Section 3.

Slope 247

3.2 Slope
In the previous section on Linear Models, we saw that if the dependent variable was
changing at a constant rate with respect to the independent variable, then the graph
was a line. If the rate was positive, then as we swept our eyes from left to right,
the line rose upward, the dependent variable increasing with increasing changes in the
independent variable. If the rate was negative, then the graph fell downward, the
dependent variable decreasing with increasing changes in the independent variable.
You may have also learned that higher rates led to steeper lines (lines that rose more
quickly) and lower rates led to lines that were less steep.
In this section, we will connect the intuitive concept of rate developed in the previous
section with a formal definition of the slope of a line. To start, lets state up front what
is meant by the slope of a line.
Slope is a number that tells us how quickly a line rises or falls.
If slope is a number that is directly connected to the steepness of a line, then we
should have certain expectations.
Expectations.
1. Lines with positive slope should slant uphill (as our eyes sweep from left to
right).
2. Lines with negative slope should slant downhill (as our eyes sweep from left to
right).
3. Because any horizontal line neither slants uphill nor downhill, we expect that
it should have slope equal to zero.
4. Lines with a larger positive slope should rise more quickly than lines with a
smaller positive slope.
5. If two lines have negative slope, then the line having the slope with larger
absolute value should fall more quickly than the other line.
It remains to define how to compute the slope of a particular line. Whatever
definition we choose, it should conform with the expectations outlined above. We
also would like the definition of slope to conform with the concept of rate developed in
the previous section. Thus, we make the following definition.
Definition 1. The slope of a line is the rate at which the dependent variable
is changing with respect to the independent variable.
Note how the word change is used Definition 1. It is important to understand
that the change in some quantity can be positive, negative, or zero. For example, if
1

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the temperature outside is 40 F when I leave my home at 6 AM, and at noon the
temperature is 65 F, then the change in temperature is a positive 25 F. On the other
hand, if the temperature outside is 65 F at noon, and the temperature is 50 F when
I return home in the evening, then the change in temperature is a negative 15 degrees
Fahrenheit.
In calculating the change in a quantity, follow this rule.
Definition 2.
Change in Quantity = Latter Measurement Former Measurement.
Thus, if T represents the temperature and T represents the change in the temperature 2, then in our first case (taking the temperature in the morning then later at
noon), the change in temperature is
T = Latter Former = 65 F 40 F = 25 F.
This positive result represents an increase in the temperature of 25 F.
In the second case (taking the temperature at noon then later in the evening), the
change in temperature is
T = Latter Former = 50 F 65 F = 15 F.
This negative result represents a decrease in the temperature of 15 F.
Tip 3. Readers should note that the direction of subtraction is extremely important. To detect the change in a quantity, always subtract the former (earlier)
measurement from the latter (later) measurement.
I Example 4. A ball is perched at rest at the top of a long ramp. Its given a little
tap and it begins to roll down the ramp. The speed v of the ball (in meters per second)
is plotted versus the time t (in seconds) in Figure 1.
Determine the slope of the line.
Weve defined the slope as the rate at which the dependent variable is changing with
respect to the independent variable. In this case, the speed v of the ball depends
upon the amount of time t that has elapsed. Consequently, v is the dependent variable
and has been placed on the vertical axis. 3 On the other hand, t is the independent
variable and has been assigned the horizontal axis.
2

The first four letters of the Greek alphabet are (alpha), (beta), (gamma), and (delta),
which have similar meanings to the letters a, b, c, and d of the English alphabet. The symbol is the
uppercase equivalent of the letter , so think of as a capital D. Note that the word difference
starts with the letter d, so our choice of T (read "delta-T") for the change in T is no accident.
The change in T is found by taking the difference in T .
It is traditional to place the dependent variable on the vertical axis and the independent variable on
the horizontal axis. Although not required, we will try to follow this tradition when possible.

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Slope 249

v (m/s)
15

10

t (s)
0

Figure 1.

10

Speed versus time.

To determine the rate at which v is changing with respect to t (the slope of the line),
we first select two points P (2, 3) and Q(8, 12) on the line, as shown in Figure 2. As
we sweep our eyes from left to right (a convention we will always follow when dealing
with slope), the point P occurs before the point Q. Hence, we consider P the former
measurement and point Q the latter measurement.

