Chapter II: Ecosystem and Living Organisms

Living organisms have high degree of organization from cellular to ecological

level. You are taught that the level of organization in ecological studies
include individual, population, biological community, ecosystem, biome, and
biosphere. Each community in the Earth has a unique characteristics
defined by the organisms found and the physical factors governing the area.
How do living and nonliving things are interrelated and interdependent with
each other?

Learning Outcomes:
In this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe what is ecosystem and its key components;
• Discuss the function of biotic and abiotic factors in the environment;
• Analyze the flow of matter and energy through different tropic levels
and between organisms and the physical environment
• Show awareness of how some community practice sustainable living
to help in the balance of ecosystem

Concept of ecosystem
The Earth is composed of diverse plants and animals. These living
organisms need different resources in the environment in order to survive.
The study of the interaction between living and non-living things in the
ecosystem is called ecology. This interaction in the ecosystem is essential to
maintain life on Earth. Ecosystem refers to the community of living
organisms that interact to the physical factors in its environment.

Interaction between and among

organisms allow the flow of energy and
matter. For example in Figure 1.1,
plants such as grass need the energy
coming from the sun and carbon dioxide
produced by animals to undergo
photosynthesis. In return,
plants produce glucose and oxygen that
is utilized by animals. At the same time,
plants and animals cannot survive
without water which is found in the
environment. Can you give Figure 2 .1 Carabao eating grass
other examples on how living organisms Santos. 2019. Daraga (Personal
interact with its environment? Collection)

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Biotic and abiotic factors
The ecosystem is divided into two components: biotic (living things)
and abiotic (nonliving things). Biotic components adapt in the abiotic
condition present in their natural environment in order to survive. Abiotic
components include temperature, air currents, water currents, amount of
sunlight, type of soil, amount of rainfall, and the nutrients available. How
does the unequal distribution of sunlight influence the distribution of
organisms?

Climate is one of the significant influence on the distribution of

organisms on land and in ocean. The climate patterns are affected by
different factors such as seasonal variation, bodies of water, and mountain
ranges. How do you think the changes in climate affects the living organisms?

Coral reef is one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems in the

planet. Yet, it is also one of the most vulnerable ecosystems to climate
change. Corals are sensitive to changes
in temperatures that cause its mortality.
The increase in the sea temperature
causes coral bleaching as shown in
Figure 2.2. The other factors that may
cause coral loss are ocean acidification,
severe tropical storms, crown-of-thorns
starfish outbreak, and anthropogenic
disturbance. The effects of coral loss
could lead to population decline of
organisms dependent to corals. In effect,
the population of about the quarter of Figure 2.2 Example of Coral
marine species will be at risk. This could Bleaching
also result in economic losses, decrease Image by Chow,S. (2006) from
food source, and increase poverty. Flickr

Philippines is part of the coral triangle that serves a home for about
37% of the world's coral reef fish species. These reefs provide fishing,
tourism, and storm protection to Filipinos. Some of the well-known tourist
destinations for coral reefs are Apo Reef in Puerto Galera, Anilao in
Batangas, Cabilao in Bohol, Bacalicasag Island in Bohol, Apo Island in
Negros Oriental, Malapascua Island in Cebu, and Tubbataha Reef.

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 Want to learn more about coral reefs in the Philippines? Search
the link: https://unicoconservationfoundation.org.au/savin g-
philippine s-reefs/

Food chain, food web and energy

The species inhabiting the same community interact with each other
along with the resources found in its environment. With this interaction,
organisms can transfer matter and energy within the environment. The
variety of species living in a community contributes to its diversity and
productivity. How does the presence of diverse species benefit an ecosystem?

The Sun is the main source of energy used by plants and other
photosynthetic organisms. Plants undergo photosynthesis to utilized light
energy to produce glucose and oxygen. Plants are considered as autotrophs
or primary producers as they can produce energy for their own metabolic
processes. In contrast to heterotrophs or consumers that derives its
nutrition from other organic matter such as plants or animal. Can you give a
specific example of autotrophs and heterotrophs in our surroundings?

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are important components of

the carbon cycle. It refers to the movement and exchange of carbon in
biosphere, atmosphere, oceans, and
geosphere through chemical, physical,
geological, and biological processes.
Based on figure 2.3, how is carbon
transferred from land, air, and water?
How does living organisms help in the
carbon cycle?

