What is a grade

According to my dictionary, steep means either ‘rising or falling sharply, or

unreasonable or excessive’. We will be concerned about the first meaning,
‘rising or falling sharply’.
What we need to do is to quantify steepness, to put a value on it. When we
put a value on steepness, we can compare values. We can say with
conviction that this drive is not as steep as that drive, and so on.
The only way to calculate steepness is to compare distance with change in
height. According to my dictionary again, distance compared with change in
height is a gradient or simply a grade. As you move along, you change
position up or down relative to your starting point.
There are three ways of expressing grades:
 by angles
 by ratios
 by percentages.
These are illustrated in Figure 1.

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 Figure 1: Methods of quantifying grades

You will notice that all three diagrams are the same. They are all a function
of distance and height. They illustrate the three different ways of expressing
the same thing. Confused? Well below is a simple example.

Figure 2: A straight-line measurement

In Figure 2, the length of the line ‘L’ is (say) 109.5 millimetres. It is also
four and inches, and 0.3593 feet. The line has not changed—these are just
three different ways of expressing the length.

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Grades as angles

Figure 3: A grade expressed as an angle, β

Previously I had led you through a tortuous path on how to calculate right-
angled triangles. The tangent of an angle is the opposite side divided by the
adjacent side. With the tangent of an angle, we can, by using our calculator,
find the value of the angle.
When calculating grades as angles, the opposite side is the height and the
adjacent side is the distance. Let’s work through an example using actual
values. Adopting the distance as 100 metres and the change in height as
10 metres,

In this example, using these dimensions for the diagram in Figure 3, the
slope angle is an angle of 5°42' 38'' elevation, we are going uphill.
How do we get that last step?
β (beta) is the angle we are looking for, and we know that the tangent of this
angle is 0.1. But if we want to know what the angle is, this is how we would
write it:
tan β = 0.1
therefore β = tan-1 0.1
It is called inverse tan. And to solve it, we need a scientific calculator (or
you could use the internet)
If you have tan on your calculator, tan-1 will be the 2nd FUNCTION (2nd Fn)
or SHIFT or INVERSE (INV) key, then the TAN key. Put the value in, and

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 then hit the equals key. Sometimes you will need to use a different order –
the value first, then inverse tan.
The answer is usually given in decimal degrees, so you will need to convert
these to degrees, minutes, seconds (DMS) either using the calculator key
(D,M,S) or by the method described back in section 2.
The answer to β = tan-1 0.1
Is β = 5.710593 and this converts to 5° 42’ 38”

(Reminder:
5.710593 degrees is 5 whole degrees plus 0.710593 of a degree.
One degree is 60 minutes, so 0.710593 of a degree is 0.710593 x 60 =
42.63558 minutes.
This is 42 minutes plus 0.63558 of a minute.
One minute is 60 seconds, so 0.63558 of a minute is 0.63558 x 60 = 38.1348
seconds.
This last number we round down if the decimal part is less than 0.5, and up
if it is 0.5 or higher. So this number will be 38.
Answer: 5° 42’ 38” )

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Grades as a ratio

Figure 4: A grade expressed as a ratio

This is one form of expressing grade with which you are probably familiar.
Using the same values as in ‘grades as angles’, we use a unit of height as a
ratio of distance.
A rise of 10 metres in 100 metres is a ratio of 1 unit in 10 units. One up for
every 10 along.
Ratios are sometimes expressed as horizontal distance to height. This is the
reverse of the last paragraph. A ratio of 1 in 10 is thus expressed as 10 to 1
or, 10:1.
Once again:
 ratios can be expressed as unit of height to a change in distance
(e.g., 1 in 10: that is, height to distance; with the distance related to a
height of 1)
 ratios can be expressed as change in distance to a unit of height
(e.g., 10:1. That is, distance to height; usually expressed as a distance
covered for a height of 1).

