THE CAMPAIGNS OF KING DAVID

Historical Commentary
By Andy Nunez

David was unique among all kings of the region known as “Greater Israel” to
scholars. He was the only king of Israel or Judah to be called David. Recognized by all
three main branches of what is known as the Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity
and Islam, he is the romantic ideal of a warrior king: brave, handsome, a man of many
talents, and above all a conqueror. His actions in history have left a footprint that can
still be seen in the region he ruled to this day. Who was this king of Israel and how did
he accomplish the transition from loosely connected clan regions to a mini-empire? Let’s
take a look.

Background: The Land and the People

Between Africa and Asia Minor is a small strip of land full of hills and plains bordered
by the Mediterranean on one side and the Jordan River on the other. This land was called
Canaan and was home to several small groups, the Canaanites occupying the valleys and
towns and the Hebrews or Israelites occupying the hills. Across the Jordan were groups
like the Moabites, the Ammonites, and the Syrians. In the 12th century BC a power
vacuum existed between two of the great powers of the era, Egypt and the Hittite Empire.
The coming of the Sea-Peoples severely damaged the former and destroyed the latter.
These roving bands of warriors worked for other kings as mercenaries or decided to loot
and grab territory on their own. A few generations before David, a branch of the Sea-
Peoples called Philistines grabbed part of the coast and settled in five walled city-states
that formed a loose confederation. They severely weakened the Canaanites and soon
came up against the Israelites.
There was no king of the Israelites at that time. The 12 tribes of Israel were
scattered throughout the hills and usually relied on a charismatic leader called a Shoftim
or “Judge” to handle aggression from local adversaries. The incursions by the Philistines
were better organized and they temporarily snatched the Israelites’ sacred Ark of the
Covenant, containing the laws of Israel that tradition claimed had been handed directly to
Israelite leader Moses by God Himself. The tribal leaders felt that the Philistines were
too powerful to be resisted in the traditional manner and that they threatened to split the
Israelities by occupying the hills of Ephraim and Benjamin. They sent a delegation to the
prophet Samuel, the most influential Israelite of his time, and asked for a king to unite
them.

Background: The Change to a Kingdom

Samuel felt that the old ways were the best, but the elders would not be dissuaded
and he reluctantly agreed. The first king of Israel was a fellow named Saul, from the
tribe of Benjamin. He was a tall man, and his size influenced the selection process since
he would look impressive leading the Israelites. Though a seemingly modest man, Saul
was a fighter. He wasted little time in forming a standing army from the best of the
tribes’ warriors and went straight at the Philistines near his hometown of Gibeah. He
commanded three thousand men, putting a third of them under his son Jonathan. He
uprooted the Philistine garrison nearby, causing an uproar on both sides. Soon, men were
flocking to him at Gilgal, only a few miles west of the Jordan River. The Philistines
gathered a huge army including chariots, and drove to Michmash, but the chariots had
trouble in the hilly terrain. Saul used the terrain to his advantage for defensive purposes
and his son Jonathan made a daring raid on one flank, causing confusion in the Philistine
ranks and allowing Saul to drive the Philistines out, but his victory was tainted by
differences with Samuel over religious matters. However, the complete rout of the
Philistines allowed Saul to consolidate his position and drive back incursions from
neighboring tribes of Ammon, Moab, Edom and Zobah, as well as keep the Philistines at
bay.
Saul’s final break with Samuel came about over a dispute about the king’s battle
against the Amalekites. This Bedouin tribe from the Negev region was a serious enemy
of the Israelites. According to scripture, The Amalekites opposed the Israelites when
they came out of Egypt under Moses, hundreds of years before. Samuel informed Saul
that God was done with the Amalekites and that the king was to exterminate them all
including their livestock. The size of Saul’s army is a likely exaggeration, but he drew a
large force together and devastated the entire region from Havilah to Shur. He did not,
however, manage to exterminate the Amalekites because David had to deal with them
during his reign. He did, however, bring back Agag, the king of the Amalekites to
Samuel along with some choice livestock, ostensibly for sacrifice. Samuel became
enraged at Saul’s disobedience to the point of taking a sword and carving up Agag.
What happened next has several threads in the scriptures, but Samuel went out an
anointed the youngest son of a man named Jesse. This sheepherder’s name was David.
Samuel retired from public life after that and soon died. David eventually made his way
to court, and became attached to Saul’s retinue.