As shown in figure 2.3, carbon

cycle is driven by geologic processes,
photosynthesis and cellular
respiration. The carbon approximates
the flow of energy around the Earth.
Plant transform solar energy and takes
up carbon dioxide to form chemical
energy, sugar (organic matter), through
photosynthesis. These organic matter Figure 2.3 Global Carbon Cycle
are consumed by animals Image by NASA/GLOBE Program,
2012 from Flickr
and metabolize to convert into energy
and produce carbon dioxide through cellular respiration.

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 In this view, photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide most of
the energy for life processes. This energy is being transferred from one
organism to another in the form of food. The transfer of food energy from
producers to consumers up to decomposers is referred to as food chain.
When the food chains are interlinked with each other, it is referred to as food
web. This implies the transfer of food energy from its source in plants
through herbivores to carnivores. The feeding relationship of organisms
within the community is shown through trophic level. How many food chain
are present in Figure 2.4? What is the trophic structure in figure 2.4?

Figure 2.4 An Example of Savanna Food Web

Image by Siyavula Education (2012) from Flickr

Every organism are interconnected and interrelated with each other

and with its environment. Food webs can be used to:
• Describe the relationship among species in the ecosystem. It
can distinguish basal species, intermediate species, and top
predators.
• show indirect interaction among species. It can show the one
species may be influenced by another species in many different
ways.

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 • examine the bottom-up or top-down control of community
structure. This suggests the abundance of population and
productivity at a given trophic level.
• reveal the patterns of energy transfer in different ecosystems.

It is essential to understand how organisms acquire energy and how

that energy is passed from one organism to another through food webs. The
percentage of energy that enters the ecosystem into biomass in particular
tropic level is referred to as productivity. Biomass is the total mass of all
living things within a specific area.

The productivity of primary producers is important in any ecosystem

as it brings energy to other living organisms. This energy flows from
producers to consumers and decomposers in various trophic level. Large
amount of energy are lost from ecosystem through metabolic heat and
incomplete ingestion of food. Incomplete ingestion refers to that fact that
consumers only eat a part of their food. For instance, predator would eat
every part of the prey except for its bone and hide. Then, the predator miss
the energy-rich bone marrow inside the bone and hence, does not make use
of all the calories of its prey.

Ecological pyramids illustrate the structure of ecosystems by

showing the various parameters (number of organism, energy, and biomass)
across trophic levels. It can be used to as model to show energy flow through
tropic levels and to characterize ecosystem structure. The following are the
types of ecological pyramids:
1. Pyramid of Energy: is the energy that enters a food chain is used as
each organism carries out its life functions.
2. Pyramid of Numbers: is the population density relationship within
and between the trophic levels.
3. Pyramid of Biomass: is the amount of energy converted into living
tissue at the different trophic levels.

Pyramid of energy are always upright as it shows the energy lost at

each trophic level. Pyramids of numbers and biomass can be either upright
or inverted depending on the ecosystem. When toxic substances are
introduces into the environment, organisms at the higher trophic level
suffers the most damage through biomagnification. Can you show the
energy pyramid you have illustrated in your food web?

The tropic relationships vary in each ecosystem. Some connections are

more influential on species population change. In nature, the top predator
has the potential to be extinct if the food chain is longer. This is because

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during environmental shocks, the food supply may be reduced and the top
predators take slowly to recover from environmental setbacks.

There are certain species that can influence the trophic structure of
the community. These are the dominant species, species that are most
abundant and have the highest biomass in the community. The dominant
species compete on the limited resources and are most successful in
avoiding predation. Another is the keystone species, which are not common
in the community. Keystone species exert control on community by their
pivotal ecological control. An example is the predator sea star, Pisaster
ochraceus. They keep the populations of mussels and barnacles in check to
ensure the healthy population of seaweeds and the marine species that feeds
on them such as sea urchins, sea snails, and bivalves. What do you think
will happen keystone species become extinct? Interrelationship of
organisms
You are able to differentiate biotic from abiotic components of an
ecosystem as well as the interaction of organisms through food web and food
chain. The organisms depend on their environment for food, air, water, and
other resources in order to survive. The group of same species living in a
same area is termed as population. The population of species can change
over time which is influence by many factors. Each environment has
carrying capacities which limit the number of organisms and populations it
can support.