The easiest way to determine the ratio is to calculate:

D÷H
For example, at chainage 247.6 on a sewer line, the RL of the invert of the
pipe is 59.635. At chainage 271.9, the RL of the invert is 60.950. What is
the grade of the sewer line as a ratio?
D = 271.9 – 247.6 = 24.3 m
Change in H = 59.635 – 60.950 = -1.315 m
So, D / H = 24.3 / -1.315 = -18.5
And we say the ratio is 18.5:1 or 1 in 18.5

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Grades as a percentage

Figure 5: A grade expressed as a percentage

A percentage is another way of expressing a ratio. In this case, instead of

using a unit of height, we use 100 units of distance in the ratio. To calculate
the percentage ratio of a grade, divide the height by the distance and
multiply by 100.
With a distance of 100 metres and a rise of 10 metres, the grade is:
10 ÷ 100 x 100 = 10%
Of the three ways of expressing grade, the most useful for roads, driveways
and pipelines is expressing the grade as a percentage. It is the most
convenient method for determining intermediate values along a grade line.

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Grade calculations

Except for the part on batters a little later under this heading, for all grade
calculations, I will be using the method of grades as a percentage. When I
refer to ‘grades’, I am inferring ‘grades as a percentage’. So let’s go over the
method again:
divide the change in height by the distance and multiply by 100
How do we determine the change in height? Answer: From the reduced
levels of two points on the grade line a known distance apart.

Grades from RLs and distances

To determine the grade of a line—everything from a railway line down to a
house service drainage line—we need the RL of two points and the distance
apart of these two points. We will not be calculating railway line grades,
motorways or even suburban road centre lines. Even so, the calculations for
all these are the same as for a driveway or a minor sewer line.
Do you remember in the section on levelling, I used an illustration of spot
levels ending on a driveway? If you want to turn back to that illustration, it
is in Section 6. We have the RL at the fence line and the RL at the top of the
drive. If the distance from the fence to the top of the drive is 6 metres, we
can calculate the grade of the drive from the fence to the top.

Distances along a pegged or marked line, be it a house service drainage line,

driveway, six-lane motorway or railway line are called chainages.
In the example I have just used, the start of the drive at the fence is at
chainage 00. The top of the drive is at chainage 6.0. The reason why I
mention this at this point is for the rule to obtain height and distance.
Here is a very simple rule:
Always subtract the first value from the second value.

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 Back to the drive:
 difference in height = second value (drive) minus first (fence).
 difference in distance = second value (drive) minus first (fence).
Here is another term for you to remember if you have not yet come across it
in your building activities. The invert of a drainage structure is the lowest
point of the inside of the structure. That is, the invert of a pipe is the inside
bottom of the pipe. The invert of a canal is the lowest point in the bottom of
the canal.
We need to connect a house drainage line into a sewer line in the road. From
information given by the sewerage authority we know that at chainage 247.6
on the sewer line, the RL of the invert of the pipe is 59.635. At chainage
271.9, the RL of the invert is 60.950. What is the grade of the sewer line?

Note that in determining the height, I have stuck rigidly to the rule of second
value minus first value, even though this may give a negative value. A
negative value carries through to the percentage. A negative percentage
indicates that the grade is a falling grade from the start. It is going downhill.
On a road centre line the RL at chainage 34.06 is 73.73. At chainage 202.56
the RL is 66.29. What is the grade between these two points?

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RLs on grade
In the calculations so far we have calculated the grade from chainages and
levels. Now let us go the other way. What do we do when given the starting
chainage and RL, the grade and the chainage at the other end of the line?
We need to calculate the RL of the second chainage.
This is the same calculation but in reverse. The important point to remember
is that the grade is a percentage.
The first step is to find the distance between the two chainages. Then
multiply this distance by the grade divided by 100. This will give the height
difference between the two points. Add this value to the start RL and you
have the RL of the end of the line.
Worked example
Chainage at start: 38.5.
RL of this point: 6.872
Chainage of end of line: 113.77
Grade between the two points: 13.671%
What is the RL at chainage 113.77?

