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Covid-19 and consumers’ online Online shopping

among older
purchase intention among adults of
Kosovo
an older-aged group of Kosovo
Asdren Toska and Jusuf Zeqiri
South East European University, Tetovo, North Macedonia
Received 17 December 2021
Veland Ramadani Revised 14 February 2022
South East European University, Tetovo, North Macedonia and 27 March 2022
Accepted 10 April 2022
Max van der Stoel Institute, Tetovo, North Macedonia, and
Samuel Ribeiro-Navarrete
ESIC Business and Marketing School, Valencia, Spain
Abstract
Purpose – This study aims to investigate the online purchase intention of an older-aged group in Kosovo. Very
few studies have analyzed the online purchase intention of these age groups in emerging countries including
Kosovo, during the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to an increased usage of online shopping among older
adults.
Design/methodology/approach – The study used a quantitative methodology and a structured
questionnaire was used for collecting the data. Structural equation modeling (SEM) using partial least
squares (PLS) was used to analyze 262 responses from an older-aged group of consumers from Kosovo.
Findings – The findings of this study showed that COVID-19 as a perceived risk affected online purchase
intention. In addition, panic from perceived risk, perceived usefulness of social media and delivery in time also
positively impacted the online purchase intention of this group of generations.
Originality/value – The study provides theoretical implications to consumer behavior literature during
pandemics and how certain age groups behave during their purchase intention. The study also provides insight
into other studies in emerging countries to see similarities and differences in online purchase behavior.
Keywords COVID-19, Kosovo, Online purchase, Panic, Social media
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Marketing is evolving day by day with the most contemporary trends of sales and
communication with customers. One of the most modern forms already is digital marketing;
Garg et al. (2021) state that digital marketing is a technique that targets the market and
customers by utilizing some of the online channels such as websites, social media, etc. Today,
marketing innovation mainly focuses on digitalizing business activities to reach target
customers more easily (Emami et al., 2019; Toska et al., 2021).
Digital marketing positively affects sales performance and provides access to foreign
markets (Rafiq and Javeid, 2018; Islami et al., 2020; Jamil et al., 2020; Nuseira and Aljumahb,
2020). Social media as a digital marketing tool has a positive impact on purchase intention
(Balakrishnan et al., 2014; Laksamana, 2018; Lim et al., 2017; Manzoor et al., 2020; Oghazi et al.,
2021), brand loyalty and awareness (Huang et al., 2018; Nisar and Whitehead, 2016; Pentina
et al., 2013; Zeqiri et al., 2020).
Many researchers in previous studies have investigated online purchases in various
contexts. Recently, many studies have analyzed the effect of COVID-19 on online shopping,
revealing that this pandemic had a major impact on the growing number of consumers using
online shopping (Ali, 2020; Koch et al., 2020). Gupta and Chennamaneni (2018) state that many
studies have been conducted targeting young ages in online shopping and other aspects of International Journal of Emerging
Markets
digitalization, so it is important to investigate older ages in their behaviors during online © Emerald Publishing Limited
1746-8809
shopping. The literature review identifies gaps regarding the purpose of online shopping of DOI 10.1108/IJOEM-12-2021-1875
IJOEM different age groups during online shopping in general and especially during the COVID-19
pandemic. The literature should be enriched by investigating older ages in online shopping.
Research shows that only a few studies have investigated the behavior of older adults in
online shopping (Hernandez et al., 2011; McCloskey, 2006).
For example, McCloskey (2006) studied older adults in Pennsylvania from a country with
well-developed social and economic status, concluding that older adults prefer to shop online.
The author suggests advancing studies in this age group, especially when online transactions
are facilitated even more, and in particular, studies focus on emerging countries with different
social and economic statuses. Hernandez et al. (2011) also studied the elderly in Spain, with a
developed technological infrastructure and more stable socio-economic variables, including
only 4.4% of adult respondents in its analysis. In this line, Koch et al. (2020) analyzed
Germany’s Y and Z generations, including the COVID-19 factor.
Moreover, Ali (2020) has analyzed Samsung’s online sales in the Iraqi market. The study
was also conducted with descriptive statistics comparing the periods of online sales before
and after the start of COVID-19. The study confirmed a positive correlation between the
increase in COVID-19 infections and the increase in online shopping. Although coming from
developing countries, older adults have not been specifically investigated.
Several studies confirm the impact of panic and COVID-19 as perceived risk, perceived
usefulness of social media, and perceived risk from delivery time on online purchase intention.
Soares et al. (2022) adapt the technology acceptance model (TAM) model to online purchase
intention when COVID-19 as perceived risk is presented as an independent variable. Studies also
confirm that perceived risk associated with panic impacts online purchase intention. Perceived
risk is adapted from the extended theory of planned behavior (E-TPB) model by the subjective
norms variables of consumers for fear of being infected in physical stores (Kim et al., 2021).
Consumers have positive attitudes based on the perceived usefulness of advertising and
marketing activities on social media (Alalwan, 2018; Cho and Fiorito, 2009; Sin et al., 2012;
Venkatesh and Bala, 2008). Perceived usefulness has been adapted as a variable independent of
the TAM model for online purchasing intention in the context of COVID-19 Ishfaq and
Mengxing (2021). In this line, studies by Balakrishnan et al. (2014), Laksamana (2018), Lim et al.
(2017) and Manzoor et al. (2020) confirm that the perceived usefulness of social media has a
positive impact on online purchase intention. The perceived risk of delivery in time from online
shopping is considered a subjective factor and is confirmed by researchers that it impacts the
online purchase intention (Ashoer and Said, 2016; Sulaiman et al., 2017).
Previous research has not greatly investigated the behavior of this age group in online
shopping, during COVID-19 in developed countries and especially in developing countries.
The COVID-19 pandemic has also increased the intensity of online shopping, affecting
changing consumer behavior, including older adults. Since the pandemic has lasted for two
years, it is essential to bring in research from a developing country investigating other ages.
Therefore, this study aims to research this age group in a developing country, such as
Kosovo. The study aims to bring scientific evidence regarding the behavior of the older adult
age group from a developing country.
The structure of the study begins with an introduction. The following section deals with a
literature review, where key concepts are explained and hypotheses are developed. Next, the
methodology section is introduced. Finally, findings, conclusions and suggestions for future
research are provided.