Species can interact with different species living close to them and
within the same community. The interaction between and among species
living within the environment may have positive (+), negative (-), or neutral
(0) effect to them. These species interactions are described as ecological
relationships. There are three main classifications of ecological relationships
– symbiosis, predation, and competition

a. Symbiosis. This type of interaction occurs when organisms live in

direct and intimate contact with each other. The interaction may be
beneficial, harmful, or neutral. The organisms rely on each other as major
part of their life cycle. The host organism serves as the provider of resources
while the symbionts are the consumer of such resources which may or may
not provide services in return. Symbiosis is one of most widespread form of
species interaction. It is divided into three categories based on its effect on
host. The following are the types of symbiotic relationship - mutualism,
commensalism, and parasitism.

a.1. Mutualism (+/+) is when both species benefit in their

interaction. There are several benefits that may be gained in
mutualistic relationship such as protection from
predators, enhanced
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 Figure 2.5. The leafcutter ant
Image b y Bauer (2011) from
survivorship, Flickr rate, and niche
increased reproduction
expansion. One common example would be the mutualistic
relationship between leafcutter ants and fungi as shown in
Figure 2.5. The leafcutter ants cut the leaves into smaller pieces and
carefully manure the fungal cultivator in the plant substrate.
The substrate is used by fungus to grow and it serves as nutrient
recycle as it converts plants into nutrients available for ants. The
fungi can also serve as food for the leafcutter ants. In return, the
leafcutter ants protect the fungi from fungal parasites. Can you give
other types of mutualistic relationship?

a.2. Commensalism (+/0) is when one species (commensal) benefits

and the other species (host) is
unaffected in the interaction.
An example is when remora
fish attach themselves to
sharks, rays, sea turtles and
other floating objects. The
remora has a suction disk on
the top of their head which
they use to so that they can
“free load” on other organisms
without affecting them. This is
an advantage to remora for
transportation, protection Figure 2.5. Whale Shark with
from predators, and expands remora fish attached
feeding opportunities. Image b y Reynolds (2014) from
Wikimedia Commons
Ecologist experts group commensal relationships into four types.
Chemical commensalism involves an organism that feeds on the
chemicals produced by other organisms as waste. An example is when
bacteria feeds on the chemicals produced or the waste products that
are not used by other bacteria. Inquilinism occurs when an organism
use the body or body cavity of another organism as living space
without affecting the other organism such as when epiphytes such as
orchids, ferns, lichens, and moss grow on trees and when birds lives
in tree holes. Metabiosis happens when an organism unintentionally
creates home for another species through its normal life activities. It is
when hermit crab uses the shell of a dead gastropod for protection
and when maggots live on dead organisms. Phoresy is when an
organism attaches to another organism to gain transportation. An
example is when sea anemone attach to hermit crab shells, and
millipedes travelling on birds. What are the examples of commensal
relationships? The commensal interactions are sometimes difficult to
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 distinguish since it is in the middle spectrum of mutualistic and
parasitic relationship. Amensalism (-/0) is a relationship in which
one organism is harmed while the other is not affected. An example
would be when large animals crush grass and small terrestrial
invertebrates.
a.3. Parasitism (+/-) is when one organism benefits (parasite) and
the other organism is harmed (host). Parasites can live within the host
(endoparasite) or on the external surface of the host (ectoparasite).
There are several parasites on the world which have complex life
cycles involving multiple hosts. Parasites may affect the host in terms
of its physiological being, reproductive success, and morphological
modifications. The diversity of the parasites is higher in tropical and
subtropical areas brought by the conducive environmental conditions
to transmit it. There are several kinds of parasites. 1. macroparasite:
are large and can be viewed without microscope such as nematodes,
cestodes, arthropods; 2. microparasites: are microscopic such as
protozoans; 3. Obligate parasites: parasitic as adults; 4. Facultative
parasites: adults are free living but when an opportunity be presented,
they may become parasitic.

The human roundworm is one of the most common parasites in the

world via the fecal-oral route. Once the infective eggs are ingested, the
roundworm larvae hatch in the host tissue which can be humans and
pigs. Humans with acute and chronic symptoms tend to experience
acute lung inflammation, difficulty in breathing, fever, abdominal
distention, and diarrhea. Though, most of the hosts with roundworm
infection have no symptoms. Animals are not the only host and
parasites. There are also
plants that became host for
parasites and can be
parasitic. The Rafflesia
species are parasitic plants as
they depend on their host
plants,
Tetrastigma Planch, for water
and nutrients. Rafflesia
species lives inside the roots
and stems of their host plants
and only their flower emerge Figure 2.6 . An example of Rafflesia
as shown in Figure 2.6. Image b y Luktuke (2017) from
Flickr

b. Predation (+/-) is an interaction where one species, the predator, kills

and eat the other species, the prey. Most of the time predation is related to
carnivorous animals who kill other animals as food sources such as eagles

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hunting for snakes and mouse, lions attacking smaller animals. These
predators are highly adapted for hunting with acute senses and have sharp
claws and teeth. How can the prey protect themselves from predators?