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RLs of intermediate points
The calculation of reduced levels of intermediate points along a grade line is
just a variation of the last calculation. You are given the grade, or perhaps
the chainages of two points on the grade line with RLs of these points from
which you can calculate the grade of the line. You’re required to find the
RLs of other points along the line given the chainages of these intermediate
points. This is illustrated in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Intermediate points on grade line

If you have a grade line, you will have the chainages and reduced levels at
each end. To make life a little easier, you may also be given the grade.
The calculation of the RLs of intermediate points is carried out using the
same method used to determine the RL at the end of the line. In this case,
the chainage of the intermediate points is given. The distance between the
points is required to be able to establish the height difference.
Now we have the opportunity to check our work, but let me work through
an example to show the calculations and then how to check the calculations.
Worked example
At chainage 33.4 on a roadway centre line, the RL is 48.258. A rising grade
of 2.0% to chainage 60.3 gives an RL of 48.796. What is the reduced level
at chainage 48.6?
We use exactly the same method as shown before to calculate RLs on grade.

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 How do we check these calculations? Quite easily. Just continue the
calculations for the next section of the grade—to the last chainage. We
know the RL of this chainage. If we calculate an RL for this point from our
last calculation and we have agreement, then everything checks. A
discrepancy indicates an error either in your work or in the given RL.
The next stage,

Do not just calculate the last RL from the starting chainage. This does not
check all your intermediate calculations. Always work right through each
individual chainage point.

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Batters

A batter in engineering terms is a steep slope. According to my dictionary

of civil engineering, the definition of a batter is: ‘an artificial, uniform steep
slope’.
There are cut batters and fill batters. As the names imply, a cut batter is the
face of an excavation, and a fill batter is the face of a filled area.

Figure 7: Cut and fill batters

The grade across a batter or the slope of a batter is normally expressed as a

ratio rather than a percentage. Normally cut batters are steeper than fill
batters. A typical cut batter is at a ratio of 1:1, although in a rock excavation
this could be 0.5:1. Fill batters are normally 2:1, depending on the material
used for the filling. For example, sand fill could be 4:1, or even 5:1.
Should you be involved with the construction of batters, you will need to
consult a soils engineer to determine the stability and slope ratio for the
batters.

Figure 8: Typical batter ratios

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 The top of a batter is not surprisingly called the ‘top of the batter’. The
bottom of the batter is called the ‘toe of the batter’.
In a cut batter, the top of the batter is the actual point where the batter
commences on the natural surface. In a fill batter, the toe of the batter is
where the batter meets natural surface.
The calculations to determine the location of the top of cut batters and the
toe of fill batters are quite complex, requiring the slope ratio of the natural
surface and the RLs of both the finished surface and natural surface at a
common point. These calculations are beyond the scope of this subject. A
very rough estimate can be made treating the natural surface as level and
using the batter ratio to determine the intersection of the batter with natural
surface knowing the height difference at the commencement of the batter.
For example, for a fill batter, if the batter is to be at a ratio of 2:1 and at the
end of the fill the finished level is 1.75 metres above natural surface, the toe
of the batter will be approximately 3.5 metres out, which is 1.75 times the
ratio, 2. Note this is only approximate, as no allowance is made for the slope
of the natural surface.

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Plotting grades

The longitudinal section

Longitudinal sections, or long sections to which the name is abbreviated, are
simply profiles along the centre line of a road, drive, pipeline or whatever.
We have actually been using longitudinal sections in some of the diagrams
in this unit. To save you turning back to Figure 6, I will reproduce it here.

Figure 9: Intermediate points on grade line

This is a profile along a grade line. It is not drawn to scale as there are no
given dimensions. If we were to add actual values for D, D1, D2 and H, we
could plot this grade line to scale.
To make the plot more universal, we would need to change the values.
Instead of individual distances, we show chainages from the start. For
height, we show the reduced levels at each chainage. There is one more
change to be made, which is to draw the datum line from which the levels
are taken (see Figure 10).