v (m/s)
15
Q(8,12)
10
v=9 m/s
5 P (2,3)
t=6 s
0

t (s)
10

Figure 2. Determining
the slope of the line.
At point P , the time is t = 2 seconds, then at point Q the time is t = 8 seconds. The
change in t is found by subtracting the former measurement from the latter measurement.
t = 8 s 2 s = 6 s.
At point P , the speed is v = 3 meters per second, then at point Q the speed is v = 12
meters per second. Hence, the change in v is
v = 12 m/s 3 m/s = 9 m/s.
Finally, the slope of the line is defined as the rate at which the dependent variable v is
changing with respect to the independent variable t. That is,
Slope =

v
9 m/s
3 m/s
=
=
.
t
6s
2 s
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Scientists prefer to write this as 1.5 m/s2 , but this might not be as intuitive as
writing 1.5 (m/s)/s, which indicates that the speed is increasing at a rate of 1.5 m/s
every second. 4 This makes good sense as a ball rolling down a ramp will pick up speed
with the passage of time. The slope provides an exact numerical description of how the
speed increases with respect to time.
Note that our definition of the slope of the line satisfies one of our goals: the slope
is precisely the same as the notion of rate described in the previous section. Indeed,
note the right triangle weve drawn in Figure 2. The bottom edge of the triangle is
12 boxes long, but every 2 boxes represents one second, so this displacement in the
time t direction is 6 seconds. The vertical side of the right triangle is 9 boxes in height
where each box represents 1 meter per second. Consequently, this vertical edge of the
right triangle represents a positive displacement of 9 meters per second. Thus, every 6
seconds, there is an increase in speed of 9 meters per second. Hence, the ball is picking
up speed at the rate of 9 meters per second every 6 seconds, or equivalently, 1.5 meters
per second every second.
Remark. In Figure 2, the rate at which the speed is increasing with respect to
time is equivalent to the slope of the line.
Suppose that we had labeled our points P (tinitial , vinitial ) and Q(tfinal , vfinal ) as shown
in Figure 3.

v (m/s)
15
Q(tfinal ,vfinal )
10
v=vfinal vinitial
5

P (tinitial ,vinitial )
t=tfinal tinitial

t (s)
10

Figure 3. Initial and

final measurements.
Now the change in speed v would be
v = vfinal vinitial ,
and the change in time t would be
t = tfinal tinitial .

Scientists call this the acceleration of the ball. Well have more to say about acceleration in upcoming
sections.

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Slope 251

Therefore, the slope of the line would be computed with the following formula.
Slope =

v
vfinal vinitial
=
.
t
tfinal tinitial

With P (tinitial , vinitial ) = (2 s, 3 m/s) and Q(tfinal , vfinal ) = (8 s, 12 m/s), this becomes
Slope =

9 m/s
12 m/s 3 m/s
=
= 1.5 m/s2 .
8s 2s
6s

The Slope Formula

The last calculation in Example 4 allows us to discuss the slope of a line as a
purely mathematical concept, one that is not rooted in a supporting application as
in Example 4. Take, for example, the line shown in Figure 4 that passes through
the points P (3, 3) and Q(2, 1).

Q(2,1)
5

P (3,3)

Figure 4. Computing the slope of a

line in an xy-coordinate system.
In this example, the dependent variable is y and the independent variable is x, so
the slope of the line is y (the change in y) divided by x (the change in x).
Slope =

y
.
x

Sweeping our eyes from left to right, the point P comes first, followed by the point Q.
Keeping latter minus former in mind, the change in y is computed by subtracting
the y-value of point P from the y-value of point Q. That is,
y = 1 (3) = 4.
Similarly, the change in x is computed by subtracting the x-value of point P from
the x-value of point Q. That is,
x = 2 (3) = 5.

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Thus, the slope of the line is

Slope =

y
4
= .
x
5

Alternatively, we can use the points P and Q as vertices of a right triangle with sides
parallel to the axes (shown in Figure 5(a)). The horizontal edge of the right triangle
is 5 boxes (each representing 1 unit), so the displacement in x is 5 units. The vertical
edge is 4 boxes (each representing 1 unit), so the displacement in y is 4 units. Hence,
each time x is increased by 5 units, y experiences an increase of 4 units. Therefore, the
slope of the line is again 4/5.

Q(2,1)
y=4
P (3,3)

Q(x2 ,y2 )

5
y=y2 y1
P (x1 ,y1 )
x=x2 x1

x=5

(a)
Figure 5.

(b)
Using a right triangle to determine the slope.

Suppose that we had labeled our points P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) as shown in Figure 5(b).
Now the change in y would be 5
y = y2 y1 ,
and the change in x would be
x = x2 x1 .
Therefore, the slope of the line would be computed with the following formula.
Slope =

y
y2 y1
=
x
x2 x1

With P (x1 , y1 ) = (3, 3) and Q(x2 , y2 ) = (2, 1), this becomes

Slope =

4
1 (3)
= .
2 (3)
5

The slope formula is worth summarizing in a definition.

