Journal of Sport Psychology in Action

ISSN: 2152-0704 (Print) 2152-0712 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uspa20

Mental skills training in kendo: A reflection

on preparing for national competition

Takahiro Sato & Peter R. Jensen

To cite this article: Takahiro Sato & Peter R. Jensen (2019) Mental skills training in kendo: A
reflection on preparing for national competition, Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 10:1, 10-25, DOI:
10.1080/21520704.2018.1496212
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2018.1496212

Published online: 31 Dec 2018.

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JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION
2019, VOL. 10, NO. 1, 10–25
https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2018.1496212

Mental skills training in kendo: A reflection on

preparing for national competition
a b
Takahiro Sato and Peter R. Jensen
a
School of Nursing and Allied Health, Western New Mexico University, Silver City, New
b
Mexico, USA; United States Special Operations Command, Tampa, Florida, USA

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Kendo is a Japanese martial art utilizing a bamboo sword Combat sports; dual-
and an underrepresented performance area in the field of role relationships;
Japanese martial arts;
sport psychology. In response to recent demands to
motor skill acquisition;
embrace con-textual-specific interventions, this article video technologies
delineates a mental skills training intervention for a kendo
practitioner (i.e., kenshi) for competition at the United States
Kendo National Championships. The intervention consisted
of multiple stages: education, assessment, teaching mental
skills, applying mental skills into context, and evaluation.
Detailed discussions include special considerations in
kendo, use of video technologies, and dual-role
relationships between the kenshi and the consultant.

Introduction
A growing number of performers in various areas have been interested in
mental skills training to optimize their performance (Gould, 2002; Portenga,
Aoyagi, & Cohen, 2017). This includes not only traditional, competitive ath-
letes but also non-traditional athletes such as military personnel (Blank,
Sylvia, Garza, & Wade, 2014), business people (Fletcher, 2011; Ievleva &
Terry, 2008), and performing artists (Filho, Aubertin, & Petiot, 2016). In
response to these demands, discussions have emphasized that sport psych-
ology interventions should fit within specific contexts of target populations;
therefore, sport psychology consultants need to demonstrate a deep under-
standing of the contexts surrounding performers they work with, as well as
develop contextual intelligence and cultural competence (Mellalieu, 2017;
Schinke & Stambulova, 2016). Although sport psychology professionals have
disseminated their scholarly activities regarding various performance areas,
some areas remain waiting for scholarly products that unveil the nature of
these performance areas and present suggestions for mental skills training.
One of these areas is kendo, a Japanese martial art in which two competitors

CONTACT Takahiro Sato takahiro.sato@wnmu.edu School of Nursing and Allied Health,

Western New Mexico University, Silver City, NM 88061.
2018 Association for Applied Sport Psychology
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 11

use bamboo swords (i.e., shinai) in a fencing bout. Kendo demonstrates

multifaceted domains where kendo practitioners (i.e., kenshi) pursue
physical, technical, psychological, philosophical, and spiritual goals through
their training and competition (Sato, 2011). To date, there is scant literature
that guides sport psychology consultants in mental skills training for kenshi.
Therefore, the purpose of this article is to delineate our experiences in an
intervention of mental skills training with kenshi.

What is kendo?
Kendo can be classified as a combat sport, characterized as a contest between
two individuals in which the objective is to strike, grapple, and/or throw an
opponent (Lane, 2006). Sometimes referred to as Japanese fencing, kenshi use
bamboo swords (called shinai) and wear protective equipment (e.g., helmet,
gloves, etc.) during 5-min matches in which a winner is able to demonstrate a
valid strike with the shinai two times or at least once before the match time
expires. Referees declare a valid point only when kenshi achieve a valid strike
which requires kenshi to demonstrate an accurate strike on the opponent’s
head (i.e., men), wrist (i.e., kote), or ribs (i.e., do), or thrust at the throat (i.e.,
tsuki) with the correct part of shinai. Additionally, a valid strike must demon-
strate several other qualities that include: full spirit or “inner energy” (i.e.,
projecting ki or kiai; Sato, 2011, p.61); appropriate posture (e.g., upright pos-
ture); and zanshin. Zanshin is a concept rooted in historical Japanese martial
culture that reflects an integration of physical and mental alertness and readi-
ness following a kendo strike in which a kenshi is completely aware of and
ready for any possible counterattack by the opponent (Oda & Kondo, 2014).
As competition levels rise, the process to accomplish a valid strike tends to be
more complex, demanding well-coordinated body movements, agility, antici-
pation skills, and maneuver of the shinai (For more details about kendo, see
Kendo, 2009; Sato, 2011). Taken together, this multi-faceted Japanese martial
art possesses both distinctiveness from and similarities to other combat sports.
For example, the philosophical (e.g., showing zanshin) and spiritual (e.g.,
projecting ki) aspects that play a role in competitive performance seems to
distinguish kendo from other combat sports. Yet similar to other combat
sports, kenshi must also exercise superior physical (e.g., agility), technical
(e.g., maneuvering the shinai), and tactical (e.g., anticipating the opponent
movements) abilities over an opponent who is attempting to do the same in an
aggressively natured and oppositional contest.

