisions such
as crop thinning, shoot thinning, irrigation and nutrient delivery, preparing for harvest and
planning for market. Current methods are labor intensive because they involve destructive
hand sampling and are practically too sparse to capture spatial variability in large vineyard
blocks. Nuske et al. (2011) reported an approach to predict vineyard yield automatically
and non-destructively using images collected from vehicles driving along vineyard rows.
Computer vision algorithms are applied to detect grape berries in images that have been
registered together to generate high-resolution estimates. Underlying model relating image
measurements to harvest yield and study practical approaches to calibrate the two have been
proposed. They reported on results on datasets of several hundred vines collected both early
and in the middle of the growing season. They found that it is possible to estimate yield to
within 4% using calibration data from prior harvest data and 3% using calibration data from
destructive hand samples at the time of imaging. Sensor based yield estimation in vineyards
has been attempted with trellis tension monitors, multispectral sensors, terahertz-wave
imaging and visible-light image processing. A dynamic yield estimation system based on trellis
Grapes 389
tension monitors has been demonstrated (Blom and Tarara, 2009) but it requires permanent
infrastructure to be installed. The challenge for this approach is to achieve fast scan rates to
be able to deploy the scanner on a mobile platform. Small scale yield estimation based on
simple image color discrimination has been developed by Dunn and Martin (2004). This
approach was attempted on Shiraz post-veraison (i.e. after color development, very close to
harvest) in short row segments. ´The method would not be applicable for the majority of
real world examples where the fruit appears over a background of similarly-colored leaves,
as is the case in white grape varieties and in all varieties before veraison. Viticulturalists
have long studied the process of predicting the size of the harvest yield and have developed
models of the various yield components (Clingeleffer et al. (2001). Berry set has passed
the number of berries can be considered constant throughout the remainder of the season,
whereas the mean berry weight will substantially increase in size. The standard practice for
generating accurate yield predictions is to measure the number of berries early in the season
and use historic information of the mean berry weight to project to a harvest estimate. Using
historical records of mean berry weight will introduce error into the projection as the mean
berry weight at harvest will vary from year to year. However the variation is berry weight is
small and is known only to account for 10% of the year-to-year variations.
23. Value addition
Grape is used for different purposes like table, wine, juice and raisins. Several varieties
for different purposes have been identified. Research is underway to develop improved
technologies for processing ‘MARK’ on by product of wine industry is used to extract
tannins, polyphenols etc. which are responsible for the medicinal properties of grape. The
major consumption of grapes in India is as fresh followed by raisins, wine and juice. While
at global level 78-80% grapes processed in to wine followed by raisin, fresh grapes and juice.
The value addition in grapes and diversification of grape products also provide good returns
to growers. The raisin industry is also gaining good results. But, it is not possible without
active involvement of food industry in value addition sector. Adding value to grapes may be
as simple as creatively packaging the grapes. This might be washing and packaging the fruit
for a ready-to-eat snack or placing the fruit in a decorative container either alone or with
other fresh fruit as a “farm fresh gift basket.”
23.1. Raisins
The dried grapes are known as raisins. The Thompson Seedless white and thin skinned grape
variety has monopoly in the production of best quality raisins. At global level, about 90%
of raisins produced by drying of Thompson Seedless and clones. In India, grape drying is
performed under raisin sheds. Before drying, the grape bunches treated with grape dying oil.
It is prepared by mixing of 15 ml ethyl oleate and 25 g potassium carbonate in one liter of
water. The grape bunches dipped in this solution for 2-5 minuets. Then spread on single layer
on mesh under sheds. In some countries the “Drying on Vine (DOV)” practice is used for
grape drying. During drying, water in the grape berry moves through the cells to the cuticle.
It must then pass as vapor through the wax platelets and escape from the outside surface.
High air temperature and rapid air movement lower relative humidity are suitable climatic
conditions for faster drying of grapes. Larger berries and thicker skins increase drying time.
Various factors such as drying structures, climatic conditions, dipping treatments, sulphur
fumigation etc. are deciding factors of raisin quality. In some seasons, under persistent wet
and humid conditions, mould begins to spread through the fruit on the racks. The green
coloured raisins fetched more prices in market than dark brown coloured. The colour of
raisins depends on drying temperature, presence of sunlight and high humidity. Generally,
raisins with moisture content of 12-15% found suitable for storage. Lower moisture contained
raisins become hard and high moisture contained raisins looses quality during storage.
23.2. Wine making
Wine is produced through process of must (red wine) or juice (white wine) fermentation
which initiated by adding yeast. During this process of fermentation the sugar contained in
the must / juice is transformed into alcohol along with the output of carbon di-oxide gas.
Yeast is only able to fulfill its task between 4 °C and 36 °C. Fermentation stops completely
when the sugar is completely transformed, but may also be stopped artificially by lowering
the temperature of tanks. The grape skins give the colour to the wine. Rose wine can be
made from juice of red grapes. The white wines made from fermentation of grape juice from
white wine grape varieties. Fermentation and maturation can be completed in steel or oak
containers. The suitable temperature for fermentation of grapes for making white and red
wines is 15-17 and 18-22 °C, respectively.
The fermentation period lasts from a few days, for lighter wines and up to 30 days for
stronger wines. The longer the contact of the juice with the skins is maintained, the stronger
the colour and tannin content of the wine. This can give the wine a fuller body and potentially
a longer life span in the form of age reachable. Too much tannin can, however, ruin a wine. At
this point the red wine is separated from the skins and seeds and begins the aging process in
barrels and later bottles. White wine differs from red not only in terms of colour. Traditionally
they are fermented without maceration, have lower tannin content, a lighter body, a higher
Grapes 391
acidity and a shorter aging time compared to red wines. Several fermentation conditions
such as fermentation temperature, skin contact time, and skins to must ratio (berry size)
influence the extraction of anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds. The wines have
several health benefits.
Yeasts have long been used to ferment grape must to obtain wine. Saccharomyces and
non-Saccharomyces yeasts release enzymes that are able to transform neutral compounds of
grape berries into active aromatic compounds, a process that enhances the sensory attributes
of wines. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a yeast species specialised in metabolising media with
high sugar contents and small quantities of nitrogenous compounds. In the past, musts were
fermented by yeasts indigenous to the grape microbiota, but nowadays most are inoculated
with selected yeast strains preserved in dried form. Traditionally, yeasts have been selected
for their fermentative power, suitable fermentative kinetics at different temperatures, low
acetic acid production, and resistance to sulphur dioxide. However, new selection criteria
have emerged, and yeasts that can improve the technological properties and sensorial
features of wines are now sought. These selection criteria include: (1) the ability to enhance
wine colour via the metabolic formation of stable pigments, e.g., vitisins and vinylphenolic
pyranoanthocyanins, and the scant adsorption of anthocyanins by the yeast cell wall; (2)
the absence of beta -glucosidase activity, to prevent colour degradation; (3) the facilitation
of colloidal stabilisation in red wines by allowing over-lees aging (to help stabilise colour);
(4) the appropriate enhancement of aroma via the production of volatile compounds such
as esters and higher alcohols, along with the scant production of off-flavours; and (5) the
provision of structure and body via the production of polyalcohols such as glycerol and
2,3-butanodiols, and the release of mannoproteins and yeast polysaccharides. Yeasts with
properties that facilitate biological aging for use in the production of Sherries, or that allow
aging over lees for the production of sparkling wines, can also be selected. The potential of
non-Saccharomyces yeast strains in winemaking and aging has also been recognised (Suarez
and Morata, 2012).
To make good quality of wine, many attentions are paid in recent grape growing. Sugar
content is very important because it is converted to ethanol by fermentation. Malic and