David and Saul

Saul was again embroiled in war with the Philistines. The two armies were lined up on
opposite sides of the valley of Elah. David’s prowess as a fighter is told in the tale of his
duel with Goliath of Gath, a titanic Philistine over nine feet tall. Whether the story is
true, or attached to David to explain his rise in Saul’s household (Further on in the second
book of Samuel we find a different warrior from Bethlehem killed Goliath and this is
muddled in the first book of Chronicles by saying that it was Goliath’s brother.
Apparently Gath was a center for giants, for no less than 4 from there were killed during
David’s lifetime.). Regardless, David’s prowess that day in slaying the Philistine
champion gave heart to the Israelites and they swarmed down the valley to send the
Philistines packing.
At this point, Saul had become depressed due to Samuel’s prophecy that he would
not be the start of a dynasty. This is understandable and Saul is almost a tragic figure
here, seeing his victories turn bitter because he was convinced that the Spirit of God had
left him. David’s presence at first cheered him, because David was an accomplished poet
and musician. His skills in battle gave Saul reason to promote him to command status
and David became close friends with Saul’s oldest son Jonathan. Saul also gave his
daughter Michal to David in marriage. David’s star soared after this, and Saul gave him
larger and larger responsibilities and missions.
Soon, the people of Israel were rejoicing over David’s exploits, elevating him
above Saul in song and celebration. Saul’s depression deepened as jealousy blossomed.
He became angry and tried to kill David with a javelin. Saul’s jealousy was put aside
when the Philistines renewed the attack and David was sent to stop them. He again
defeated the Philistines, causing Saul more rage and envy. Saul attempted to kill David
once more, but Michal helped him escape. He fled to Ramah to visit Samuel and with
Jonathan’s help eluded Saul. From then on, David was a fugitive, scurrying from tribe to
tribe, first to Nob, then to Gath, then to Moab, finally to the woods of Judah.
Saul followed and his frustration caused him to commit atrocities, including the
killing of 85 priests at Nob and their families for taking David in. David continued to
move about and gathered a following of loyal men who shared his bandit existence. Saul
continued to pursue David, sometimes personally, and they played a cat and mouse game
the length of Israel. Finally, feeling the heat, David and 600 followers offered their
swords to Achish, king of Gath, their former enemy. David’s reputation so entranced
Achish that he made David’s men his bodyguard in the tradition of leaders who feel that
strangers would be loyal only to them. He served Achish for over a year.
The Philistines, seeing the turmoil in Israel and Saul’s ability to maintain the unity
of the tribes slipping, decided it was time to make another attempt to divide and conquer
Israel. They assembled a massive army at Aphek, near modern Tel Aviv. Samuel had
died, and Saul feared the worse, consulting every method of divination he could muster in
search of a prophecy about the coming battle. Meanwhile, David was dismissed from
Philistine service because the kings of the other city-states of the Philistines feared that
David would switch sides during the battle. He was sent to the backwater of Ziklag
where he found that the not-so-exterminated Amalekites had raided the city and carried
off the population. David caught up with them and retook the booty and prisoners,
adding the livestock of the Amalekites to his inventory in the process. He sent presents
to the leaders of all the major cities in Judah as a token of his appreciation for their
service during his flight from Saul.
Saul met the Philistines at Mount Gilboa. The battle raged, but eventually turned
against the Israelites and Saul was trapped on the mountain with three of his sons and his
bodyguard. Hemmed in, they fought in grim desperation until the Philistines brought up
archers. Saul had the unfortunate lot to see his three sons fall first as they protected him,
then he was wounded by an arrow and decided to fall upon his sword rather than undergo
torture by the Philistines. The Philistines took their bodies and hung them from the walls
of Beth-shan, but a group of volunteers launched a nighttime raid and got the bodies back
for ritual cremation.

David the King

The defeat of Saul meant that the Israelite confederation was shattered. The best warriors
in Saul’s army had been killed and the countryside in panic at the possibility of a
Philistine conquest. The people of Judah readily accepted David as their king. As this
happened, the remainder of Saul’s forces rallied under Abner, one of Saul’s right hand
men, and put his son Ish-baal (means “man of god”) on the throne of Israel at Mahanaim,
while David established Hebron as his capital. Ish-baal, scorned by the chroniclers as
Ishboshet (means “man of shame”) was not a strong commander like his father and relied
on Abner to take charge of the army. A battle for control of all Israel was unavoidable as
the two armies advanced into the vacuums between their respective capitals.
 We can only assume that the Philistines, satisfied that the Israelites were divided,
were sitting back waiting for the civil war to finish off the remnant of Israel’s finest
warriors and then they would step in and clean up the exhausted survivors. At any rate,
perhaps out of respect for David’s service to Achish, the Philistines stayed out of the
way. Or it could be that incursions from Egypt kept them from turning their attention
east again. We simply do not know.
David appointed his nephew Joab as commander of his army, who along with
Joab’s younger brother Asahel, moved north as Abner moved south. The two forces met
at Gibeon just north of Jerusalem. At that time, Jerusalem was an independent city-state
of a non-Israeli tribe called the Jebusites. The chroniclers note that the two armies met at
the pool of Gibeon, actually a massive cistern 11 meters wide and 10 meters deep with
staircases and a tunnel connecting it to the city.
In traditional fashion, the two armies first attempted a trial of strength. 12 men
from each army faced off and, according to the chroniclers, killed each other, leaving the
outcome indecisive. So, battle was joined and Abner’s men, probably less experienced
that David’s veterans of his exile and the battle with the Amalekites, fell back. Asahel,
young, fast, and brazen, caught up with Abner and challenged him to personal combat.
Abner tried to dissuade the young man, but to no avail. The fight was swift and decisive.
The chroniclers tell us that Abner displayed why he was leader by reversing the spear to
confuse Asahel and running him through the body using the pointed butt of the spear.
Though the spear may not have had a sharpened butt, like the Macedonian sarissa, Abner
may have simply wished to knock the wind out of the youth and instead fatally ruptured
his internal organs.
Abner lost 300 men and made a stand upon a hill, with the Benjaminites forming
up behind him. He appealed to Joab for a ceasefire, knowing that to continue the battle
would be a terrific loss of life. Joab, seeing the difficult terrain, and knowing he had lost
only 19 men, agreed to cease hostilities. With vengeance in his heart, he returned to
Hebron with his brother’s body. After the funeral, he took the field again and gradually
forced David’s frontiers farther and farther north. Abner managed to keep Ish-baal on the
throne and gained power and renown, but he knew that David was growing stronger each
day as he pressed the attack, while Abner was forever on the defensive. There is
speculation that Abner’s army was mainly made up of manpower from Benjamin and the
rest of the tribes were indifferent to the power struggle. It is also possible that David’s
army fared better because they possessed a higher ratio of iron weapons, since the
Philistines had transitioned to iron weapons (see the scriptural details of Goliath’s armor)
and had refused to share the technology with the Israelites to keep them at a
disadvantage. David, having become a vassal to Achish, might have had access to
Philistine iron weapons and when he became king in Judah, he parceled out his loyal
band from his days at Ziklag, so that the officers and top fighters were better equipped
than their Israelite opposites.
Ironically, it was not military prowess that ended the conflict but a woman. Ish-
baal became upset with Abner for having a relationship with Rizpah, a concubine of Saul.
Ish-baal probably feared that Abner was using the relationship in a bid to topple Ish-baal
and make himself the heir to Saul, since the only other male heir of any consequence was
Jonathan’s crippled son Mephibosheth (originally Meribaal “he who strives for the Lord”,
but translated as “he who spreads shame”), a young boy who was dropped during the
confusion after the death of Jonathan and was lame in both legs. Abner became enraged
at this insinuation and stormed out with a promise to give the crown of all Israel to David.
He next sent envoys to David asking for terms to hand over the northern kingdom.
David was ready to work with Abner, even to the point of overlooking the death of his
nephew at Abner’s hands, but he had one condition. During his exile, Saul had annulled
David’s marriage to Michal and given her to another man. Send me Michal, David
replied, and we will talk face to face. David had no burning interest in Michal, since he
had married two other wives during his exile and had taken four more wives while at
Hebron, all of whom had born him children. However, Michal was his link to the
legitimacy of being heir to Saul, the very act that Ish-baal had broken with Abner over.
Abner was nobody’s fool and delivered up Michal, complete with her replacement
husband in tow, who followed her and cried after her in such a pitiful manner than Abner
sent him away. The future seemed locked up for David.
Then, it almost fell apart. Abner came to see David and was feted by the king of
Judah. Abner promised to guarantee uniting the tribes under David, and David sent him
away to tour the tribal elders and gain their acceptance of David. Joab had been out in
the field taking care of border raids and when he returned and found out that his sworn
enemy had become the ally of David, he flew into a rage and upbraided David for his
actions. Getting no satisfaction from his king, Joab sent false messages to Abner to lure
him back to Hebron. Joab waylaid Abner at the gate and stabbed him in the exact spot
that his brother had been wounded. David had to do sudden and profound damage
control and not only spoke at Abner’s funeral, but led the funeral procession.
The death of Abner shook the Benjaminite led northern alliance under Ish-baal.
The son of Saul lost heart and retreated to his bed. Two Benjaminite brothers sneaked in
and killed him, bringing his severed head to David. Shocked by this barbarous act of
treason against an appointed ruler, David had the brothers put to death on the spot. The
tribal elders, concerned that Israel’s enemies would be emboldened by the civil strife,
came to David and swore fealty to him, saying: “We are your bone and flesh”. By this
ritual, David united the 12 tribes and reorganized the two armies into one, appointing
Joab and his brother as its leaders.