The kenshi
The participant was a 42-year-old male kenshi with 16 years of experience in
kendo, but had no previous exposure to systematic mental skills training.
12 T. SATO AND P. R. JENSEN

He was employed full-time and usually attended kendo practice twice a week
for two hours per session before the intervention began. The kenshi and the
first author had previously trained together at the same kendo club for five
years; they had brief conversations about mental skills training after the
kenshi was invited to the first round of tryouts for a regional position at the
All United States Kendo National Championships.

The consultant
The consultant embraced a Phenomenological Consulting approach in
working with the kenshi (Hector, Raabe, & Wrisberg, 2018). With an
emphasis on the athlete’s voice as the principle guide for the performance
intervention, the consultant first took efforts to set aside his a priori
assumptions about the kenshi. For example, the consultant practiced kendo
and shared the kendo philosophy that lifelong activity in sport was a way to
cultivate a personal growth and meaning in life. Despite these views, the
consultant aimed to set them aside in order to more clearly grasp kenshi’s own
experiences and perspective on kendo. Through open-ended questions during
early conversations, the consultant increased the kenshi’s awareness of his
thoughts and feelings about kendo and the upcoming National
Championships. With this shared understanding between the kenshi and the
consultant, the consultant could begin explaining his central approach of
integrating mental skills into regular practice to optimize quality of prac-tice,
promote synergistic effects to improve both mental skills and athletic
performance, and assist athletes in elaborating effective use of mental skills
on their own. For this intervention, the consultant employed a multi-stage
approach based on applied sport psychology literature (Cox, 2012; Mathers,
2017; Mathers & Brodie, 2011). More specifically, the intervention consisted
of the following stages: education, assessment, teaching mental skills, apply-
ing mental skills into context, and evaluation (see Table 1 for an overview).

Education
Seven weeks prior to the first round of tryouts (i.e., eight months prior to the
U.S. Nationals Championships), the kenshi and consultant had an informal
conversation about mental skills training. During the conversa-tion, the
consultant shared his philosophy and general approach for mental skills
training that included the following areas: (a) assisting the kenshi in setting
specific goals through self-profiling activities, (b) guiding the kenshi in
creating weekly training protocols to serve as signposts for goal accom-
plishments, and (c) helping the kenshi reach optimal performance through
training on specific mental skills (e.g., imagery). The consultant also
explained confidentiality as an ethical standard for mental skills training
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 13

Table 1. Overview of multi-stage mental skills training for the kenshi.

Stage Title of Stage
1 Education
2 Assessment
3 Teaching mental skills
4 Applying mental skills into
context
5 Evaluation
Descriptions
Share philosophy and general approach for mental skills training
Self-profile to find strengths and areas to improve
Set physical, technical, tactical, and mental goals
Create weekly training protocols
Teach mental skills:
Imagery (e.g., utilize multiple senses)
Self-talk (e.g., keyword)
Attentional focus strategies (e.g., internal and external focus)
Utilize mental skills in specific kendo drills:
Scrimmage
Uchikomi-geiko
Jigeiko
Evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention:
Attitudes towards mental skills training
Verbal and written feedback
Kendo performance improvements

Table 2. Overview of the kenshi’s goals.