2. Literature review
2.1 Older adults
Older adults as a term are used in many studies. According to the literature, older adults are
people over 50 years old (Wagner et al., 2010; Yu et al., 2016). Referring to the Kosovo Statal
Agency (2011), ages over 50 in Kosovo makeup 18.16% of the population, or 315,997 Online shopping
inhabitants in Kosovo are over this age. According to Eurostat (2021), in Kosovo, 96% of the among older
population has Internet access from their homes, making Kosovo the country with the highest
Internet access from home compared to other Western Balkan countries. With such a high
adults of
Internet usage rate, we can conclude that even older adults have Internet access. Other Kosovo
studies also argue that Internet use by older adults can have positive effects, improving their
well-being and having a positive impact on mental health in reducing depression (Cotten et al.,
2014; Ihm and Hsieh, 2015). Studies are increasingly arguing that older adults embrace digital
technology in their lives. This age focuses on getting information about health, vacation
bookings, news, bill payments and maintaining and checking emails on online platforms
(McMurtrey et al., 2011; Quan-Haase et al., 2016). According to McCloskey (2006), this segment
is considered a profitable target as it is characterized by low debts and the reduction of family
commitments, married children, high income and are open to buying and investing.
Gupta and Chennamaneni (2018) argue that many studies have been conducted regarding the
technology information system in the focus of the younger generations, therefore suggest
that there should be further studies for older adults as this would be of interest to companies
as they do not have clear information on these target consumers in their behaviors on online
platforms.

2.2 COVID-19 and panic from perceived risk

The coronavirus was initially identified as an unknown virus in December 2019 in Wuhan,
China and was later renamed after laboratory tests (Huang et al., 2020). The virus has spread
to 210 countries worldwide, causing a global crisis and fundamental changes in daily life
(Tyagi and Pabalkar, 2021). Seeing this situation, the WHO, in March 2020, declares COVID-
19 as a global pandemic (Celik et al., 2020). COVID-19 brought dramatic changes to individual
lives, businesses, industries and states. Anti-COVID measures, blockades, quarantines and
social distance began to be actualized (Bin et al., 2020). Many studies in such situations argue
for changing consumer behavior. Recent studies regarding the impact of COVID-19 on online
purchase intention analyze the model (TAM). This model analyzed external variables,
perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward using and the actual system uses
(Miller and Khera, 2010). TAM can be used in different contexts in online consumer behavior
(Chi, 2018). Finally, the authors Ishfaq and Mengxing (2021) adapt the TAM model to online
purchase intention in the COVID-19 pandemic contexts, arguing that the COVID-19 as
perceived risk is presented as an independent variable in online purchase intention. COVID-
19 is also applied as an independent study by Soares et al. (2022). Risk perception implies a
subjective norm of coping with a certain risk (Yan et al., 2020); in our case is associated with
panic. COVID-19 is a risk associated with subjective norms of the risk of being infected when
shopping in physical stores having contact with individuals. Researchers argue that in the
context of the COVID-19 pandemic, perceived risk also influenced consumer behavior to
change, with more and more online shopping preferences, maintaining distance and avoiding
contact with individuals (Kim et al., 2021). Increases in online sales in the COVID-19 pandemic
are also argued by various studies (Nguyen et al., 2020; Yan et al., 2020).
Addo et al. (2020) emphasize that in cases of fear, the causes of social awareness,
consumers are inclined to buy products/services that reduce fear and perceived risk. The
same can be said for the COVID-19 pandemic as a public health concern or similar issue. Panic
purchases in the CVOID-19 pandemic were also confirmed by (Ait Youssef et al., 2020); the
authors stated that consumers in the COVID-19 pandemic reduced panic and perceived risk
by making online purchases. In situations of public health crises, in this case, such as the
COVID-19 pandemic, the behavior of individuals gets changed; it is subjective, as we have
high exposure to perceived risk. This is related to their behavior and, during purchases, the
IJOEM purchase of products that are expected to reduce perceived risk (Emami et al., 2021). With the
increase of cases with COVID-19, the number of online purchases also increased, i.e. with the
increase of the perceived risk of public health, consumers buy more online, increasing their
security and avoiding socialization in physical stores (Ali, 2020). Studies have confirmed
dramatic changes in consumer behavior during the pandemic, even in developing countries,
so entrepreneurs need to investigate these changes (Nachit and Belhcen, 2020). Further,
Emami and Klein (2020) argue that an effective entrepreneur receives timely information
from market changes, analyzing eventual changes from market dynamics. We relied on TAM
and E-TPB models for variables dealing with COVID-19 and panic. Studies in the TAM model
have adapted the perception of risk by COVID-19 as an independent variable that impacts
purchasing intention, adapting to the model variables’ perceived usefulness and perceived
ease of purchasing. So using online tools to maintain perceived usefulness and make online
purchases easier from home (perceived ease of purchasing) without having contacts in
physical stores (Soares et al., 2022). Panic as an independent variable is adapted to the
subjective norm variable of the E-TPB model. The model argues that subjective norms
correlate with influences from perceived social stresses, such as the COVID-19 pandemic
(Qi and Ploeger, 2021). Based on the above literature, we propose the following hypothesis
regarding panic and COVID-19 in the intent to purchase older adults online:
H1. There is a positive relationship between panic from perceived risk and the intentions
of older adult consumers to shop online.
H2. Perceived risk from being infected COVID-19 has a positive impact on increasing
online purchase intentions among older adult consumers.
H3. COVID-19 moderates a link between panic from perceived risk and online purchase
intentions in older adults.