tartaric acid content is also important for sourness of resultant wine. But these compounds
can easily adjust in its concentration by adding to grape juice/must. Besides these compounds,
aroma compounds affect greatly to the wine quality. Aroma compounds have volatility and
easily escape from liquid phase during wine-making. This effect partially causes the difference
between smell of grape and wine. From this point of view, aroma-precursors considered to be
more important. Aroma precursor is converted to aroma compounds during fermentation. For
example, glucosidic aroma compounds have weak in smell and difficult to evaporate because
of its solubility to aqueous phase by the effect of glucose attached. Once the glucose moiety
is hydrolyzed with glucosidase during fermentation, it is changed to aroma compounds and
is smell. Amino acids in grape berry are assimilated by yeast, and produce higher alcohol.
Amino acids have no smell in grape, but their amount and composition will affect wine
quality. Other aroma compounds precursors are also taken account of their concentration
in grape at harvest for good quality winemaking (Okuda, 2017).
23.3. Juice
Various factors like sugar level, acid content and flavor constituents decide the juice quality.
The specific composition of the juice from any cultivar varies from year to year and changes
continually during ripening. The composition of a specific cultivar also affected by one area of
growth to another and from one vineyard to another since composition is affected by several
factors such as soil, climatic conditions, biotic and abiotic stress and vineyard management
practices. In general, color of grape juice is the result of anthocyanin pigments located in or
near the skin. Grape juice can be extracted using either a hot-press or a cold-press technique.
Extraction temperature has a significant effect on quality parameters of juice. The hot-press
method also yielded more juice than cold pressing. Within a cultivar, pressing method had
no effect on soluble solids but did cause significant differences in pH and color density.
Browning increased with increased extraction temperature. Crushing the grapes and
adding polygalacturonase and SO2, followed by holding the grapes for 24 hr at room
temperature prior to low temperature extraction, resulted in juice with good color and flavor.
Color is especially affected by storage temperature. All color parameters changed more in
juices stored at 90°F than in those stored at 36° or 75°F. But pressing grapes without heating
creates several problems: 1) enzymes that promote browning are not inactivated; 2) juice
yield from the grapes is poor because of the thick skins; 3) color extraction of dark-skinned
cultivars is low; and 4) a high percentage of the flavor remains in the skins.
23.4. Vinegar
The word vinegar means sour (“aigre”) wine (“vin”) in French. Vinegars can be made from
a variety of raw materials. Wine connoisseurs may consider it a waste to convert good wine
into vinegar, however, there are economic reasons why this could be a profitable plan. First,
high quality vinegars often sell for more than the wines from which they were made.
Grapes 393
23.5. Pekmez
Since ancient time evaporated grape syrup pekmez has been traditionally and industrially
produced in most Anatolian regions. Pekmez is produced in low heat evaporation steps,
commercially sold and commonly consumed in viscous liquid and solid forms The liquid
concentrated form of the pekmez contains minimum of 65 % total crystalline and soluble
solids (45.3 to 75 °Brix). The viscosity of pekmez increases with increasing solids concentration
and decreasing temperature. Grape pekmez is also produced and sold in thick, creamy and
solid form. The color of the pekmez changes from dark brown to white depending on the
processing conditions, concentration, types of bleaching agents, heat and mixing rate.
23.6. Verjus
Verjus is the pressed, unfermented juice of unripe wine grapes. It was first used in the sixteenth
century, probably “as a result of the right given to peasants to pick the unripe grapes from
the second growth left on the vine by vineyard owners. It is a culinary ingredient indigenous
to the world’s wine producing regions that is used in sauce making, for poaching fish and
meat, and to dress lettuces, vegetables and fruit. Verjus or “verjuice” as it is sometimes called,
literally means green juice in the sense that it’s made from fruit that has yet to fully ripen —
it’s green. It is used to add acidity to foods, an important component in food and in cooking.
The verjus is used any recipe that calls for lemon juice as a contrasting acid, in place of or in
addition to broth or stock, to making a refreshing sorbet and add to beverages.
23.7. Sweet Spreads
The process of making grape jelly, jam, preserves, butter, or marmalade consists mainly of
cooking the grapes and/or their juice in combination with sweeteners and pectins to the
proper solids level. Jam, preserves, and grape butter are made from whole or crushed fruits.
Preserves differ from jam, only in that the fruit pieces are usually larger. Muscadine butter is
made by cooking the screened fruit (seeds and skins removed) to a smooth, thick consistency.
It differs from jam in its ratio of fruit to sweetener and in the final solids concentration. Jelly
is made from the fruit juice so that the product is clear and firm enough to hold its shape
when removed from the container.
23.8. Other dried products
Drying involves the removal of moisture from foods to inhibit microbial growth and prevent
spoilage. At the same time, it is important to preserve as much of the product’s nutritive
value, natural flavor, nutraceuticals, and quality as possible. Fruit leathers get their name
from the fact that, when dry, the product is shiny and has the texture of leather. Fruit leather
is essentially the same as commercial fruit roll products. They are made by drying puree of
fruit on a flat surface. A single fruit can be used or purees of more than one fruit can be
mixed to give a mixed fruit flavor. Sugar may be added to the leather to reduce the tartness
of the fruit, or sugar may be omitted to produce a product appropriate for use by those on
a reduced sugar diet.
23.9. By-products
After grapes are pressed to remove the juice, the remaining press fraction, or pomace,
consisting of skins and seeds, is a large percentage of the fruit. It is approximately 40% skin,
50% pulp and 10% seed. Thus for processing operations like juice, wine, and jelly production,
approximately half of the fruit may be lost as press fraction. The pomace puree has been used
in a variety of products including fillings and toppings for baked goods, fruit extenders and
blends, fruit roll-ups, sauces, toppings, and as ingredients in fruit drinks, frozen fruit bars,
cakes, muffins, candies, and breads.
A variety of grape seed extract products are coming into the ingredient market. Grape
seed extracts are currently being used as nutritional supplements in fruit-flavored beverages
and beverage mixes and will soon appear in hot and cold ready-to-eat cereals, meal replacers,
snack bars, yogurts, and frozen dairy desserts.
Grape seed oil is a by-product of the grape industry. The oil can be extracted from the
seeds in a variety of ways including pressing, soluble extraction, and through centrifugation.
Grape seed oil is low in saturated fat and high in unsaturated fat (the heart-healthy kind). A
tablespoon of grape seed oil has about 10 milligrams (14 IU) of vitamin E, slightly more than
sunflower or safflower oil, which are also high in this vitamin. Grape seed oil has been used
in soaps and paints and for food use. It can be used as cooking oil since it has a high smoke
point, meaning that it can be used to cook at high temperatures. The grape seed oil product
is marketed as a heart-healthy alternative to mayonnaise, and its packaging includes a hang
tag that refers to studies showing the oil’s ability to raise HDL cholesterol and lower LDL.
Pigments extracted from grape skins are other by-products of the juice and wine
industry that are receiving considerable attention as food ingredients. Depending on the
level of usage, these pigments have the potential to both color products and increase the
Grapes 395
nutraceutical content of the foods containing them. The large scale production of juice and
wine from these grapes assures an abundant supply of these by-products.
24. Marketing
Grapes start coming to the market in middle of January and peak time of availability is
during Feburary-March in Maharashtra (India). Availability of grape in the market in
India vary from region to region (Table 17). Availability season is extended further to April
– May by keeping the produce in cold stores. More than 80 percent of the total production
is consumed as table grapes in India, and more than 70 percent of the total production is
harvested in March-April, but the cold storage facilities are inadequate. Therefore, market
gluts and fall of prices of grapes in March-April are common. Approximately, 2.5 percent
(22,000 t) of fresh grapes are exported to the Middle East and European countries. The rest
of the produce is marketed within the country. Grapes are exported through three different
agencies viz., Grower Exporters, Growers’ Cooperatives and the Trader exporters. These
agencies have established their own facilities for pre-cooling and cold storage in the vicinity
of major production sites.
Table 17: Details of arrival pattern of grapes in different states
Sl.No States Period of availability Peak Season