Category Goals
Physical To increase stamina so as to fight five bouts on one day.
To strengthen target muscles associated with kendo strikes.
Technical To narrow down into particular kendo techniques to use for a bout.
To improve speed and accuracy of the techniques selected.
Tactical To create “game plans” including multiple segments of a bout (i.e., beginning, middle, and end).
To cautiously probe the opponent’s strengths and weakness at the beginning of a bout.
To actively execute a strike on the opponent to achieve a valid strike in the middle of a bout.
To stay cautious to keep risk of receiving a counterattack low at the end of a bout when
leading or being tied.
To exert all energy to achieve a valid strike at the end of a bout when losing.
Mental To be confident but stay cautious throughout a bout.
To clear mind with focus on tactics for a bout.

interventions so the kenshi understood that anything discussed between the

kenshi and the consultant would not be shared without permission from the
kenshi. It was during this conversation that the kenshi showed interest in a
more extensive mental skills training experience with the consultant.

Assessment
Following the kenshi’s request for mental skills training, the consultant
emailed an assessment form for the kenshi to complete. The form consisted of
questions that developed a profile of the kenshi’s views on his strengths and
areas to improve in technical, tactical, physical, and psychological aspects of
his kendo performance (Butler, Smith, & Irwin, 1993; Mathers, 2017;
Mathers & Brodie, 2011). Additionally, the form served to initiate self-
reflection by the kenshi and foster self-awareness. This activity facili-tated
subsequent discussions at the next meeting to explore the identified strengths
and areas to improve, set specific goals in these four areas, and establish
weekly training protocols.
14 T. SATO AND P. R. JENSEN

Goal-setting

The first formal meeting occurred face-to-face about six weeks prior to the
tryouts with the objective to further discuss goals and weekly training proto-
cols the kenshi had drafted. The discussions at this meeting expanded upon
the initial self-assessment and goal-setting with the consultant’s guidance.
This interactive, educational session enabled the kenshi to revise his goals
which detailed physical, technical, tactical, and mental aspects in order for
him to reach optimal performance at a kendo match (see Table 2 for an over-
view). The revised goals particularly emphasized: increasing physical condi-
tioning aspects, selecting specific kendo techniques needing improvement for
competition, and outlining competitive tactics for development.

Weekly training protocols

The initial meeting helped the kenshi not only revise his goals but also cre-ate
weekly training protocols focusing on the four areas (i.e., physical, tech-nical,
tactical, mental; Blumenstein, Lidor, & Tenenbaum, 2005). The consultant
stressed that these protocols would serve as a roadmap to achieve his goals
and make his daily training more deliberate and impact-ful. Due to the time
constraints associated with full-time employment, the kenshi had team
practice at his club two days a week and another day which the kenshi set
aside for individual training. In addition to kendo training, the intervention
protocol added periodized strength and condi-tioning to address the kenshi’s
concerns about a lack of stamina and phys-ical strength for national-level
competition. The consultant arranged assistance from a professional strength
and conditioning coach to create a physical training protocol for the kenshi
based on a movement analysis of kendo, his personal profile (e.g., age,
training history), and time availability.

Teaching mental skills

The discussions from the initial meeting introduced the kenshi to examples of
mental skills and the possible benefits, such as fundamental aspects on per-
formance imagery. The kenshi was particularly intrigued by the possibility of
mentally reproducing multiple senses (e.g., visual, auditory, tactile, kines-
thetic senses) to improve his skill execution in performance settings. He also
showed interest in using keywords (i.e., self-talk) for controlling arousal level
and facilitating effective use of imagery. The kenshi was also interested in
attentional focus strategies (i.e., internal and external focus of attention) in
later stages while exploring further advancements of his kendo techniques.
The following sections describe specific sessions that provided the kenshi
with instructions of imagery, self-talk, and attentional focus strategy.
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 15

Imagery

The consultant met privately with the kenshi to educate on a deliberate

process of performance imagery. Consistent with recent research showing the
value of practicing imagery concurrent with physical practice, the ken-shi and
consultant were both holding shinai while wearing competitive equipment
(e.g., helmet, gloves) and facing each other at a striking distance used for
competition (Post, Williams, Simpson, & Berning, 2015). First, the consultant
had the kenshi close his eyes and image the consultant standing at their
current physical distance; the kenshi was then asked to imagine executing his
best men strike utilizing multiple senses (e.g., visual, kines-thetic senses) on
the consultant’s helmet. Next, the consultant instructed the kenshi to
physically strike the consultant’s helmet only when the kenshi could generate
a clear image of the men strike in his mind. Initially, it took some time for the
kenshi to create the image of the strike in his mind. However, the consultant
assured him that he should take as much time as necessary instead of
executing a strike prematurely. As the session pro-gressed, the intervals
between his building a clear image of the men strike and executing it became
shorter. As the session further continued, the con-sultant came to realize that
the men strike was becoming so explosive and powerful that the consultant
felt not only more impact of the strike on his head but also felt “inner energy”
(i.e., ki; Sato, 2011, p. 61) projected from the kenshi. This initial imagery
session made the kenshi aware that practice was necessary to learn imagery
and, more importantly, convinced him that imagery would help improve his
kendo performance.