2.3 Perceived usefulness in social media

Social media is a set of applications found on internet and, as such, enable the exchange of
information content and interaction by their creator (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). People use
social media to participate in social communities that enable consumers to share their
experiences or the information they have available. Social media in marketing also enables
consumers to share information about products/services from a specific company with other
customers through these online tools (Hajli et al., 2017). Studies also argue that social media
positively impacts brand loyalty and awareness (Huang et al., 2018; Nisar and Whitehead,
2016; Pentina et al., 2013; Zeqiri et al., 2020). Through social media, companies develop eWom
(Barreda et al., 2015); eWom promotes purchase intention (Xie et al., 2016). Studies argue that
social media promotes purchase intention as consumers see perceived benefits from these
online tools (Balakrishnan et al., 2014; Laksamana, 2018; Lim et al., 2017; Manzoor et al., 2020).
Studies also argue that older consumers are loyal to social media based on the perceived
benefits (Hruska and Maresova, 2020).
As we have argued so far, many studies confirm that one of the factors driving online
shopping through social media is perceived usefulness. Consumers have positive attitudes
based on the perceived usefulness of advertising and marketing activities on social media
(Alalwan, 2018; Cho and Fiorito, 2009; Sin et al., 2012; Venkatesh and Bala, 2008). The perceived
usefulness is an essential variable of the TAM model, adapted to the model as an independent
variable by the authors Ishfaq and Mengxing (2021) in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic
(Soares et al., 2022). Researchers Ali Taha et al. (2021) argued that consumers over 50 preferred
to use social media to realize online shopping during the lockdown phase in European countries.
They were open to social media to make online purchases, relying on the perceived usefulness
factor by using them to carry out online transactions from their homes while maintaining social
distance and physical contact in conventional purchases. Based on the above arguments, we Online shopping
confirm the following hypothesis: among older
H4. The benefit perceived usefulness from social media positively impacts older adults’ adults of
online purchase intention during the COVID-19. Kosovo

2.4 Delivery time as perceived risk

Delivery is considered one of the most important factors; besides price, product and
promotion in customer satisfaction (D€ € urk, 2020), it is also considered a crucial
undar and Ozt€
factor in companies’ success make online sales (Handoko, 2016). According to Dholakia and
Zhao (2010), companies that provide products and services on time add value to target
customers and positively affect their satisfaction. Monsuwe et al. (2004) state that delivering
products on time increases customer confidence and creates the opportunity to increase
online shopping.
In online purchase intention, some models analyze risk perceived as one of the essential
factors in online purchase intention. Researchers Sulaiman et al. (2017) analyze the delivery risk
factor in the model proposed in online purchase intention. Delivery risk is analyzed as a risk
perceived by individuals who buy online, associated with delays and the possibility of not
receiving the product purchased online (Zhang et al., 2012). Perceived risk was also an
independent variable in the TAM and E-TPB models (Soares et al., 2022). Delivery risk means
that companies take a long time to deliver the product to the final customer (Sulaiman et al., 2017).
Since the lack of needed products was a factor that created panic in the COVID-19 pandemic
period, we conclude that the risk of delays in deliveries of products purchased online was a key
variable that determines online purchases (Addo et al., 2020). Companies, therefore, need to work
to reduce the perceived risk to delivery time on online sales platforms (Tanadi et al., 2015).
Researchers confirm that perceived risk is understood as a subjective factor in online
shopping and, as such, has a significant impact on online purchase intention (Ashoer and
Said, 2016). Recall that the subjective norms on purchasing intention were addressed in the E-
TPB model. Perceived risk from delivery time has a negative impact on online purchase
intention (Almousa, 2011; Masoud, 2013). Based on the review of the above literature, we
conclude in conditions of panic and general uncertainty, the subjective decisions of
individuals are more actualized to the situation created. Since studies argue that panic in
these conditions is reduced by having the necessary products available on time that reduce
this panic, we conclude that delivery time plays an important role in online purchase intention
in older adults, so we are affirming this hypothesis.
H5. Consumer perceptions that products will be delivered on time positively affect online
purchase intention.