1 Maharashtra, Karnataka Middle of December - May February-March
and Andhra Pradesh
2 Tamil Nadu** Mid of December – Mid of April February –
March
3 Punjab and Haryana 1st week of June to 3rd week of June Mid June
4 West Bengal 2nd week of May to 2nd week of June 2nd week to 3rd
week of May
Table 18: Varietal characteristics of commercially grown grapes in India
Name of the
Description Berry diameter
variety
Thompson Seedless Berries are oval to oblong in shape with 16 mm to 18 mm
T.S.S.18-220 Brix, acidity 0.5 to 0.7%
Sonaka Berries are elongated, cylindrical and amber 16 mm to 19 mm
coloured,T.S.S. around 220 Brix, acidity 0.4-
0.7%
Sharad Seedless Berries are oblong to elliptical in shape and 18mm to 22 mm
bluish black in colour with T.S.S. 18-210 Brix
and acidity 0.5-0.7%
Tas-e-Ganesh Berries are ovoid shaped and green to amber 15 mm 20mm
in colour with T.S.S. 20-220 Brix and acidity
0.5- 0.65%
24.1. Criteria and description of grades for export
For export purpose, different grape cultivars should have some specification criteria as
detailed in Table 18. After collection of bunches from the field and follow up other steps,
the bunches are classified as per Table 19 and packed following standard norms (Table 20)
Table 19: Classification of AGMARK standards grades
Grade Grade Provision Grade