Self-talk

The kenshi’s mental goal was to remain confident yet cautious during a
match. Since the kenshi appeared to struggle in describing subtle details of his
ideal mental state, the consultant suggested that he use a keyword that
represented the totality of the mental state he was aiming to achieve (Ravizza
& Hanson, 1995). The kenshi used the term in a proactive manner to elicit a
positive motivational response and, as a symbolized term, it was appropriate
in training and competition due to the minimal cognitive demand on the
kenshi (Van Raalte, Vincent, & Brewer, 2016). The kenshi chose taisho as
his keyword, which is a Japanese word that translates as a leader of a group,
particularly a military general; however, the term also represents the title of
the last competitor at team competition in kendo. Taking a closer look at this
term in kendo culture, taisho is not only the last person who may be
responsible for his or her team’s victory at the last match but also is the one
who is expected to demonstrate the team’s pride and dignity through both
performance and behavior. The kenshi chose the
16 T. SATO AND P. R. JENSEN

term because he hoped to serve as taisho for the regional team, while
believing the term precisely expressed the mental state he aimed to achieve.

Attentional focus strategy

While the kenshi was exploring further advancements of his kendo techni-
ques, the consultant noticed that he tended to over analyze his form and
movements; therefore, the consultant taught him internal and external focus of
attention strategy and explained distinct roles to implement these skills into
strategy during an individual training session. In order for the kenshi to better
understand the distinct roles, the consultant integrated both approaches into
practice for kendo techniques. First, the consultant had the kenshi image his
strike utilizing internal focus (e.g., body move-ments) before having the
kenshi strike the consultant several times. Next, the kenshi imagined his strike
with an external focus (e.g., shinai hitting on the specific body target) before
striking the consultant. Given the evidence suggesting the value of external
over internal focus in motor skill execution (e.g., Wulf, 2013), as he
continued to utilize this skill, the kenshi described experiencing
improvements in the accuracy in his strike and ended up inte-grating external
focus strategy into imagery as part of his pre-performance routine. Consistent
with skilled performers in other sports, the kenshi con-tinued leveraging
internal focus in other areas of his practice (Fairbrother, Post, & Whalen,
2016). For example, the kenshi utilized an internal focus strategy during his
daily suburi (i.e., solo practice swinging with shinai) training in order to
examine and refine specifics in his technical skills.

Applying mental skills into context

As the kenshi became familiar with mental skills, the intervention shifted
gears toward more competition specific approaches (Blumenstein et al.,
2005). To achieve this goal, the consultant arranged an individual training
session consisting of sets of three-minute scrimmages, followed by a two-
minute break. The aim of this training was to assist the kenshi in learning how
to establish and carry out a pre-performance routine for an upcoming
scrimmage while handling physical demands (e.g., stamina) during a series of
scrimmages. A 3-min scrimmage proceeded with a prearranged kendo drill as
follows: the consultant proactively executed a strike on a specific target (e.g.,
men) on the kenshi; as soon as the kenshi identified a cue from the
consultant, he responded to the cue from multiple options such as deflecting
the shinai and striking back or making a preemptive strike if the consultant
idled too long. The kenshi then physically rested at the end of the scrimmage
and utilized imagery during the rest period to mentally
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 17