3. Methodology
This study uses a quantitative data collection methodology to help us investigate older adult
consumer behavior in the COVID-19 pandemic. The quantitative methodology and approach
are adequate since it brings obvious advantages such as the accuracy of the results and
numerical analysis (Gale et al., 2013). A structured questionnaire was used to collect the
primary data. The online questionnaire distributed through Google Drive technology was
sent to our focused sample over 50 years old-older adults. The study focuses on the territory
of Kosovo. The Kosovo Statistical Agency (2011) states that the age group over 50 in Kosovo
makes up 18.16% of the population, or 315,997 inhabitants in Kosovo are over this age.
A sample of 262 respondents responded to the online questionnaires, representing a good
sample that is appropriate and sufficiently representative of the sample population.
IJOEM 3.1 Samples and data collection
Questionnaires are already the most popular form in scientific research used by many
researchers. Questionnaires offer many advantages to researchers. Through online forms,
questionnaires can be designed in Google Drive, giving researchers an advantage while saving
time, being free and not incurring much financial cost (Young, 2016). The questionnaire was
constructed by borrowing and adapting the questions from previous researchers that have
conducted similar studies. The questionnaire consists of 24 questions that measure consumers’
attitudes toward online shopping. The first questions address the characteristics issues of the
respondents, such as gender, age, income, education, online shopping and are borrowed from
the authors (Kajtazi and Zeqiri, 2020; McCloskey, 2006; Zeqiri et al., 2020) it must be specified
that McCloskey (2006) helps us to specify the age of older adults in this research.
Questions 6–8 were borrowed and adapted from (Cho and Fiorito, 2009; Ishfaq and
Mengxing, 2021) and address the perceived usefulness of social media on online purchase
intention. Questions 9–11 address online purchase intention. These questions were borrowed
and adapted from (Bilal et al., 2021; Celik, 2016). Then, questions 12–16 address the
moderating effect of COVID-19 on online purchase intention and panic from perceived risk.
These questions were borrowed and adapted from (Qi and Ploeger, 2021). Questions 17–20
address panic from perceived risk as an important factor of COVID-19 in online purchase
intention among older adult consumers. These questions are borrowed and adapted from (Qi
and Ploeger, 2021; Tommasetti et al., 2018). The last four questions address deliveries’ time as
perceived risk, and their impact on online shopping is borrowed and adapted from (Ashoer
and Said, 2016; Sulaiman et al., 2017). The questionnaire is built with the Likert scale, where
respondents can answer from strongly agree to alternatively strongly disagree. So, choosing
among one to five depends on the degree of compliance of respondents’ perceptions. We
emphasize that this paper does not violate any of the ethical principles of science. In data
collection, we are based on the ethical principle of maintaining the privacy of respondents and
ensuring that this data will be used only for research purposes.
Based on the above literature review and hypotheses development, we come with the
following research conceptual model presented in Figure 1.

4. Results
The demographic profile of respondents can be seen in Table 1; the majority of the
respondents belong to the female group with 64 % and males with 35%. Regarding the age of
the groups, 76.72% were 50–59 years old, 14.5% 60 –69 years old, 7.63% were 70–79 years old
and 1.15% more than 80 years old. Concerning income, 17.94% were with an income of up to
250 euros, 27.86% with 251–400 euros, 33.21% with 401–600 euros and 1.15% with over 600
euros. The majority of respondents, around 50.76%, sometimes shop online, 33.59 shops
online rarely and 15.65% of respondents often shop online (see Table 2).
The obtained empirical data are analyzed using Smart partial least square analysis (PLS)
3 and SPSS 26 software. The structural equation modeling (SEM) technique was used to
assess both the measurement and structural models. In the beginning, various tests were
used to check all the constructs’ validity and reliability. A confirmatory factor analysis was
used to check converged and discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2016).
A two-step analysis needs to be carried out while running a SEM with PLS. Firstly, the
measurement model is assessed and followed by analyzing the SEM (Istrefi-Jahja and
Zeqiri, 2021).