designation requirements concerning sizing tolerances
1 2 3 4
Extra class Grapes must be of superior As per table ‘Above 5% by weight of bunches not
quality. The bunches must be satisfying the requirements
typical of variety in shape, of the grade, but meeting
development and coloring those of class I grade or
and have no defects. Berries exceptionally coming within
must be firm, firmly attached the tolerances of that grade.
to the stalk, evenly spaced
along the stalk and have
their bloom virtually intact.
Grapes 397
Grade Grade Provision Grade

designation requirements concerning sizing tolerances
Class I Grapes must be of good As per table ‘Above 10% by weight of bunches not
quality. The bunches must satisfying the requirements
be typical of variety in shape, of the grade, but meeting
development and coloring. those of class II grade or
Berries must be firm, firmly exceptionally coming within
attached to the stalk and, the tolerance of that grade.
as far as possible, have their
bloom intact. They may,
however, be less evenly
spaced along the stalk than
in the extra class. Following
slight defects may be there,
providing these do not affect
the general appearance of
the produce and keeping
quality of the package. - a
slight defect in shape. - a
slight defect in coloring
Class II T h e b u n c h e s m a y As per table ‘Above 10% by weight of bunches not
show defects in shape, satisfying the requirements
development and coloring of the grade, but meeting the
provided these do not impair minimum requirements.
the essential characteristics
of the variety. The berries
must be sufficiently firm and
sufficiently attached. They
may be less evenly spaced
along the stalk than Class
I grade. Following defects
may be there, provided these
do not affect the general
appearance of the produce
and keeping quality of the
package. - defects in shape
- defects in coloring - slight
sun scorch affecting the
skin only, - slight bruising,
- slight skin defects
Size is determined by the weight of bunches (in gms). The following minimum (in gms) requirements
per bunch are laid down for large and small berries grapes.
Table 20: Specification details of Corrugated Fibre Board boxes
Grade Large berries Small berries