David establishes his kingdom

David decided to find a central stronghold from which to rule Israel and marched
against the independent Jebusite city of Jerusalem. Jerusalem had been a flourishing city
for centuries and its kings had once been vassals to Egypt. David’s army surrounded the
strong walls of its citadel and demanded its surrender. The Jebusite leaders taunted him
by setting the blind and lame on the walls to curse him with ancient heathen spells.
Rather than risk unnecessary casualties in storming the walls, David’s men discovered
the water channel leading to the city’s interior and climbed it, charging out and surprising
the Jebusites. Archaeological work has shown that the watercourse was natural, but
widened by human hands just prior to this time period. Most likely the Israelite warriors
managed to open the city gates and the rest of the army rushed in. David offered to
reward the first to break into the city with commands. Joab made sure that he was the
first, and the others who participated were given high ranks as well. Rather than slay the
inhabitants, David absorbed them into his kingdom.
 The taking of Jerusalem meant that the last Caananite power center had fallen.
David set about improving the fortifications and consolidating his rule over Israel. His
former friends in the city-states of Philistia became alarmed at his sudden rise to power
and the grabbing of Jerusalem. Having the city in Israelite hands put the center of
Hebrew political and military might poised like a dagger ready to strike. More alarming,
the king of Tyre in Phoenicia paid tribute to David and sent him cedar to build a palace.
The Philistines felt they had to strike first and gathered their army for a march, moving
along what the compilers tell us was the Valley of Rephaim. The Rephaim were
supposed to be a race of giants, mostly killed off hundreds of years ago. Modern scholars
have pinpointed it as being slightly southwest of Jerusalem.
There, he came upon the Philistine camp. The chroniclers do not exactly say how
the battle went. One of them notes that a brave band actually crept through the Philistine
lines and got water from the well at Bethlehem for David to drink. He was so impressed
that he poured it out in tribute to their bravery. This leads one to believe that the
Philistines had enough advance warning to put up some sort of defense. We are told that
David broke through their lines with such fury that he likened it to a dam being burst and
named the town Baal-perazim, which more or less means “breach of the Lord”. One
source indicates that God went before him and caused the breach, another that He gave
David strength to break through. It is not unlikely that David attacked during a
thunderstorm and a flash flood may have washed away part of the defensive line. At any
rate, the breakthrough was so sudden that David’s men drove deep into the Philistine
position and in a reversal of fortune, grabbed up the Philistine idols much as the
Philistines had one stolen the Ark of the Covenant. The Philistines broke and ran, but the
story indicates that David did not pursue them, perhaps because their retreat was covered
by their chariots, which would have torn David’s infantry forces to shreds on the open
plains before the Philistine cities. David celebrated by burning the Philistine idols.
The Philistines weren’t ready to quit and called up another army. This time their
forces were too powerful to be dislodged by frontal assault. David sought divine
guidance and got the word to outflank the Philistines, who again came up the valley and
strike them from the rear. This time he attacked at night, using the rustling of the evening
breeze through the balsam trees to hide his approach. The Philistines, with their escape
route cut off, panicked and fled northeast toward Gibeon. David’s army was in hot
pursuit and kept his enemy off balance and in retreat until they reached the western town
of Gezer. These two battles so weakened the Philistines that they were no longer an
offensive threat to David. The chroniclers tell us “…the fame of David went out into all
lands, and the Lord brought the fear of him upon all nations.” While this is a bit of an
overstatement, he reputation among the lesser kingdoms on his border was certainly
established, and word of him no doubt reached the capitals of Egypt and Assyria.
Unfortunately, we have no record of how far his notoriety spread.
Having broken the Philistines, David decided to centralize his power by bringing
the Ark of the Covenant to his re-fortified Jerusalem, at once making it the political and
religious center of the nation of Israel. The tribal system was beginning to give way to
the monarchy, and the tribes themselves were losing their identities as the new royal
bureaucracy was being established. David had to delegate his authority no longer
marched with his army, leaving its administration to Joab and others who he trusted.
Men of all stripes flocked to his banner, from Hittites to Philistines. David saw loyalty,
not background, as being the only other prerequisite besides ability.
After the festivities of the return of the Ark had ended, David decided to
subjugate the Philistines once and for all in order to avoid a two-front war, should
conflict with his eastern neighbors break out. There apparently had been rumblings in
Moab, the very kingdom that David has sent his family to during his outlaw years. David
personally commanded the assault on the weakened confederation and annexed it into his
kingdom, effectively ending the Philistine power that had existed for over 200 years.
Gath and Ekron came under direct control, while the Ashdod, Ashkelon and Gaza
retained some autonomy, but were absorbed during the following centuries of civil war
and foreign invasion. David now controlled the Mediterranean coast almost to Tyre. He
and his heir remained allied with Tyre for the next generation.
After giving the Philistines their mortal blow and clearing the rest of the
Canaanite enclaves from the coast and putting them under his direct rule, David turned to
the Moabite problem. He again took the field and his army quickly subdued the Moabite
army. Then there appears a black mark of atrocity in the record. It is unclear whether
David commanded the remaining warriors of Moab to line up, or the entire population,
but he made three lines and had two lines executed. Broken, Moab became a tributary
state for some time.