4.1 Assessment of measurement model

The assessment of the measurement model is executed to check how variables are related
based on convergent and discriminant validity (Ringle et al., 2020).
 Online shopping
among older
adults of
Kosovo

Figure 1.
Conceptual framework

Items Choices Frequencies Percentage

Gender Male 93 35.50

Female 169 64.50
Age 50–59 years old 201 76.72
60–69 years old 38 14.50
70–79 years old 20 7.63
>80 years old 3 1.15
Income Up to 250V 47 17.94
251–400V 73 27.86
401–600V 87 33.21
Over 600V 55 20.99
Education High school 83 31.68
Bachelor 136 51.91
Master 35 13.36
Doctorate 8 3.05
Frequency of online shopping Often 41 15.65 Table 1.
Sometimes 133 50.76 Characteristics of
Rarely 88 33.59 respondents

4.1.1 Convergent validity. In order to check the model fit, a convergent validity test is
performed to check how close the items are within a construct. As shown in Table 3, the
composite reliability values vary from 0.836 to 0.929, denoting that all the values surpass the
recommended threshold value of 0.70. In addition, Cronbach’s alpha values vary from 0.702 to
0.899, which exceeds the proposed value of 0.70. When an alpha value exceeds 0.70–0.8 or is
greater signifies a good level of reliability (Ursachi et al., 2015). Finally, the average variance
extracted (AVE) values vary from 0.627 to 0.765, which surpasses the suggested threshold of
0.50 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).
4.1.2 Discriminant validity. In order to check how close and how far the constructs in the
model from each other are, a discriminant validity test is performed (Bagozzi et al., 1991).
Table 4 shows that the AVE values surpass the proposed value, which should be greater than
IJOEM Construct Code Item Source

Perceived usefulness PUSM1 Social media (Facebook, Instagram, etc.) Cho and Fiorito (2009),
from social media enabled me to make quick purchases during Ishfaq and Mengxing
(PUSM) COVID-19 (2021)
PUSM2 Using Social Media during the COVID-19
was useful for me
PUSM3 Using social media during COVID-19 helped
me make purchases easier
Online purchase OPI1 I plan to stay loyal to companies present on Bilal et al. (2021), Celik
intention (OPI) social media with the informative and (2016)
correct content
OPI2 The regular presence of companies on social
media with informative content positively
influences my desire to buy a product
OPI3 I have a tendency to use brands that actively
participate in the digital community
COVID-19 as perceived COV1 The perceived risk from COVID-19 was an Qi and Ploeger (2021)
risk (COV) incentive for me to focus on online shopping
COV2 The COVID-19 as perceived risk changed
my buying behaviors by focusing on online
shopping
COV3 The perceived risk of potential infections in
physical stores with COVID-19 pushed me
to make more online purchases
COV4 I preferred to buy online to avoid physical
contact in stores during the pandemic
COV5 My perception of the risk of the COVID-19
pandemic is that it will change society’s
behavior
Panic from perceived PFPR1 The uncertainty created by the pandemic Qi and Ploeger (2021),
risk (PAPR) situation pushed me to buy more products Tommasetti et al. (2018)
PFPR2 Everyone bought large quantities of
products from online platforms; this
prompted me to do the same
PFPR3 The pandemic increased the panic about the
lack of essential products, so I also decided
to buy larger quantities from online
platforms
PFPR4 The best way to reduce uncertainty in the
pandemic was when I provided enough of
the products I needed at home
Delivery time as DEL1 Delivery time of the product in online Ashoer and Said (2016),
perceived risk (DEL) shopping was important to me during the Sulaiman et al. (2017)
COVID-19
DEL2 The problems of delays that appear, from
ordering to receiving the product, were
essential to me in online shopping during
COVID-19
DEL3 The risk of failure to deliver on the promised
date during online shopping at COVID-19
Table 2. posed a problem for me
Research DEL4 Online retailers with low address error rates
construct items during shipments were important to me
0.50, thus, indicating that discriminant validity is reached for each construct (Fornell and Online shopping
Larcker, 1981). In addition, the values of correlation items in any construct should not be among older
greater than the AVE in a single construct (Hair et al., 2010). Table 4 denotes that results
support the discriminant validity testing.
adults of
4.1.2.1 Assessment of structural model. SEM analysis with the Smart PLS was used to
Kosovo
assess the proposed model. The SEM path results are presented in Figure 2. The path
measurement reveals that online purchasing intention R2 is 0.674, and panic R2 is 0.274.
Therefore, panic variables, social media marketing, delivery and COVID-19 predict the
variance of online purchase intention with 0.674, whereas COVID-19 contributes to panic with
0.272. Finally, the model shows that online purchase intention variance is explained by
67.4%, whereas panic is explained by 27.4%. Thus, we can conclude that the model has
attained good results.
The factor loadings of all items of the constructs are shown in Table 4. All item loadings
vary from 0.674 to 0.906; that is over the recommended threshold value of 0.50. In order to
check whether the method is biased or not, the collinearity test is used. If the VIF values are
more t than 3.3, they indicate collinearity issues, and therefore, the constructs in the model
might be biased (Kock, 2015). Therefore, if all VIF values from the collinearity test are lower
than 3.3, equal to it, the model can be considered free of method bias.