Extra Class 200 150
Class I 150 100
Class II 100 75
Size tolerance: Extra Class, Class I, Class II: 10% by weight of bunches not satisfying the
size requirements for the grade, but meeting the size requirements for the grade immediately
below.
24.2. Packaging
Packaging is normally done in Corrugated or Solid Fibre board cartons. A layer of double pad
or protective liner is placed at the bottom of the carton to protect the grapes from bruising
and a polyethylene lining is placed over it. Grape growers in cooperation with MSAMB and
APEDA have set up modern pack houses for handling and packing of grapes for exports.
For domestic markets also, grapes are packed in Corrugated Fibre Board boxes.
Table 21: Specification details for Corrugated Fiber Board (CFB) Boxes for packing (2Kg
box) {Dimension: 270X150X100 mm}.
RSC
S. Ring *Flap
Specification Slide Type (Regular Slotted Tray with LID
No Tuck-In-Type
Container)
1 Material for 3-ply CFB 3-ply CFB 3-ply CFB 3-ply CFB
construction
2 Grammage (g/m sq.) *230X140X140 *230X140X140 *230X140X140 *230X140X140
(outer to inner)
3 Bursting strength Min. 6.00 Min. 6.00 Min. 6.00 Min. 6.00
kg/cm sq.
4 Puncture resistance Min.10.00 Min.10.00 Min.10.00 Min.10.00
inches/teat inch
5 Compression Min.225 Min.225 Min.225 Min.225
strength Kg.
6 Cobb (30 minutes Min.130 Min.130 Min.130 Min.130
g/m sq.)
Source: Post- Harvest Manual for Export of Grapes, 2012, APEDA, New Delhi
Grapes 399
25. Organic cultivation
Organic farming is a crop production method respecting the rules of the nature. It maximizes
the use of on farm resources and minimizes the use of off-farm resources. It is a farming
system that seeks to avoid the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. In organic farming,
entire system i.e. plant, animal, soil, water and micro-organisms are to be protected. The
Organic Food Production Act of 1990 (OFPA or Act) requires that all crop, wild crop,
livestock, and handling operations requiring certification submit an organic system plan to
their certifying agent and, where applicable, the State Organic Program (SOP). The organic
system plan is a detailed description of how an operation will achieve, document, and sustain
compliance with all applicable provisions in the OFPA and these regulations. The certifying
agent must concur that the proposed organic system plan fulfils the requirements of subpart
C, and any subsequent modification of the organic plan by the producer or handler must
receive the approval of the certifying agent. Organic wine is wine made from grapes grown
in accordance with principles of organic farming, which typically excludes the use of artificial
chemical fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and herbicides. Research on different components
of organic farming in grape is initiated, e.g. biological control, botanicals and environmentally
safe chemicals are under evaluation for pest management and quality improvement.
Provide a site with good air circulation to discourage disease. The main varieties grown
under organic cultivation in the state are Thompson Seedless, Sharad Seedless and Tas-A-
Ganesh. Spacing varies with variety and soil fertility. Generally under organic cultivation,
spacing of 2.5 m x 1.5 m, 2.75 m x 1.50 m and 3.0 m x 1.5 m are followed. For this model
scheme, a spacing of 2.75 m x 1.50 m with a plant population of 2425 plants/ha is considered.
The land is prepared by ploughing it twice and harrowing it thrice. Grapes do not need extra
water except during drought and may benefit from being water during fruit swell. Pits of
90 cm x 90 cm x 90 cm are dug and filled with soil and well decomposed FYM/Compost
@ 55 t/ha. The pits are then irrigated in order to allow the soil to settle. Rectangular system
of planting is adopted for growing grape. Manuring is done by applying FYM at the rate
of 55 t/ha. Biofertilizers like Azatobacter, Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria(PSB), Effective
Microorganism (EM), Neem cake and vermiwash are being used to supplement the nutrient
requirement of crop. Trichoderma, Azatobacter and PSB are applied at the rate of 25 g/plant.
Neem cake is applied at the rate of 1.25 t/ha. Jeevamrut is prepared by adding 10 kg cow
dung, 5 litres cow urine, 2 kg black jaggery, 2 kg ground pulses powder, handful of bund soil
in 200 litres of water. The solution is kept for 2 to 7 days in shade for fermentation. During
the fermentation, the solution is stirred daily. To improve the quality of grapes, a solution of
sugar, humic acid and coconut water is sprayed at bud development stage.
In Switzerland there is an increasing consumer demand for residue-free, organic table