David takes down the opposition

North of Damascus in modern Syria lay the land of Zobah. Its king, Hadadezer,
son of Rehob, was sitting on copper mines that produced a great deal of bronze. David
marched into Zobah with a large army, this time augmented by cavalry. The Arameans
of Damascus decided to make common cause with Hadadezer, but David’s army
overcame the allied forces. His army was listed as having 20,000 infantry and 1700
cavalry. He killed 22,000 Arameans of Syria and hamstrung all the horses he captured,
saving only enough to pull 100 chariots. David garrisoned Damascus and carried off the
bronze reserves from Betah and Berothai, two cities of Zobah. He also plundered the
gold shields of Hadadezer’s royal guard. The shields were later displayed in Jerusalem
and the bronze was used in the building of the first temple in Jerusalem under Solomon.
The king of Zobah’s neighbor Hamath, hearing of David’s victory, sent his son to
congratulate David and brought along a hefty amount of tribute. David took all the booty
and dedicated it to the Lord, knowing that he would need a considerable sum to build a
temple.
To the south, Abishai, Joab’s brother, led an expedition into the Valley of Salt
that was near the Dead Sea and defeated the army of Edom, turning them into a vassal
state with Israelite garrisons. The only nation remaining along the Jordan valley was
Ammon. Though his predecessor had problems with Nashash, the king, who ruled from
Rabbah, the site of present-day Amman in Jordan, David had apparently kept relations
cordial. Nashash died and his son Hanun became ruler.
At this point, seeing that his armies had been victorious over numerous enemies,
including the hated Philistines, David felt comfortable in his palace and decided that he
would make a gesture of friendship to the new king of the Ammonites. He sent a
delegation to Rabbah to express his sympathy for the passing of Nashash. The delegation
was received with honor by the young king, but with deep suspicion by his princes and
military advisors.
Surely, they argued, that the new king was not so naïve and blinded by grief that
he did not realize what was going on. They had seen the surrounding nations fall like
wheat before the scythe of David’s armies. This delegation was no more than a ruse to
get Israelites into Rabbah for the purpose of finding the weak points. After their spying
was done, the Israelite army would be able to come in and overthrow Ammon as they did
the rest of David’s enemies. The young Hanun listened to his advisors and decided, with
all the cruelty of youth, to send David a clear message. In an age when personal honor
meant everything, his act was symbolic and humiliating.
He had the envoys seized and proceeded to have their faces shaved so that only
half their beards remained, and had their garments cut off at the hips so that their private
parts were exposed, then he sent them back to Jerusalem. This was a clear insult to the
manhood of the envoys and a clear breach of hospitality. The men sent word ahead and
David had them stop over in Jericho so that their beards would regrow before they
returned to the capital, thus saving their dignity. David became enraged and, as you
might think in the words of Bugs Bunny: “Of course you realize this means war.”