4.2 Assessment of model fit

Two model fitting parameters are used to test the model fit (Table 5), the Standardized Root
Mean Square Residuals (SRMR) and the Normed Fit Index (NFI). The SRMR shows the

Cronbach’s alpha rho_A Composite reliability (AVE)

COVID19 – as perceived risk 0.899 0.906 0.925 0.711

Delivery time-as perceived risk 0.898 0.907 0.929 0.765
Online purchase intention 0.702 0.701 0.836 0.627
Panic from perceived risk 0.885 0.886 0.921 0.745
Perceived usefulness from social media 0.809 0.81 0.887 0.724 Table 3.
Source(s): Author’s calculation based on results Convergent validity

COVID19 Delivery Panic Perceived

– as time-as Online from usefulness
perceived perceived Moderation purchase perceived from social
risk risk COVID19*Panic intention risk media

COVID19 – as 0.844
perceived risk
Delivery time-as 0.479 0.875
perceived risk
Moderation_COVID-
0.069
0.11 1
19*panic
Online purchase 0.66 0.571
0.053 0.792
intention
Panic from perceived 0.511 0.427
0.229 0.652 0.863
risk
Perceived usefulness 0.64 0.499
0.106 0.684 0.408 0.851 Table 4.
from social media Discriminant validity
IJOEM

Figure 2.
Structural equation
model (SEM)

Mean Standard deviation Loadings VIF

PUSM1 3.603 0.959 0.818 1.567

PUSM2 4.092 0.819 0.872 2.022
PUSM3 3.893 0.769 0.863 1.902
OPI1 3.725 0.820 0.838 1.969
OPI2 3.775 0.824 0.850 1.958
OPI3 3.718 0.885 0.674 1.118
COV1 3.893 0.889 0.810 2.213
COV2 3.740 0.934 0.849 2.612
COV3 3.653 0.846 0.834 2.197
COV4 3.828 0.868 0.880 3.533
COV5 3.733 0.944 0.845 2.981
PFPR1 3.706 0.839 0.831 2.504
PFPR2 3.729 0.869 0.904 3.374
PFPR3 3.790 0.873 0.860 2.267
PFPR4 3.817 0.845 0.853 2.220
DEL1 3.966 0.817 0.879 2.750
Table 5. DEL2 4.011 0.813 0.906 3.161
Construct items DEL3 4.248 0.744 0.848 2.547
loadings DEL4 4.137 0.754 0.863 2.611

difference between the observed correlations and the model implied correlation matrix. The
values less than 0.8 are considered a good fit (Henseler et al., 2014). The second fit index is NFI
which computes the Chi-square value of the proposed model, and values above 0.9 denote an
acceptable fit (Ramayah et al., 2017). For this case, the SRMR value for the saturated model is
0.090, and for the estimated model is 0.099, which denotes an acceptable fit. The NFI value is
0.765, which denotes an acceptable fit.
 In addition, for a good model fit, normality assumptions are reconsidered while running Online shopping
PLS-SEM. This assumption argues that the sample mean should be distributed normally among older
(Weston and Gore, 2006). In order to fix the problem with the missing data, Rubin (1976)
argued that the data imputation approach is used when the likelihood technique evaluates the
adults of
parameters in SEM. Kosovo
Finally, biased data collection, as well as errors by respondents, may affect the model fit.
The researchers argue that it is important to conduct pre-tests that address measurement and
sampling errors (Kumar and Kumar, 2015).

4.3 Testing hypotheses and the moderating effect

The results also show that panic from perceived risk is positively and significantly related to
online purchase intention with path coefficient 5 0.373, t 5 5.350, p < 0.000, indicating that
H1 is supported. Regarding H2, results reveal a positive relation between COVID-19 as
perceived risk and online purchase intention with path coefficient 5 0.174, t 5 2.739,
p < 0.006, meaning that H2 is also supported.
Moreover, results from Table 6 show a significant positive relationship between perceived
usefulness of social media and online purchase intention with path coefficient 5 0.347,
t 5 6.432, p < 0.000, indicating that H4 is supported. In addition, results also reveal that
delivery time as perceived risk is also significantly related to online purchase intention with a
path coefficient 5 0.166, t 5 3.560, p < 0.000, supporting H5.
Finally, the SEM model has investigated the moderating effect of COVID-19 interaction on
panic in relation to online purchase intention. The moderating interaction denotes whether it
strengthens or weakens the direct effect of panic as perceived risk on online purchase
intention as an endogenous variable. Results in Table 5 reveal that COVID-19 significantly
affect panic and online purchase intention, thus, supporting H3 (with path coefficient 5 0.070,
t-value 5 2.027 and p-value 5 0.043). Therefore, all obtained results in Table 6 support all
hypotheses, i.e. H1, H2, H3, H4 and H5. We can support null hypotheses if the critical ratios for
the differences are smaller than
1.96 to þ1.96. Otherwise, we can assume a significant
difference between groups.

5. Discussion
Digital marketing is evolving day by day with more contemporary trends of sales and
communication with customers. Many studies have been conducted regarding consumer
behavior during online shopping. This study identified older adults and their purchase
intention as a gap from the literature review.