grapes. The organic cultivation of table grapes, however, is very delicate in humid climates and
experience to advice organic growers is still lacking. Haseli et al. (2008) started a project with
the view to develop and establish a cultivation system for organic table grapes under Swiss
climatic and economic conditions with a high yield security and fulfilling the high quality
demands of the market. Preliminary results showed that cultivars to produce are e.g. Fanny,
Lilla, Palatina. However they are disease susceptible and must be produced under a rain roof.
A trial was carried out by Botelho et al. (2011) aiming to evaluate the development
and yield of red wine grapevines under plastic cover in an organic production system in
Guarapuava, the Central-Southern region of Parana State, Brazil with five red wine vine
cultivars (Merlot, Malbec, Carbenet Sauvignon, Ives and Early Isabella) and two rootstocks
(Paulsen 1103 e VR 043-43). The grafted grapevines were planted in September of 2005
and the evaluations carried out for the three first productive cycles (2006/2007, 2007/2008,
2008/2009). The cultivation of wine grapevines in an organic system under plastic cover
demonstrated viability, inhibiting the incidence of diseases and reducing the needs of control.
The most limiting factor was the damage caused by wasps and bees that decreased cluster
harvest. Despite this problem, between tested grapevine cultivars, the Early Isabella was the
most productive in all years, while Malbec was also outstanding in the first cycle. VR 043-43
hybrid could be a suitable rootstock for red wine production in areas infested by ‘Perola da
Terra’ scale insects (Eurhizococcus brasiliensis).
In order to advance or delay grape ripening, colored covering plastic films with different
radiometric properties are often used in table grape viticulture in South Italy. Covering films
protect also clusters from adverse weather conditions, such as rain, hail and wind, and reduce
damage of the berries from diseases, especially in organic viticulture. The covering of vineyards
is a sustainable choice for the organic soil management strategies that will influence also
grape quality and quantity. Tarricone et al. (2017) showed that covering of grape with yellow
plastic film improve table grape performance with clear effects on quality berry parameters.
25.1. Variety suitable for organic culture
Some grape cultivars will do well in temperate regions with cold winters and these grapes are
normally good for jelly, juice, or wine. Table grape variety ‘Napoca’ registered high adaptability
to the organic culture system (Bunea et al., 2011).
Grapes 401
26. Effect of climate change
In the recent years a climate change with consequences on Vine behaviour has been noticed.
Clime data analysis has revealed an increased average annual temperature with regional
differences. Also some changes in the regime of extreme thermic values have been noticed
as follows: an increased annual frequency of tropical days (maximum day value >30 degrees
C) and a decreased annual frequency of winter days (maximum day value <0 degrees C), a
significant increase of summer average minimum temperature and of winter and summer
average maximum temperature. As a result of deeper warming and water deficit during
summer season the phenomenon of dryness is continuously intensifying (Enache et al., 2010).
The climatic phenomena and elements have, in many situations, qualitative limits for the
vine and wine domain. The increase of extreme meteorological phenomena and the abrupt
climatic forecasts make the research of new scientific themes a main step for the scientists,
especially for their impact on viticultural ecosystems. Practising a durable viticulture needs
taking into consideration the climatic changes, many unknown issues being able to negatively
influence the development of the vine. In time, all the climatic changes will have repercussions
on the viticultural environment and on the durability of vineyards. In the present article a
few grape varieties from representative (Rotaru and Colibaba, 2011).
Understanding the impacts of climate change on viticulture is especially essential in