Predator-prey interaction can play a major role in determining the structure

and function of communities. Predation can regulate the dynamics of prey
population by reducing survival or by altering prey behavior, distribution,
habitat choice, foraging, or growth. The prey can also influence predators in
terms of prey quantity and quality feeding rates, growth, and reproductive
success of predators. Predators can be found in broad range of taxa from
insects to mammals and even some plants. Predators can search for prey by
sit-and-wait to actively foraging. Predators have evolved physically for
detecting, catching, killing, and digesting prey. These include speed, agility,
sharp senses, and suitable digestive systems. Humans are also very efficient
predators that can have large direct and indirect effects in altering
ecosystem function. Plants can also become carnivorous. Pitcher plants
contain digestive enzymes that can catch their prey and absorb its
nutrients.

Most of the time predators are linked to carnivores. But there are also
animals that feed on grains, grass, fruits, leafs, nectar, and pollen. There are
herbivores that have specific food habits such as koala that exclusively eats
eucalyptus leaves. Herbivore animals also have specialized structures and
feeding mechanisms to consume plants. They have chemical sensors that
enable them to detect plants with chemical defense compounds. Herbivory
has several positive impacts on the ecosystem as it increases nutrient
uptake and productivity of plants, control plant population, increase plant
protection, and increase quality of soil. How do plants adapt to protect
themselves from herbivores? This is an evolutionary response due to high
availability of food that other animals are not eating and the herbivores
developed a special process to digest the food.

c. Competition (+/-) is when organisms compete for limited resources

such food, water, space, light, mates, or any other resources that are needed
for survival or reproduction. Intraspecific competition happens when
members of the same species compete for limited resources. This can
regulate population dynamics since population increase makes the
resources become more limited. Hence, it may reduce population size and
slows population growth. While interspecific competition occurs when
members of different species compete for shared resources. This could result
in altering the size of different species population at the same time. Why is
competition essential in the ecosystem?
Competition is important in organizing the structure of the community.
Organisms may be eliminated by competition and is severest on organisms
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with similar needs and habits which tend to have closer taxonomic
relationship. There are three types of competition:
1. Exploitation: occurs when individuals interact indirectly as they
compete for common resources like territory, prey or food
2. Apparent: occurs when two individuals that do not directly compete
for resources affects each other by being prey for the same predator
such as a hawk that prey for both squirrels and mice
3. Interference: occurs directly between individuals when an
individual alters the resource-attaining behavior of other
individuals such as a male gorilla prohibiting other males from
accessing a mate by showing physical aggression

Competition is directly influenced by density-dependent factors. If organisms

continue to reproduce regardless of the resources available, competition will
occur and individuals either in juvenile or adult stage will be eliminated.
Organisms should control their reproductive rate in response to population
density. But if environmental resources decline, the competition will occur.
Hence, increase in resources or decline in ratio of population and resources
may reduce competition.

Competitive exclusion principle

states that two species competing
for the same resources cannot exist
together. One species that has a
slight or more
advantageous character will
dominate and occupy much space
such as shown in Figure 2.7. Thus,
species should slightly change their
niche to coexist in a community,
Figure 2.7 . Barnacles and mussels
which refers to resource
competing for space
partitioning. What are the
Image b y Webster (2013) from Flickr
examples of resource partitioning?

Republic of the Philippines

MARIKINA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
2 Chanyungco St., Sta. Elena, Marikina City 1800
Tel. Nos. (02) 369-6790, (02) 360-7216
26
Name: _____________________________________ Score: _______________
Course/Yr. & Sec.: _________________________ Date: ________________
Instructor/Professor: ______________________

Activity No. 2
TROPHIC CASCADE

In this activity, you will watch the videos from Sustainable Humans
to examine the underlying stories that give rise to environmental, social, and
economic issues. This will focus on the concept of trophic cascade and how
it affects the ecosystem.