Path t
coefficient STDEV statistics p-values

H1. Panic from perceived risk → Online purchase 0.373 0.070 5.350 0.000
intention
H2. COVID19 as perceived risk → Online purchase 0.174 0.064 2.739 0.006
intention
H3. Moderation_COVID-19*panic → Online purchase 0.070 0.034 2.027 0.043
intention
H4. Perceived usefulness from social media → Online 0.347 0.054 6.432 0.000
purchase intention
H5. Delivery time as perceived risk → Online purchase 0.166 0.047 3.560 0.000 Table 6.
intention Hypotheses testing
IJOEM Thus, researchers have written very little about older adults’ online shopping behavior.
Empirical findings confirm that panic and COVID-19 as a perceived risk had an impact on
online purchase intention. Addo et al. (2020) emphasize that in cases of perceived risk and
panic, the causes of social awareness, consumers are inclined to buy products/services that
reduce the perceived risk and panic. Ali (2020) also confirmed that COVID-19 as the perceived
risk was a key variable that boosted online shopping. Online shopping was a real option,
while conventional shopping was considered secondary during the COVID-19 phase (Kim
et al., 2021). The panic variables and COVID-19 from perceived risk were adapted as
dependent variables from the TAM and E-TPB models. These were initially adapted by the
authors (Ishfaq and Mengxing, 2021; Soares et al., 2022) in the context of COVID-19. Chi (2018)
stated that TAM could be adapted to different contexts in online consumer behaviors.
In this way, the findings supported H1 and H2 that the panic from perceived risk and
COVID-19 as the perceived risk of infecting in physical stores impacted the growth of online
purchase intention in older adults. In order to test the moderation effect of COVID-19 on the
relationship between panic from perceived risk and purchase intention, a bootstrapping
technique was used through the SEM model. The findings also support H3 that COVID-19
moderates the relationship between panics from perceived and purchase intention,
contributing to an increase of online shopping, as individuals prefer to buy from home to
maintain social distance in physical stores.
Other findings also argue that perceived usefulness in social media positively impacts
online purchase intentions in older adults. As we have argued so far, many studies confirm
that one of the factors driving online shopping through social media is perceived usefulness.
Consumers have positive attitudes based on the perceived usefulness of advertising and
marketing activities on social media (Alalwan, 2018; Cho and Fiorito, 2009; Sin et al., 2012;
Venkatesh and Bala, 2008). The perceived usefulness is an essential variable of the TAM
model, adapted to the model as an independent variable by the authors Ishfaq and Mengxing
(2021). Researchers Ali Taha et al. (2021) argued that consumers over 50 preferred to use
social media to realize online shopping during the lockdown phase in European countries.
Perceived usefulness in social media in online purchase intention also advances the study of
McCloskey (2006), who investigated older adults in online shopping behavior and the study
was conducted when social media was not an up-to-date means of communication. In
addition, without a doubt, social media influenced the increase of trust in online transactions
(McCloskey, 2006). Therefore, H4 is supported from previous studies; perceived usefulness in
social media positively impacts online purchase intention. The authors Hruska and Maresova
(2020) also state that older adult consumers are loyal to their favorite social media platforms
and highly engage with them.
Moreover, this study found out that there is a correlation between delivery times and
perceived risk on purchase intention. Our results argue that consumer perceptions that
products will be delivered on time positively impacted online purchase intention. Delivery
risk is analyzed as a risk perceived by individuals who buy online, associated with delays and
the possibility of not receiving the product purchased online (Zhang et al., 2012). Companies,
therefore, need to work to reduce the perceived risk to delivery time on online sales platforms
(Tanadi et al., 2015). Since the lack of needed products was a factor that created panic in the
COVID-19 pandemic period, we conclude that the risk of delays in deliveries of products
purchased online was a key variable that determines online purchases (Addo et al., 2020).
Our results are also consistent with studies that claim that consumer perceptions that
there will be no delays in product deliveries positively impacted purchase intention (Dholakia
and Zhao, 2010; Monsuwe et al., 2004). Thus, based on the obtained results, we supported even
the last hypothesis (H5) that consumer perceptions that products will be delivered on time
positively impacted online purchase intention. Therefore, all research hypotheses are
supported in this study. Finally, the paper is expected to bring both theoretical and practical Online shopping
implications. among older
adults of
5.1 Theoretical implications Kosovo
The paper contributes to digital marketing literature by providing scientific evidence for
the behavior of older adults during online shopping. So far, no study has been found from
an emerging country like Kosovo studying this age group during the COVID-19
pandemic. In addition, another implication in digital marketing literature is the
enrichment of the model in online purchase intention by adding independent variables
that have not been sufficiently addressed so far in developing countries related to the
pandemic situation in purchasing intention, such as panic from perceived risk. The effect
of panic from perceived by COVID-19 also enriches the literature since it brings some
scientific evidence from an emerging country like Kosovo. Therefore, the paper sheds
some light concerning the gaps identified by some other previous studies (Ali, 2020;
Hernandez et al., 2011; Koch et al., 2020; McCloskey, 2006).