reproduce an opponent’s cues and image executing his best strike as a

response to the cues (i.e., cognitive specific imagery). The initial sessions
included only either men or kote strikes from the consultant followed by
both strikes in random order that required the kenshi to deal with a broader
number of stimulus-response sequences and arrange his pre-per-formance
routine accordingly (i.e., dealing with circumstances from one stimulus—
multiple responses to multiple stimuli—multiple responses; Fairbrother, 2010;
Williams & Ward, 2003).
As these drills helped the kenshi integrate his mental skills into more open-
skill conditions the consultant gradually increased the drill complexity with
kendo specific exercises, uchikomi-geiko and jigeiko. In uchikomi-geiko, the
consultant—acting as an opponent—abruptly left exposed one body area after
another (e.g., opening men, kote, men, do) where the kenshi had to identify
the open area and immediately execute a valid strike to the open area. This
training allowed the kenshi to establish and carry out his pre-performance
routine under more competition-like circumstances, such as mentally
rehearsing a rigorous strike in a split second while overcoming fatigue during
a two-minute break. Jigeiko, free-style sparring intended to represent
competition conditions, necessitated the kenshi to exert all of his physical and
mental skills into sparring (Christina & Alpenfels, 2002). Furthermore,
jigeiko particularly made the consultant and the kenshi aware of the necessity
in refining his mental skills. For instance, the kenshi real-ized the importance
of mental rehearsal for projecting his ki (e.g., “inner energy”) in order to put
more pressure on the opponent (see Sato, 2011 for more detailed descriptions
of ki). The kenshi and the consultant also agreed that there were options to
accommodate quick imagery during a match. In order to explore these
options, the consultant helped the kenshi create “flash light” imagery so that
the kenshi would be able to utilize imagery, striking the opponent and hearing
a crisp sound of the strike, during a short pause in a match, such as while the
kenshi was returning to the start-ing position at the center of the court after
scoring a valid point.
As described above, mental skills training became a significant part of the
kenshi’s regular practice. The consultant made continuous efforts to enhance
the intervention by incorporating the kenshi’s interest in video technologies
with the ongoing mental skills training. The following section demonstrates
detailed approaches with video technologies utilized for the intervention.

Video technologies

The kenshi was an avid fan of filming his performance on a regular basis and
thus, video technologies played a significant role in this intervention mainly
for movement analysis and as a supplemental tool for imagery
18 T. SATO AND P. R. JENSEN

sessions. For movement analysis, watching his own performance on video

clips helped him recognize specific areas of kendo techniques to improve and
subsequently improve these techniques (BenitezSantiago & Miltenberger,
2016; Ives, Straub, & Shelley, 2002). He also utilized video clips to measure
his striking speed by timing between the initiation of the striking motion and
the moment of the strike. This video analysis provided him with clear
evidence of his improvement in striking speed (Vickers, 2007). Furthermore,
the kenshi timed other national-level kenshi’s striking speed to set specific
goals for further improvements.
The imagery sessions benefited from video technologies in four ways. First,
the consultant edited the kenshi’s past performances to create high-lights of
his best strikes. The kenshi stored these videos on a portable video player that
allowed him to watch and integrate with imagery on a regular basis and at the
competition location. The video clip highlights assisted him to vividly
rehearse details of specific kendo techniques and boost his self-confidence by
reminding himself of these accomplishments and motiv-ation for further
improvements through daily training (Ives et al., 2002). Second, the kenshi
frequently watched international-level kendo performan-ces on video to
model a feeling of the optimal speed and body movements from these experts
(Boyer, Miltenberger, Batsche, & Fogel, 2009). Third, he studied possible
opponents through video clips to tailor his game plans for each of them,
specifically attempting to identify how best to leverage his strengths against
any of his opponents’ weaknesses (Wrisberg, 2007). Finally, the consultant
created a video clip by attaching a small video cam-era inside of the kenshi’s
helmet showing the opponent standing and mov-ing around in front of the
camera. This video clip was beneficial for the kenshi to be able to image
himself executing a strike on the opponent from his point-of-view (i.e., first
person perspective).

Evaluation
The consultant regularly evaluated the effectiveness of the interventions on
the kenshi in multiple ways. The evaluation methods included examining:
(a) the kenshi’s attitudes towards mental skills training, (b) verbal and writ-
ten feedback from the kenshi, and (c) kendo performance improvements
(Anderson, Mahoney, Miles, & Robinson, 2002; Sharp & Hodge, 2011;
2014). The following sections discuss details of these evaluation methods.