David’s Great War

Apparently somebody at Rabbah woke up to the fact that the Ammonites had just
ticked off the greatest power in the region. A hasty council of war among the Ammonite
leaders resulted in a call to the neighboring Aramean states for help. The chroniclers tell
us that Hanun sent 1000 silver talents to hire chariots and horsemen by the thousands. A
talent had the equivalent value of an ox, so the relative buying power was pretty hefty. A
gold talent weighed less than a silver talent, which weighed less than a copper talent,
ranging from a few grams to several kilograms. The Arameans were eager to join in,
especially the men of Zobah, who were still smarting from the licking David had given
them earlier.
Word came to David that Hanun was shopping for mercenaries, so he decided to
gear up for total war himself and had Joab scour the country to augment his standing
army. When ready, Joab marched directly toward Rabbah. Whether by accident or by
design, he was marching into a trap. The army of Ammon defended outside the city and
set up a defensive line before the city’s gate. As Joab marched to contact, suddenly the
Aramean mercenaries appeared in his rear across the open plain, thousands of chariots.
The racket and cloud of dust must have been frightening, but not to Joab.
Throwing away the textbook about dividing one’s army before a superior force,
Joab screened the Ammonites with part of his army under his brother Abishai and turned
on the Aramean chariots with a picked force of his bravest men. Promising to come to
his brother’s aid if the Ammonites pressed too hard, he boldly advanced against the
Arameans mercenaries. The Arameans of Zobah, Tob, Maacah and Beth-rehob were in
pouring across the plain, with the king of Maacah at the head of 1000 of his fiercest
warriors. They thought the Israelites were going to be pinned by the Ammonites and that
they could outflank Joab, annihilating his army.
For some reason, they were dismayed to see the Israelites advancing on them
instead! We have no idea of the size of the Israeli army. The compilers give the
Arameans numbers in excess of 30000. The two armies locked horns and the ferocity of
the Israeli counterattack sent the Arameans reeling. They might have been predisposed to
have low morale after the defeat of Zobah, but whatever the details were, the end result
was that the Arameans broke off and fled as fast as their chariots could carry them. The
Ammonites were apparently half-hearted as well. When they saw that their hired guns
had hit the road, they retreated into their city and manned the walls.
Exhausted, Joab did not feel strong enough to continue the attack on Rabbah and
headed back to Israel. He had won a startling victory from an impossible position, but
was unable to exploit it. Back in Jerusalem, he licked his wounds while David
considered his next move. Without hesitation, he decided to divide and conquer by
moving against Zobah. He may have felt the Arameans to be easier to conquer without a
protracted siege, or that they were poorly led. At any rate, they looked to be the best
target, and they knew it.
David’s old enemy Hadadezer, feeling the heat, sent for mercenaries from beyond
the Euphrates River. He put his commander Shophach at the head of this army and
marched to Helam, east of the Sea of Galilee, thinking to fight David far from Zobah.
David commanded the army personally and marched to meet Shophach. They clashed at
Helam and the Israelites prevailed, causing 47000 casualties, so we are told. While he
may not have done so personally, David is credited for wounding Shophach during the
battle. The general later died of his wounds and some sort of palace revolt took place in
Zobah, for we are told that the followers of Hadadezer came to David and agreed to
become tribute paying vassals. The power of the Aramean city-states was broken and
they refrained from sending any more aid to Ammon. David marched home in victory.
The following spring, David had rebuilt his army and sent Joab forth once more to
break the power of the Ammonites. Without Aramean assistance, the Ammonites were
forced to defend within the walls of Rabbah and a protracted siege resulted. This type of
campaign was different than most others in that static lines were formed and the grinding
routine of assault and repulse along the walls of the city took a toll on both sides.
Israelites trying to scale the walls were shot with arrows. Rams battered at the city gates,
but to no avail. It became a race against time to see which army ran out of men and
materiel first.
It was against this lengthy campaign that one of the turning points in David’s rule
occurred. David had a number of wives and concubines, but he came smitten with a
woman named Bathsheba, the wife of one of his Hittite officers, a man named Uriah.
Uriah was at the front while Bathsheba fell victim to David’s charms, as did many other
women before her. This time, unlike Abigail, who married David after her husband had
conveniently died, Uriah was only unavailable. Regardless, their affair went on and she
became pregnant. David sent for Uriah in a clumsy attempt to have the Hittite partake in
a conjugal visit, but the warrior had taken an oath of consecration and would not break
his purity even when drunk.
In this soap opera diversion, we can see the effects of a large siege on a nation:
political maneuvering, abuse of power, strain on families and the steady casualty lists.
David figured that one more casualty would not cause a stir in the population already
numbed by regular reports of dead and wounded. He sent word to Joab to put Uriah in a
place of great danger and then withdraw the bulk of his men, making certain that Uriah
would be cut down. Joab understood the order only too well, being no stranger to
murder. He dutifully put Uriah with a group of brave men near the walls. The
Ammonites sallied and Joab withdrew, leaving Uriah and a few others cut off. He sent
David news of Uriah’s death and received only a token admonishment. Word got out and
David took a political and religious black eye, confirmed when his son by Bathsheba died
in a manner felt to be divine retribution. Meanwhile, the siege continued.
Joab knew that the key to the siege was Rabbah’s water supply. The Ammonites
had created a citadel to guard the spring that kept the Ammonites’ will to resist high.
Redoubling his efforts after the business with Uriah was past, Joab took the citadel and
cut off Rabbah from its aquatic lifeline. The city was on the brink of surrender. Joab
sent word to David that the city was ready to fall and modestly proposed that the king
come to the front to receive the surrender of the Ammonites and get credit for the victory.
David, needing some good PR, rushed to Rabbah and led a token assault on the city with
the forces that accompanied him.
The city fell and David went to their temple, snatching off the elaborate gold
crown set with a magnificent jewel from the head of the image of Milcom, god of the
Ammonites, placing it upon his own head, as some interpret. Others believe that he took
the crown from Hanun. The compilers tell us that the weight of the crown was very
heavy, perhaps as much as 65 pounds, so it may have been an elaborate headdress, or
quite simply an error by the compilers. Regardless, David deposed Hanun and imposed
harsh terms on the Ammonites, finishing them as an independent people. The chroniclers
report that the Ammonites became laborers from then on. This may be an indication that
David removed all the rulers of each Ammonite city and turned them into servants in
retribution for the degradation his servants had received at the hands of Hanun.