5

Again, note that the Greek letter is like our uppercase D. D is for difference. The change in y,
represented by y (read "delta-Y") , is calculated by taking the difference in y, or y2 y1 .

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Slope 253

Definition 5. The slope of the line that passes through the points P (x1 , y1 ) and
Q(x2 , y2 ) is given by the formula
Slope =

y2 y1
y
=
.
x
x2 x1

Lets look at some more examples.

I Example 6. Find the slope of the line passing through the points P (3, 2) and
Q(3, 1).
We can use the slope formula in Definition 5 to determine the slope.
(x1 , y1 ) = P (3, 2) and (x2 , y2 ) = Q(3, 1),
Slope =

With

y2 y1
1 (2)
3
1
y
=
=
= = .
x
x2 x1
3 (3)
6
2

Readers will sometimes ask, Which point should be (x1 , y1 ) and which should be
(x2 , y2 )? The short answer is, It doesnt matter! Suppose instead, that we let
(x1 , y1 ) = Q(3, 1) and (x2 , y2 ) = P (3, 2). Then,
Slope =

y2 y1
2 1
3
1
y
=
=
=
= .
x
x2 x1
3 3
6
2

Because the change in any quantity is found by subtracting the earlier measurement
from the later measurement, we will continue to stress the first order. However, if we
reverse the points as we did in our second calculation, both numerator and denominator
reverse sign with this interchange, so we get the same answer.
Of course, we can also determine the slope by plotting P (3, 2) and Q(3, 1) and
the line that passes through P and Q, as weve done in Figure 6.

Q(3,1)
5
x
y=3
P (3,2)
x=6

Figure 6.
the graph.

Determining the slope from

Starting at the point P , to get to the point Q, we move 6 boxes to the right, then 3
boxes up, as shown in Figure 6. Hence, the slope of the line is

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Slope =

y
3
1
= = .
x
6
2

Note that two of our expectations regarding the slope of a line are met with this
example.
1. The line through P (3, 2) and Q(3, 1) in Figure 6 has slope 1/2. This is a
positive number and the line slants uphill (as expected) as we sweep our eyes from
left to right.
2. The slope in this example is 1/2, which is less than the slope of the line in Figure 5(a),
which was 4/5. Note that the line in Figure 6 is less steep than the line in
Figure 5(a), which was another of our earlier expectations regarding the slope
of a line.

I Example 7.
Q(4, 2).

Find the slope of the line passing through the points P (4, 4) and

We can use the slope formula in Definition 5 to determine the slope.

(x1 , y1 ) = P (4, 4) and (x2 , y2 ) = Q(4, 2),
Slope =

With

y2 y1
2 4
6
3
y
=
=
=
= .
x
x2 x1
4 (4)
8
4

We can also get the slope of the line from the graph in Figure 7. Starting at
the point P (4, 4), move 8 units to the right, then 6 units downward, as shown in
Figure 7.

5
P (4,4)

x=8

y=6
5
Q(4,2)

Figure 7. Determining
the slope from the graph.
Thus, the slope of the line is
Slope =

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y
6
3
=
= .
x
8
4

Slope 255

Section 3.2

Again, one of our earlier expectations regarding the slope of a line is met in this
example. The slope is 3/4, which is a negative number, and the line in Figure 7
slants downhill (as we sweep our eyes from left to right).

I Example 8. Draw a line that intercepts the y-axis at (0, 3) so that the line has
slope 4/3. Draw a second line that passes through the point P (1, 1) with slope
3/5.
The slope of the first line is 4/3. This means that our line must slant downhill
(as we sweep our eyes from left to right). The slope is the change in y over the change
in x. Therefore, every time x increases by 3 units, y must decrease by 4 units. Plot
the point P (0, 3), as shown in Figure 8(a). Then, starting at P , move 3 units to the
right, followed by 4 units downward to the point Q(3, 1), as shown in Figure 8(a).
Draw the required line, which must pass through the points P and Q.
To draw the second line, first plot the point P (1, 1), as shown in Figure 8(b).
Starting at the point P , move 5 units to the right, then upward 3 units to the point
Q(4, 2), as shown in Figure 8(b). Draw the required line passing through the points
P and Q.

5
x=3

P (0,3)

Q(4,2)
y=4
5

y=3
5

P (1,1)

Q(3,1)

x=5

(a) A line having y-intercept

at (0, 3) with slope 4/3.

(b) A line having slope

3/5 that passes through
the point P (1, 1).

Figure 8.

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Parallel Lines
Because slope controls the steepness of a line, it is a simple matter to see that parallel
lines must have the same slope.
Property 9. Let L1 be a line having slope m1 . Let L2 be a line having slope
m2 . If L1 and L2 are parallel, then
m1 = m2

(10)

That is, any two parallel lines have the same slope.
I Example 11.
vertical line?