Attitudes to mental skills training

The consultant considered certain behavior from the kenshi as positive

indicators of active involvement in and commitment to mental skills
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 19

training (Anderson, et al., 2002; Sharp & Hodge, 2011; 2014). For instance,
the kenshi promptly returned self-profiling and goal-setting paperwork that
evidenced time and effort invested in the assessments. The consultant, as a
teammate at the same kendo club as the kenshi, observed that the kenshi
brought notes to kendo practice sessions that served as daily training goal
reminders. The consultant also observed the kenshi utilizing imagery dur-ing
practice sessions, as well as received his reflective comments about his
imagery practice at home through email communications and informal
conversations. Another positive indicator of the kenshi’s active involvement
included the kenshi gradually taking initiative to apply mental skills into his
practice (Sharp & Hodge, 2014). For instance, he integrated imagery into
physical conditioning sessions on his own in such a way that he imag-ined
executing a strike while breathing very heavily after sprinting so he could do
the same while severely fatigued at the end of a kendo match.

Verbal and written feedback

One advantage of the consultant and the kenshi both being members of the
same kendo club was the various means for the consultant to receive feedback
on the effectiveness of the intervention (Anderson et al., 2002). For instance,
conversations were easily initiated during strength and condi-tioning training
or individual training they spent together where the kenshi shared progress
and challenges, while working together to develop solutions (Sharp & Hodge,
2011). The consultant then wrote a summary of the con-versations and
provided the kenshi with the summary (Sharp & Hodge, 2014), which
together they called a “keiko (i.e., training or practice particu-larly used for
Japanese traditional arts) memo.” For instance, the consultant summarized
technical instruction about the quick version of imagery and possible options
as to when and how to use in a kendo match, as discussed during an
individual training session, so that subsequently the kenshi would be able to
explore how to integrate this technique into a kendo match.

In addition to the face-to-face conversations mentioned above, email

communications provided the kenshi and the consultant with opportunities to
share reflections and update each other. The following comment suggests the
effectiveness of goal-setting as the kenshi commented about successfully
passing the first round of tryouts for the national competition:
It was very effective for me to set goals and list up kendo techniques and tactics at the
early stages of the training sessions. It helped me create a weekly training schedule and
be aware of things to tackle each time. Weekly schedules for physical and mental
training made me feel the flow of practice to take steps toward goals and alleviated
anxiety during these preparatory periods.
20 T. SATO AND P. R. JENSEN

The kenshi also commented on the effectiveness of imagery and self-talk,

stating that, “mental training, particularly imagery and self-talk, was very
effective. I was able to gain control over my mind before and during a match.
It was my best ever mental game.” Furthermore, the following com-ment
suggests the value of the intervention recognizing the intertwined nature of
the physical, technical, and mental aspects, “improvements in physical
strengths and stamina helped me stay confident during a match, resulting in a
smooth skill execution and accomplishment of valid strikes at kendo
matches.”

Performance improvements

Improvements in kendo performance suggest the effectiveness of the inter-

vention (Anderson et al., 2002). As members of the same kendo club, the
consultant was able to observe the kenshi’s progress of mental skills and
performance improvements. For instance, the consultant realized that the
kenshi built up imagery more quickly and that his strike became stronger and
more accurate. The kenshi also gained confirmation about his improvements
in such ways as utilizing his own proprioceptive feedback (Fairbrother, 2010),
watching video clips of his performance (Rymal & Ste-Marie, 2017), and
receiving comments from fellow kenshi who had scrim-maged together for a
long period of time.
At the U.S. Nationals, the kenshi competed in both individual and team
divisions. He contributed to the team’s advancement to the quarterfinal round
where he defeated an individual who had won third place in the individual
division. After the competition, the kenshi shared his reflection about the
tournament with the consultant:
I was confident about myself while preparing for matches during the Nationals because
I put tireless efforts into my training and had well thought-out plans such as mental
preparation, detailed routine checklist, and specific tactics for matches. I realized
remarkable improvements in my stamina and speed compared with last year and was
happy with the fact that I gave it my all at the tournament.