Objective: At the end of this activity, you should be able to:

1. Analyze the roles of organisms in the cycling of materials; and
2. Develop a model to describe the cycling of matter and flow of energy
among living and non-living parts of an ecosystem.

Procedure:
1. You will be assigned with the video that you have to watch. There are
four videos involved.
a. Video A. How wolves change rivers
You will learn how the reintroduction of wolves in the
Yellowstone National Park helped in changing its ecosystem
structure.
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysa5OBhXz-Q

b. Video B. How whales change climate

You will learn how whale is able to contribute in maintain the
balance of our ecosystem.
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M18HxXve3CM

c. Video C. How devils heal forest

You will learn how Tasmanian devil served as a keystone species
in the Australian ecosystem.
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4NgxR190MiA

d. Video D. The little people

You will learn how beavers help in mitigating floods and
droughts, and create habitats for all kinds of animals.
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mjnEyfvvO5A&t=127s
2. After watching the assigned video, accomplish the graphic organizer below to
apply what you have learned about ecosystem.

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 VIDEO: _________________________________________________

What is the problem? What will be the solution?

What will be the outcome?

What is your conclusion?

3. Create a food web model to show the cycling of matter and energy on the
organisms mentioned/ found in the video.

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 Scoring Rubrics

Scoring Rubric for the Food Web Model

Criteria 5 4 3 2-1
The food web The food web The food web The food web
is very clear, is clear, well is reasonably is not clear,
well presented and clear, and and
presented and easy to generally easy somewhat
easy to understand. to follow. messy. There
understand. There are one There are are more than
Presentatio
There is no to two gaps three to four four gaps
n gaps between
gap between between between
animals and animals and animals and animals and
the pointed the pointed the one to two more than
arrow is arrow is pointed arrow two pointed
correct. correct. is incorrect. arrow is
incorrect.
All of the One to two Three to four More than four
relevant relevant animals are animals
animals in animals in missing and are missing in
the video are the video are most of the the food web
included in not included links are and the links
the food web in the food related to are not
Content
and clearly web. But each other. relevant to
flows from there is a each other.
one animal to clear flow
the next. from one
animal to the
next.
An excellent A good A moderate Understandin
understandin understandin understandin g of what is a
g of what a g of what a g of what a food web is not
food web is food web is food web is demonstrated
and how it and how it and how it based on the
works is works is works is output made.
Work Shown shown shown shown
through the through the through the
created flow created flow created flow
of chain and of chain and of chain and
overall overall overall
presentation presentation presentation
of work. of work. of work.

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 Republic of the Philippines
MARIKINA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
2 Chanyungco St., Sta. Elena, Marikina City 1800
Tel. Nos. (02) 369-6790, (02) 360-7216

Name: _____________________________________ Score: _______________

Course/Yr. & Sec.: _________________________ Date: ________________
Instructor/Professor: _______________________

Quiz No. 2
Ecosystems and its components

Test I: Identification
Directions: The following statements describe the relationship between the
two organisms. Identify the organisms that benefit (+), harmed
(), and unaffected (0) from the relationship. Then, write the type
of ecological relationship whether it is:
mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, predation, and
competition. Write your answer on the space provided.

1. Tapeworm in the intestinal tract of cow.

Organism: Organism: Relationship:

2. An eagle soaring above a field hunting for field mouse.

Organism: Organism: Relationship:

3. Hermit crab uses shell from dead gastropods for protection.

Organism: Organism: Relationship:

4. Male bull sea lions fighting for the first pick of female cow during mating
season
Organism: Organism: Relationship:

5. Bacteria live in the legumes root hairs where they transform nitrogen to
ammonia that is needed by the plan for growth and development.

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Organism: Organism: Relationship:

Test II Essay
Directions: Answer the given items below. Express your answer briefly with
complete thought. Use the space provided for your answer.
Write legibly and neatly. (5 points each)

In the Philippines, one of the well-known invasive species in the

freshwater habitats, such as Marikina River, Laguna Lake, and Agusan River
are the Janitor fish, Pterygoplichthys sps. An unintentional release happen
that leads to the decline of fishery catch of tilapia and hito.

a. Describe the type of ecological relationship in this situation.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

b. What are the possible impacts of this phenomenon in freshwater

ecosystem? Immediate community?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

c. What research question/s could be ask to investigate this

phenomenon?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________

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