What is the slope of any horizontal line? What is the slope of any

One would expect that our definition would verify that the slope of any horizontal
line is zero. Select, for example, the horizontal line shown in Figure 9(a). Select the
points (3, 3) and (3, 3) on this line.

Q(3,3)

y=3
P (3,3)

Q(3,3)

P (3,3)

x=3

(a) Determine the slope

of a horizontal line.

(b) Determine the

slope of a vertical line.
Figure 9.

With (x1 , y1 ) = (3, 3) and (x2 , y2 ) = (3, 3),

Slope =

y2 y1
33
0
y
=
=
= = 0.
x
x2 x1
3 (3)
6

Thus, the horizontal line in Figure 9(a) has slope equal to zero, exactly as expected.
Further, all horizontal lines are parallel to this horizontal line and have the same slope.
Therefore, all horizontal lines have slope zero.
We would surmise that the vertical line in Figure 9(b) has undefined slope (well
explore this more fully in the exercises). In Figure 9(b), weve selected the points

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Section 3.2

Slope 257

P (3, 3) and Q(3, 3) on the vertical line. With (x1 , y1 ) = P (3, 3) and (x2 , y2 ) =
Q(3, 3),
Slope =

y
y2 y1
3 (3)
6
=
=
= , which is undefined.
x
x2 x1
3 (3)
0

The slope of the vertical line in Figure 9(b) is undefined because division by zero
is meaningless. Further, all vertical lines are parallel to this vertical line and have
undefined slope.

I Example 12. Draw a line through the point P (1, 2) that is parallel to the line
passing through the origin with slope 2/3.
We will first draw a line through the origin with slope 2/3. Plot the point P (0, 0),
then move 3 units to the right and 2 units downward to the point Q(3, 2), as shown
in Figure 10(a). Draw a line through the points P and Q as shown in Figure 10(a).
Next, plot the point P (1, 2) as shown in Figure 10(b). To draw a line through this
point that is parallel to the line through the origin, this second line must have the same
slope as the first line. Therefore, start at the point P (1, 2), as shown in Figure 10(b),
then move 3 units to the right and 2 units downward to the point Q(4, 0). Draw a line
through the points P and Q as shown in Figure 10(b). Note that this second line is
parallel to the first.

x=3
P (1,2)
x=3
P (0,0)

y=2
Q(4,0)

y=2

Q(3,2)

(a) A line through the

origin with slope 2/3.

(b) A line through P (1, 2)

that is parallel to the
line through the origin.
Figure 10.

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Perpendicular Lines
The relationship between the slopes of two perpendicular lines is not as straightforward
as the relation between the slopes of two parallel lines. Lets begin by stating the
pertinent property.
Property 13. Let L1 be a line having slope m1 . Let L2 be a line having slope
m2 . If L1 and L2 are perpendicular, then
m1 m2 = 1.

(14)

That is, the product of the slopes of two perpendicular lines is 1.

We can solve equation (14) for m1 in terms of m2 .
m1 =

1
m2

(15)

Equation (15) tells us that the slope of the first line is the negative reciprocal of the
slope of the second line.
For example, suppose that L1 and L2 are perpendicular lines with slopes m1 and
m2 , respectively.

1
If m2 = 2, then m1 = .
2

5
3
If m2 = , then m1 = .
5
3

2
3
If m2 = , then m1 = .
3
2

Note that in each bulleted item, the product of the slopes is 1.

We wont provide a proof of equation (15), but we will provide some motivating
evidence in the form of a graph.
I Example 16. Sketch the graphs of the lines passing through the origin having
slopes 2 and 1/2.
In Figure 11(a), weve plotted the point P (0, 0) at the origin, then moved 1 unit
to the right and 2 units upward to the point Q(1, 2). The resulting line passes through
the origin and has slope m1 = 2 (alternatively, m1 = 2/1).
In Figure 11(b), weve again plotted the point P (0, 0) at the origin, then moved 2
units to the right and 1 unit downward to the point Q(2, 1). The resulting line passes
through the origin and has slope m2 = 1/2.

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Slope 259

There are two important points that need to be made about the lines in Figure 11(b).
1. The two lines in Figure 11(b) are perpendicular. They meet and form a right angle
of 90 . If you have a protractor available, you might want to measure the angle
between the two lines and note that the measure of the angle is 90 .
2. The product of the two slopes is
 
1
= 1.
m1 m2 = 2
2

Q(1,2)
P (0,0)

y=2

x=1

x=2
P (0,0)

5
y=1

Q(2,1)

(a) m1 = 2.
Figure 11.

(b) m2 = 1/2.
Sketching perpendicular lines.

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