Closing remarks
The mental skills training intervention began eight months prior to the U.S.
Nationals with two rounds of tryouts which were held seven and six months
before the Nationals, respectively. The intervention took place fre-quently in
the first three months under regular and deliberate guidance from the
consultant, then subsequently tapering off with the consultant’s guidance as
the kenshi became able to manipulate mental skills training on his own
(Mathers & Brodie, 2011). It should be noted that this intervention
 JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 21

design did not include causal mechanisms between the intervention and
performance or psychological variables. Additionally, sport psychology
interventions for a “real world” competition have a wide range of complex-
ities and limitations that make any form of rigorous measurement challeng-
ing under the best circumstances and were generally unfeasible for the
requirements of the kenshi. Given these aspects, there is no means to deter-
mine the extent to which the consultant’s mental skills training made changes
to any psychological aspects or performance areas in the kenshi. Nevertheless,
the multi-faceted, evidence-based approach, combined with the consultant’s
personal understanding of kendo and regular dialogue with the kenshi,
provided an intervention in keeping with best practices in the sport
psychology field. Additionally, the kenshi’s personal comments about the
mental skills training offers further assurance that the intervention approach
was sound, even if the objective effectiveness could be measured. The initial
assessment and goal-setting covered the kenshi’s physical, tech-nical, tactical,
and mental aspects served as the foundation for weekly train-ing protocols
within these four areas. A lack of physical strength and stamina was one of
the kenshi’s deepest concerns at the beginning of the intervention; however,
improvements in physical aspects remarkably enhanced his self-confidence in
not only strength and speed but also kendo techniques being more effective.
As such, the intervention demonstrated a holistic and synergistic approach in
aiming to enhance these four areas (Blumenstein et al., 2005).

As teammates at the same kendo club, the kenshi and the consultant were in
a dual-role relationship. Although there is little literature regarding teammate-
consultant dual-role relationships, there may have been an issue of role
conflict, found with other of dual-role relationships (e.g., coach-sport
psychology consultant) that can impact athlete responses during assessment
(Buceta, 1993; Ellickson & Brown, 1990) and complicate inter-personal
boundaries (Buceta, 1993; Ellickson & Brown, 1990). However, in this
intervention it appears the advantages of the teammate-consultant rela-
tionship outweighed any potential disadvantages, most likely because the
kenshi and consultant were not on the same competitive level, and the con-
sultant was aware of clear boundaries, thus not making any comments about
the kenshi’s kendo techniques without request from the kenshi. For instance,
there was an occasion when the kenshi asked the consultant a technical
question about the holding position of the shinai and then, the consultant
shared his opinion with the kenshi. The advantages of the five-year
relationship included requiring no time for building rapport (Smith, 1992),
having a good understanding of the kenshi (Smith, 1992) and the nature of
kendo (Buceta, 1993), and making the process easier to integrate mental skills
training into kendo practice (Buceta, 1993; Smith 1992).
22 T. SATO AND P. R. JENSEN

It is recommended that sport psychology consultants develop awareness of

special considerations in providing mental skills training for kenshi. It is
strongly recommended that consultants consider that a wide range of men-tal
approaches have been anecdotally passed down throughout the history of
kendo. Over the history of the martial art, kenshi have conceptualized these
mental approaches and labeled the concepts with kendo terms. For instance,
the term, ki-ken-tai-icchi, represents the optimal, harmonious function of
three elements of spirit (i.e., ki), sword (i.e., ken), and body movements (i.e.,
tai). The consultant took advantage of the kenshi’s know-ledge of this term
and integrated the concept into his mental approach such as striking with
synchronization of all three elements or projecting ki toward the opponent
when utilizing imagery. Another kendo term, metsuke (i.e., attention),
reveals the importance of attentional focus strategy at a kendo match. For
instance, the term, enzan-no-metsuke, which literally means “looking at a
far mountain (Nakamura, 2009, p. 315)” indicates the importance of utilizing
external, peripheral vision when looking at the opponent. The kenshi’s
understanding of this term helped him understand and employ an external
focus in a general area of where to expect perform-ance cues from his
opponent, rather than a narrower focus of deliberately searching specific body
areas of his opponent or his opponent’s shinai for cues (Kibele, 2006).

Besides blending mental approaches with kendo tradition in the interven-

tion, the consultant needed to take the kenshi’s philosophical and spiritual
approaches into consideration as broader contextual structure for the mar-tial
art (Schinke, 2004). There was a moment when the kenshi struggled with a
dilemma between respecting kendo philosophy and taking priority only for
victory at a match. More specifically, the kenshi pursued the improvements in
striking with solid, aesthetic body movements that was based on the style of
ancient samurai sword fighting while being tempted by a winning-at-all-cost
approach, such as attempting as many strikes as possible with deceptive
movements; the consultant just listened to him, and the kenshi ended up
staying with the samurai philosophy.

Acknowledgment
The authors deeply appreciate the kenshi providing valuable lessons to share from this
intervention experience.

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