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 Figure 10: The longitudinal section

Some problems associated with longitudinal sections

The datum line

The datum line can present a problem. If we are drawing a long section (say,
at Cooma in the Snowy Mountains) and the reduced levels are to AHD, we
will need a rather large sheet of paper to be able to show the datum line!
2000 metres at a scale of 1:500 would need a sheet of paper 4 metres wide!
So, the datum line that we would use for the drawing is a baseline at a level
suitable for the drawing. In the example where the datum is at 2000 metres,
the datum line on the drawing would be at say RL 1990.

Scale
There is one other problem concerning the plotting of reduced levels. This is
to do with scale. You are familiar with building plans. On a house plan there
will be a section through the building. This will normally be plotted to a
scale of 1:100. On the plan, a ceiling height of 2400 mm will be drawn as 24
mm. A driveway, or drainage line, can be 30 or 40 metres long. To avoid the
use of huge sheets of paper, long sections of this length are normally plotted
at a scale of 1: 500. Now your 2400 mm comes down to only 5 mm.
Variations in level of half a metre would be barely discernible.

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 Figure 11: Longitudinal section examples
This is overcome be using two scales, which gives a distortion to the plan—
one scale for the horizontal measurements and a second scale for the vertical
measurements.
For small engineering works, the scales normally used are:
 horizontal, 1:500
 vertical, 1:100.

In drawings where the same scale is used for both horizontal and vertical
dimensions, the scale is referred to as a ‘natural scale’.
Let’s look at a long section drawn firstly at a natural scale and then with
different scales for horizontal and vertical (see Figure 11).

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 In Figure 11(a) both horizontal and vertical scales are the same. The
diagram has been drawn to a natural scale. As you can see the change in
vertical alignment is barely discernible.
In Figure 11(b) the vertical scale has been exaggerated at a ratio of 5: 1 to
the horizontal scale. Now the change in vertical alignment is readily
apparent.
In most of the long section drawings which you will come across on
building sites, the normal drawing scales are:
 horizontal, 1: 500
 vertical, 1: 100.

The type of work around a building site involving the use of long sections is
classed as minor civil engineering works. These include driveways, parking
areas in larger commercial sites, stormwater drainage and sewerage works.
The long sections illustrated in Figure 11 show only a very minor part of the
information available.

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 Figure 12: Minor road or driveway long section

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 Driveways and pipelines
Since the long section is used for construction works, there is a minimum of
information that is required on the drawing.
This is:
 the chainage along the section to each point marked
 the natural surface levels at each point
 the design surface levels to which the works are to be constructed
 the design grades for the finished works.

This last point is in case any design levels for additional points on the works
which are not shown on the section. An example of a typical design for a
driveway is shown in Figure 12.
The information shown in Figure 12 is the basic amount of detail required
for any drawing. Additional information may include:
 depth of cut/fill of design centre line to natural surface
 length of vertical curves (if any)
 reduced level of grade intersection points
 horizontal alignment (stylised diagram showing location of horizontal
curves)
 type of material likely to be encountered in any excavation
 mass/haul diagrams.

Description of many of these items is way beyond the scope of this subject
and course. I have mentioned them just in case you should come across a
longitudinal section containing them.
Drainage lines, be they for stormwater or sewerage, are very similar. The
diagram shown in Figure 13 has been drawn to the standard drawing
requirements of the Sydney (NSW) sewerage authority. The style is slightly
different but the information is the same.

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 Figure 13: Long section sewer line—Sydney region

On this diagram, the depth to the invert of the pipeline is shown. The
percentage grades are shown as ‘p.ct’ rather than using the normal symbol
‘%’. The diameter of the pipe is also shown. At chainage 16.4 are two
design levels indicating a step at this point. These levels are the upstream
and downstream levels of an access chamber in the line. These levels show
that there is a drop of 0.1 metres across the floor of the chamber.
There is a lot more information that is shown on sewer plans which has been
omitted from this diagram for clarity.
Consult your local authority for the style of drawing and requirements for
long sections. The diagrams in Figures 12 and 13 are examples of two styles
of long section drawings. Your local council, sewerage or drainage authority
will have their own standards. Familiarise yourself with these standards.

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