The First Revolt: Absalom

The record varies here between the compilers and the chroniclers, who had
different aims. The compilers of the books of Samuel here inject the divisive civil war of
Absalom, David’s son. Absalom was one of the many son’s of David, a man with a large
lust for life and women. The compilers tell us that Absalom was handsome and strong,
with long hair and was without blemish. At least, on the outside; inside he had the heart
of a schemer and a murderer.
The chroniclers who used the books of Samuel for their records completely ignore
all mention of internal strife both by Absalom and by later individuals, probably in order
to burnish the image of David as both great king and perfect example of piety. As we
have seen earlier, David’s energetic domestic activities gave him a number of prices, too
many, it would seem, for the crown to rest easy on his head. Amnon, the eldest son, was
the logical choice to succeed David. However, his father was a man of good health and
not likely to pass away soon, leaving his sons and daughters to lead lives of relatively
pampered boredom. Amnon developed an unnatural attraction for his sister Tamar and
connived to get her alone. After having his way with her by force, he spurned her out of
guilt and she slinked off to her brother Absalom’s abode in shame. Revenge burned in
Absalom’s heart, but his mind was so calculating that it took years to bring about his
retribution.
Absalom used a pretext to get all his brothers out in the remoteness of his sheep
farm in the hills. There, he got Amnon drunk and had his servants assassinate him. His
brothers were so shocked they thought a coup was under way and fled on their mules and
reports came to David that all his sons had been done in. He was relieved to find out it
was only Amnon, but he still ordered Absalom captured. Absalom fled to his maternal
grandfather’s palace at Geshur, where he remained for three years while waiting for
reconciliation with David.
David was in no mood to reconcile and had to be prodded into it. He allowed
Absalom’s return, but then refused to meet with him for another two years. This lack of
forgiveness apparently embittered Absalom, and even though eventually reconciled, the
seeds of revolt were planted before David once again hugged his son in forgiveness.
Once re-established in Jerusalem, Absalom fitted himself with a fancy chariot and an
entourage of fifty men who went before his chariot to proclaim his passing and clear the
road. He then would set up shop by the gates of Jerusalem and play politics to anyone
seeking redress from David.
Soon, Absalom had gained a number of allies and sympathizers among the
Israelites, and after a few years, had built up his own power base at Hebron. The citizens
there were unhappy that the capital had been moved to Jerusalem, and the northern tribes
and annexed lands chafed under David’s growing authority that diluted home rule.
David, apparently completely absorbed by his duties and probably doting over the young
Solomon, was oblivious to the insurrection growing around him until Absalom used a
pretext to go to Hebron. Suddenly, there was a declaration in Hebron that Absalom was
king and his followers were marching on Jerusalem.
Surprise was total. David, fearing for the lives of his family and loyal retainers,
immediately withdrew from Jerusalem, using his loyal foreign palace guard to protect his
household. As he went, two priests brought the Ark of the Covenant along, but the quick
thinking David had them go back and become spies for him. He also sent along one of
his foreign advisors, a Canaanite named Hushai to neutralize his turncoat advisor
Ahithophel. Surrounded by Cretan and Philistine mercenaries, David marched east
across the Jordan, ending up at Manahaim in Gilead. He was stoned by one of Saul’s
kinsmen and found that Mephibosheth, Jonathan’s crippled son had abandoned David to
seek a throne in Jerusalem. David heard the word from Ziba, Mephibosheth’s servant
and David offered him the Benjamite’s property on the spot.
David’s army was little more than the 600 foreign bodyguards that were loyal
directly to his person. He needed time to establish himself and get a loyal army together
to counter Absalom. In this cause, Hushai the Archite was to be his greatest tool. The
Canaanite met the victorious Absalom and offered his service. Absalom was wary at
first, but Hushai put on an award-winning performance and won Absalom’s trust.
Meanwhile, Ahithophel was plotting to strengthen Absalom’s authority. He devised a
spectacular method of showing the people that Absalom had taken David’s throne. On
the palace roof for all to see, Absalom would make love to the ten concubines that David
had left behind to maintain the palace. Since they were royal property, such a graphic
display of power and stamina would cement Absalom’s rule.
Ahithophel was correct, and all his other advice was so accurate that the people
thought him divinely inspired. Hushai bided his time, but had to show his hand when the
wily traitor offered to take 12,000 men and run David to earth before he could gain
enough strength to fight back. This was an excellent plan as David would be
outnumbered 20:1 and even his skill as a warrior would be overwhelmed by numbers.
Absalom hesitated, and asked for Hushai’s advice. The Archite had general praise for his
adversary, but dismissed the plan as folly. He played on Absalom’s hesitation to fight by
pointing up David’s legendary skill, and how powerful his royal bodyguard was.
He assured Absalom that David would find a narrow place to make a stand; some
place where skill would overcome numbers and casualities would be disproportionate,
much as Leonidas, king of the Spartans, would later do at the pass of Thermopylae
against the Persians. Hushai prophesied that heavy losses would cause Absalom’s army
to lose heart and retreat, making Absalom seem weak. Instead, he counseled, it would be
better to call up all the fighting men in the country and completely crush David,
obliterating his army quickly before a temporary setback could be construed as a victory
by the ex-king.
Absalom bought the story and decided to scour the land for enough eligible
manpower. Hushai immediately sent word to the priests, who sent their own sons to
David with the news. Hushai was uncertain which plan would succeed, so he urged
David to cross the Jordan rapidly. The two young men were nearly caught, but managed
to hide in the well of a Davidic loyalist, arriving well ahead of Absalom’s plodding
advance to the Jordan with his rebel army. Ahithophel was disgraced by the news his
plan had been rejected. He immediately went home, drew up his will, paid off his debts
and hung himself.
David, as mentioned, hurried on to Mahanaim, where he was greeted by the
brother of his former foe Hanun, along with other local notables and much-needed
supplies. Once safely in the fortified city, David became to send out messengers to the
various garrisons to call in the veteran troops loyal to David. His army of 600 soon grew
rapidly both in quality and quantity. As was the usual practice, the army consisted of
three divisions, the two Israelite divisions commanded by Joab and his brother, while the
third unit, apparently all non-Israelites, was commanded by Ittai of Gath.
We are not told how large the forces involved eventually grew, but thousands on
each side are implied. David’s army was composed of loyal units, veterans, mercenaries
and local militia. David wanted to take command of the army personally, but was
persuaded by Joab to remain in Mahanaim to coordinate the battle and lead any relief
force necessary to cover a retreat if Absalom prevailed. Not one to sit back on the
defensive, Joab marched to meet Absalom’s army, commanded by a fellow named
Amasa, a relative of Joab, David, and Absalom. The met near a primeval timberland
known as the Forest of Ephraim.
Absalom’s hastily assembled militia was no match for the veterans of Joab, and
the army soon broke and ran, many into the forest. The compilers note a terrible
slaughter and point out that more died in the wilderness, but without further details unless
they became lost and overcome by exposure or were set upon by bears and lions.
Regardless, Absalom’s army melted away and the usurper soon found himself surrounded
by troops loyal to his father. He attempted to flee and in a clichéd twist of fate, he was
looking behind him when he should have been looking ahead and became wedged in tree
branches. David gave strict orders that he be taken alive, but Joab, never one to worry
about orders, used Absalom for target practice and then let his bodyguard finish him off.
His body was unceremoniously dumped in a pit and stones rolled over it. So died the
first rebel leader in Israel.
 David was heartbroken when he heard the news, for he had no doubt seen
Absalom as likely heir, his murderous ways notwithstanding. He was so upset that his
public display of grief lowered morale in the army and caused him to be rebuked by Joab.