those areas producing high-quality wines. Moriondo et al. (2011) created an operational
framework to investigate climate change impact on viticulture in the Tuscany region
(central Italy) the viticulture industry of which relies on producing high-quality wines to
compete in a global market. The framework includes (i) statistical downscaling of General
Circulation Model (GCM) outputs for the period 1975-2099 to a local scale; (ii) the use
of downscaling outputs as driving variables in specific simulation models; (iii) the spatial
interpolation of model outputs to feed an economic and (iv)a quality model. The results show
that as a consequence of a progressive increase in temperature and a decrease in rainfall, (a)
the area potentially suitable for grapevine cultivation increases; (b) the grapevine growth
cycle becomes shorter; (c) the final yield is gradually reduced, particularly in those areas
characterised by quality cultivation regulation; and (d) the premium wine quality production
areas shift towards higher elevations.
In recent years, global climate has undergone significant changes, mainly due to increased
atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, for example
tropospheric ozone, considered the main factors causing climate change, all resulting in
changes within ecosystems around the globe. The study aimed to identify the effects of the
current concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, ~380 ppm and ozone ~120 mg/
m3, individually and in combination, on some physiological parameters of the grapevine, cv.
Merlot, in a controlled environment. The study results suggest that the current atmospheric
concentrations of CO2 and O3 do not cause major changes in the physiology of the grapevine
and that ambient CO2 levels may exacerbate the harmful effects of ambient O3 (Popescu,
2011).
‘Kyoho’, a leading grape (Vitis labruscana L. × V. vinifera L.) cultivar in Japan, is a black-
skinned eating cultivar. The frequency of berries with poor skin coloring, which are called
“redly ripening” and have low commercial value, has increased in recent years. Sugiura et al.
(2017) analyzed the influence of past climate shifts in main production areas on the skin
coloring of ‘Kyoho’ grape by using a model for estimating skin coloring from air temperature,
to clarify whether recent warming is the cause of the increase in frequency of poor skin
coloring. The full-flowering dates of six regions were estimated to have advanced by 3.8-6.1
days owing to the rise of air temperature in April and May. Skin color ratings were estimated
to have decreased by 1.1-2.3 (indicating lighter color) and to be lower in warmer regions
than in cooler regions. The temperature during the coloring period in cold regions increased
owing to both the rise in summer temperatures and the earlier start of the coloring period.
According to their model, as temperatures rose from 1971 to 2010, the coloring of ‘Kyoho’
grape berries in cold regions, where berries with excellent color are now produced, decreased
more than in warmer regions.
Across the world, wine grape phenology has advanced in recent decades, in step with
climate-change-induced trends in temperature - the main driver of fruit maturation - and
drought. Fully understanding how climate change contributes to changes in harvest dates,
however, requires analysing wine grape phenology and its relationship to climate over a
longer-term context, including data predating anthropogenic interference in the climate
system. Cook and Wolkovich (2016) investigated the climatic controls of wine grape
harvest dates from 1600-2007 in France and Switzerland using historical harvest and
climate data. Early harvests occur with warmer temperatures (-6 days °C-1) and are delayed
by wet conditions (+0.07 days mm-1; +1.68 days PDSI-1) during spring and summer. In
recent decades (1981-2007), however, the relationship between harvest timing and drought
has broken down. Historically, high summer temperatures in Western Europe, which
would hasten fruit maturation, required drought conditions to generate extreme heat. The
relationship between drought and temperature in this region, however, has weakened in
recent decades and enhanced warming from anthropogenic greenhouse gases can generate
Grapes 403
the high temperatures needed for early harvests without drought. The results suggested that
climate change has fundamentally altered the climatic drivers of early wine grape harvests
in France, with possible ramifications for viticulture management and wine quality.
With warmer temperatures resulting in a shift in phenology, the direct impact of climate
change is amplified. The increased temperatures due to climate change (eg+ 2°C) encourage
the ripening period to occur during a warmer time of the year (eg+ 2°C, resulting in an overall
increase of +4°C during the ripening of the grapes). Currently, with an increase in the mean
temperature, grapes are harvested about two weeks earlier than compared to the period from
1960-1980. According to current climate models there could be a rise in temperature as
high cycle of growing grapes). Higher temperatures will result in all phenological states of
the plants happening earlier: budding, flowering, grape set, and maturing of the as 3 to 8°C
during the period of fruit ripening in France and this continuous rise in temperature may
result in an even earlier harvest (Delay et al., 2015).
Climatic changes could also influence the impact of pests and diseases, such as parasites
and fungi (eg mildew), on plants. Not only would certain areas suffer from climates that
are more favourable for pests, climate change could also result in a geographical shift in the
distribution of insects or fungi, which may cause problems in regions they have so far been
absent from. A higher infestation with parasites and diseases could not only be directly be
influenced by environmental conditions, but also by an increased susceptibility of the plant
to infections as climatic stressors could result in a reduction of the immune response of the
plant. This could lead to a higher intensity in labour on the vineyard or an increased use of
pesticides. Problems with pests and parasites are more likely to affect Northern areas, where
higher temperatures will likely be associated with considerable rainfall, creating a wet and
warm climate favourable for fungi and other pests (Delay et al., 2015).
27. Economics of cultivation
The financial feasibility of investment in grape production was worked out by using the
following techniques:
Grapes 405
Source: Kamble et al., 2014
28. Future thrust
i. Development of high yielding variety having good quality attributes and resistance in
important pests and diseases.
ii. Modification of pruning time and tecchique and hormonal manipulation considering
climate change.
iii. Organic grape production economically by considering cost- benefit ratio.
iv. Regionwise development of irrigation / fertigation schedule for sustainable productivity/