5.2 Practical implications

The study also provides some practical implications. First of all, it provides some evidence to
companies and business owners concerning the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on buying
behavior of consumers in a state of panic as perceived risk caused by this pandemic.
Changing consumer behavior, focusing on online shopping, avoiding contacts and
maintaining social distance are already trends. Secondly, this study provides scientific
evidence that even older adults are increasingly buying online, allowing businesses and
decision-makers to design the right online marketing strategies. Emami and Dimov (2017)
also argue that entrepreneurs can follow market dynamics and turn these identified changes
into opportunities to create new market values. Therefore, this study helps entrepreneurs
target and design appropriate strategies for older adults to see they have potential and are
open to online shopping.

6. Conclusion
Many companies are interested in conducting research regarding online shopping research,
as it enables them to design their online marketing strategies appropriately. Only minimal
studies have investigated the behavior of older adults during online shopping. With the
emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of individuals shopping online has
increased. As older adults were more at risk of infections, their consumer behavior changed
by focusing on online shopping. The study brings scientific evidence for an age group of
consumers not yet investigated in emerging countries. Gupta and Chennamaneni (2018)
argued that many studies had been conducted investigating young adult consumers’
behavior during online shopping; thus, it is important to have information on the older adult
consumer groups.
Like all other studies, this study has some limitations. The study focused only on
customers’ perspectives, not investigating the perspective on the part of companies. Since the
study was conducted during the pandemic, older adult consumers’ behavior may change as
the pandemic disappears, as well as many restrictive measures are not applicable. Older
consumers were included in this study without focusing on their socio-economic status since
the only criterion for being part of the sample was the age of the respondents. The majority of
respondents, about 76.72%, are aged 50–59 years; that is another limitation of this study by
focusing only on this age group. Finally, enlarging the sample size could provide more robust
findings for generalizing the research outcomes in other contexts.
IJOEM Further studies could additionally increase the sample over the age of 60 to get more
insights from other aged groups of consumers. Other studies may focus on other emerging
countries to look for similarities and differences of the old aged groups. Similar studies may
focus on the psychological contexts of older adult consumers in online purchase intention,
whether the impulsive or reactive factor influences their online purchase intention.

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About the authors

Asdren Toska is founder of Toska Electronics Company, and also part-time teaching assistant at the
Faculty of Economics at Kadri Zeka University in Gjilan, Kosovo. He completed his Bachelor studies at
the South East European University, Faculty of Economics, Department of Business Administration. He
completed his Master’s degree at the same university in the marketing field. He is currently a PhD
Candidate in Business Administration at the South East European University in Tetovo, North
Macedonia.
 Jusuf Zeqiri holds the position of Associate Professor of Marketing and International Business at the Online shopping
South East European University in Tetovo, Macedonia. He also holds a Master of Science in
International Trade from SS. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, University of Rennes, Rennes, among older
France, and a PhD from the SS. Cyril and Methodius University Skopje. He has also gained an online adults of
DBA from SMC University, Switzerland. He has more than 20 years teaching experience in various Kosovo
institutions. He has been teaching for 18 years at the undergraduate and graduate levels at South East
European University in Tetovo, Macedonia. He held lectures as a Visiting Professor at many domestic
and international educational institutions in the region of Southeast Europe. He has supervised many
students in Master and Doctoral theses. His research interest includes marketing and international
business. He has published many research papers in peer-reviewed scientific journals, and a reviewer for
many international journals. Dr.Zeqiri is in editorial board of Business System Research Journal and an
associate editor for International Journal of Islamic Marketing and Branding.
Veland Ramadani is a Professor of Entrepreneurship and Family Business at Faculty of Business
and Economics, South East European University, North Macedonia. His research interests include
entrepreneurship, small business management and family businesses. He authored or co-authored
around 170 research articles, 12 textbooks and 20 edited books. He has published in Journal of Business
Research, International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, International Journal of
Entrepreneurial Behavior and Research, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, among others.
Dr. Ramadani has recently published the book Entrepreneurial Family Businesses (Springer). Dr.
Ramadani is co-Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Enterprising Communities (JEC). He has received the Award
for Excellence 2016 — Outstanding Paper by Emerald Group Publishing. In addition, Dr. Ramadani was
invited as a keynote speaker in several international conferences and as a guest lecturer by President
University, Indonesia and Telkom University, Indonesia. During the 2017–2021 period served as a
member of Supervisory Board of Development Bank of North Macedonia, where for ten months served
as an acting Chief Operating Officer (COO) as well. Veland Ramadani is the corresponding author and
can be contacted at: v.ramadani@seeu.edu.mk
Samuel Ribeiro-Navarrete works at ESIC Business and Marketing School. He has published papers
in journals indexed in the WoS, such as International Journal of Information Management, Service
Industries Journal, Service Business, Economic Research, Technological Forecasting and Social Change,
International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior and Research, Journal of Business Research,
Knowledge Management Research and Practice, Review of Managerial Science, among others. He is editor
of a Springer book as well. He worked at EY (former Ernst and Young) and Societe Generale. He attended
and presented papers at several conferences.

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