The Second Revolt: Sheba, son of Bichri

No sooner had David realized he was forgetting his duties than the two halves of
his country began to eye each other with suspicion. In order to appease the northern half,
David deposed Joab and kept Amasa as head of the army. Joab’s disobedience had to be
partly responsible as well. However, David also met with other delegations and pardoned
both Shimei and Mephiboseth, the former openly opposing David, while the latter
successfully pleaded innocence. He also met with a delegation from Judah who offered a
large army to march with him back to Jerusalem. This insulted the Israelites who had
sent their own escort under Shimei. Hot words between the two factions broke out and
one disaffected Benjamite, Sheba, the son of Bichri, got the Israelites’ attention by
blowing a horn and publicly denouncing David and Judah. The Israelites marched away
and opened a rebellion.
David lost no time in ordering Amasa to pursue them before they could fortify
any of the northern cities. Amasa went south to call up reinforcements from Judah and
tarried, so David set Abishai, brother of Joab to take the veterans of the civil war of
Absalom and pursue Sheba. Abishai marched vigorously with the Philistine and Cretan
mercenaries again supplementing the veterans, or “mighty men” of David’s bodyguard.
Joab, meanwhile, waited for Amasa to catch up, and, as usual, eliminated the competition
for army commander by murdering Amasa with a hidden short sword. Once again
defacto head of David’s army, Joab pursued Sheba north. Sheba’s army dissipated under
the intense pressure and soon only his clan remained loyal.
They shut themselves up in the city of Abel of Beth-maacah, and Joab surrounded
it, throwing up siegeworks including an earthen mound to seal off the city. Once these
were in place, Joab began to use battering rams to smash the fortifications. As the
pounding began, a female elder of the city called out to Joab. He came close enough to
hear her. She declared that the city was loyal to the crown and asked what could be done
to settle the dispute. Joab explained that it was Sheba who had caused the problem and
by giving up Sheba, the problem would go away. The woman asked for a truce while
Sheba could be decapitated and soon his head tumbled down from the ramparts.
Satisfied, Joab withdrew the army and the army was reorganized, with Benaiah son of
Jehoiada as the head of David’s foreign bodyguard.
As a result of the chaos following the restructuring of the kingdom, certain
factions used the time to settle old scores. In particular the Gibeonites asked for and
received the remaining sons of Saul to settle a blood feud. David spared the crippled son
of Jonathan.
Though the time frame is uncertain, we are told that the Philistine city-states
revolted. They may have seen an opportunity when David took more troops to Rabbah,
and decided it was time to attempt a bid for independence. It may have been part of the
general war to subdue the Philistines, or the Philistines may have used the civil war as a
cover for their own action. Most experts think that this narrative should properly be part
of the general war against the Philistines, but as with so much of this time period, we
simply do not know for sure. The chroniclers list two revolts by the Philistines, and their
armies were led by men of titanic stature and odd mutation, including one giant with six
fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot. The Philistines may have felt this unique
fellow was divinely sent to lead them to victory, along with other oversized warriors. It
did them little good. David is shown leading the armies at first, until he was nearly killed
by Ishbi-benob, one of the giants. The giant was using a newly forged sword, hoping that
this fact would be a token of victory against the king. Abishai intervened and killed the
giant. From then on, we are told, David did not personally go into combat. In all, four
giants were killed in the conflict, including the brother of Goliath of Gath.
David reigned 40 years, and it fell to his son Solomon to consolidate the kingdom
of Israel and prosper it, building the first temple and fitting it out with splendid bronze
fixtures made from materials that David had taken from his enemies. It was estimated
that the gold he took from the massive crown of Rabbah-ammon was worth nearly $6
million by contemporary standards. The empire he fought long to build and maintain did
not survive after the death of Solomon and fractured along the same lines as before,
between Judah and the northern tribes of Israel. These battles are another story.