production.
v. Exploration of exotic wine and table varieties in non-conventioal grape growing areas
to meet the local demands.
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6

Parshant Bakshi, Darpreet Kour,

1.1.1. Physical Composition

1.1.2. Chemical Composition

Parts of plant Per cent Remarks

1.1.2.2. Organic Acids

1.1.2.3. Phenolic Compounds

1.1.2.4. Nitrogenous Compounds

1.1.2.5. Aroma Compounds

Examples of these include:

a. 2-methoxy-3-isobutyl pyrazine - Predominant compound giving bell pepper-like

b. 4-vinylguaiacol and 4-vinylphenol - giving spicy, clove-like and medicinal odours

c. Terpenes - in Muscats and Riesling grapes.

1.1.2.7. Pectic Substances

1.2.1. Table grape

Table grapes are grapes intended for consumption while fresh, as opposed to grapes grown

1.2.2. Raisin grapes

1.2.3. Juice grapes

1.2.4. Wine grapes

1.2.5. Canning grapes

2. Origin and distribution

3. Area and production

Table 2: Area under grapes in world

Source: Anon. c. 2017

Table 3: Grape world production

Source: Anon. c. 2017 (OIV expert, trade press, 2017)

Source: Anon. c. 2017 (OIV expert, trade press, 2017).

Table 5: State wise Area, production and productivity of Grapes in India

Table 6: State wise productivity of grapes in India

Source: Anon. 2015

Table 7: Exports from India

Source: Anonymous, 2016-17. DGCIS Annual Export, 2017

4. Present status of grape cultivation in India

4.1. Sub-tropical region

4.2. Hot tropical region

4.3. Mild Tropical Region

4.4. Potential belts in India

7.1. Types of plant tissues

7.1.1. Growth (meristematic) tissue

cane is an example of a secondary meristem because it enables organs to grow in thickness.

7.1.2. Protection (dermal) cells

7.1.3. Photosynthetic tissue

7.1.4. Support tissue which makes up the cortex

7.1.4.1. Collenchyma (living outer most layer) cells

7.1.4.2. Sclerenchyma (support) cells

7.1.4.3. Parenchyma (storage) cells

7.1.5. Vascular or conducting tissue

Xylem vessel (through

Fig.1. Overview of Grape vine Structure

Source: Hellman, E.W. 2017. Grapevine Structure and Function. eVineyard.www.evineyardapp.

Dormant Season Growing Season

7.2. Root system

Flower cluster primodia

Figure 4. Source: Hellman,E.W.2017.Grape wine structure and function.Oregon Viticulture.5-19.

7.9. Flowers and Fruit

Source: Edward W. Hellman, 2017

Calyptra or flower cap Stigma Pollen grains

Stamen Nectary Filament Egg

8. Plant growth, flowering, pollination, berry set and berry development

A number of pests and diseases (including Plasmopara viticola, Uncinula necator,

8.2. Bud break

8.5. Fruit set

8.6. Fruit growth and development

9.1. Carbohydrate partitioning

control by hoeing. To prevent attack of white ants treatment of chloropyriphos @ 2 litre/