Sidebars:
The Army of Israel

The army of Israel was literally built from scratch. The scattered hill tribesmen
lived by their wits and by traveling light. Without iron weapons, they became experts at
standoff warfare using bows and especially slings. The sling was the peasant’s weapon,
easy to make from cord and leather, and ammunition was plentiful among the hills and
streams of Israel. Beset by bears, wolves, and lions, the average Israelite sheepherder
would need to be able to kill at a distance so that the fleeing animal would not get away
with its prize. The simple bow was improved upon by military use and replaced by the
composite bow, a weapon that could fire at a much longer range. Apparently, the Semitic
tribes of Palestine were the first to develop quivers. The staff and spear were other
weapons that could be used in shepherding or in warfare. The “rod and staff” mentioned
in the Psalms were two distinct weapons. The staff was the shepherd’s crook, a long pole
with a hooked end to snag lost sheep, but which sometimes had a weighted end. The rod
was a shorter weapon, almost a carved club, usually with a large teardrop shaped knob on
the end. It was easier to swing in close combat than the staff. Spears evolved from being
tipped with spear points that attached to the haft by a tang to socketed affairs, the same
with axes. War axes evolved from simple affairs to specially shaped wedge-heads that
maximized damage at the point of impact to kill or maim even through heavy scale
armor.
Swords were new weapons by comparison. The Israelites used short, stabbing
swords early on, but eventually developed a sickle sword similar to what the Egyptians
used. This heavy weapon was for hacking along the outer edge of its curve and the
Israelites soon abandoned it for heavier bronze and then iron broadswords. Iron caused a
technological breakthrough in warfare of the period. Iron was less brittle and held an
edge better than bronze. It forging was a closely guarded secret right up to the time of
Saul, as the compilers tell us that the Israelites had to go to the Philistines to get their
implements sharpened because there was no smith in Israel. This changed and soon the
Israelites were using iron weapons, though bronze weapons remained in use through out
the struggle, even being used by the Philistines who had the knowledge of ironworking.
Chariots were an expensive later addition to the Israelite army, gained mostly
through capture. David could only afford the upkeep on a limited number of recovered
chariots and hamstrung the excess horses to keep them from being used by his enemies.
There is some evidence that light cavalry was in use at this point, but was not deployed in
large numbers. Battering rams and general siege techniques were adapted from the
Egyptians, who had been using them for at least a millennium before David. Helmets
and armor were expensive and at first only adapted from captured sets or specially made
for the king and his officers. Shields came in a variety of sizes from round to rectangular
to the type called the “figure eight shield” because it had curves that allowed spears to be
held close to the body while still protecting most of the soldier. Armor was usually based
on a leather or cloth tunic to which overlapping plates or scales were sewn. Footgear
consisted of sandals and the shins were protected by long plates called greaves.
The tribal armies were split into three divisions, with smaller units numbered by
1000’s, 100’s, 50’s and 10’s. Saul retained this formation, as did David. David further
organized his divisions under the command of the Three. Usually this was Joab, Abishai,
and Benaiah, the latter commanding the foreign mercenaries. Beneath the Three were the
Thirty, the great warriors of the army who performed deeds of bravery and skill, usually
by taking on impossible tasks or defeating enemy champions in single combat. The
Thirty were also referred to as the “mighty men” of David’s army and were fiercely loyal
to his person. The Thirty eventually expanded to the 600, David’s elite royal bodyguard
who were legendary and unbeatable, as Absalom found out.
The foreign mercenaries were usually recruited from the Sea Peoples, a popular
source for mercenary warriors. Names in the scriptures denote that many came from
Philistine cities or from Crete. David was personally guarded by these men who were
loyal to nobody but the king and had no stake in tribal politics. To bolster the standing
army, local levies of peasants could be turned into militia, though their ability to battle
against professional armies was uneven, depending mainly on the quality of their
leadership. To keep their skills sharp, David rotated one levy from each tribal area to
serve one month a year, having 12,000 men being trained during the period in all. This
created a deep force to draw from if foreign invasion threatened.

Israel’s Enemies
Competition to control the trade routes along the Jezreel Valley was fierce. Israel was
severely oppressed by the invading Philistine hordes that settled along the Mediterranean
coast, but they were not the only enemies.

Canaanites: The Canaanite tribes had nearly been wiped out during the Sea Peoples’
invasions that destroyed the Hittite Empire. Once controlling a large section of northern
Israel, by the time of David they existed only in pockets except for the large remnant that
later re-emerged as the Phoenicians. In past times they included the Amorites, who were
mentioned by Ramses in his account of the battle of Kadesh, some three hundred years
before David. The Jebusites, who held Jerusalem, were Cananite holdouts and it was
only after Joab was able to sneak into the city did they surrender. David was generous
enough to allow them to keep their homes and expanded the city around them. Nothing
is really mentioned about their methods of warfare except that they used curses and taunts
as psychological weapons and their fortress was considered impregnable by frontal
assault.

Ammonites: The Ammonites, whose kingdom centered near modern Amman Jordan,
were supposedly descended from Lot and were considered a kindred people by the
Israelites. Their history is very intertwined with that of the Israelites, and their capital
was the resting place of Og, King of Bashan, an early enemy of the 12 tribes as they
entered the Holy Land. By the time of Saul, the Ammonites were a nation ringed with
forts and independent of the destroyed Hittite empire. Their king, Nahash fought with
Saul, but later became David’s friend. It was Nahash’s son Hanun who insulted David
and precipitated a war that lasted at least two campaign seasons. When it was done,
David raised Shobi, brother of Hanun, to the throne of Ammon and David’s son Solomon
had Ammonite women in his harem, who introduced worship of Milcom or Molech to
Israel. Their army appears to be mainly infantry, and they were adept at hiring huge
numbers of chariot-armed mercenaries to supplement their own troops.

Arameans and Syrians: This Semitic race also has a long Biblical pedigree, all the way
back to Shem, son of Noah. Their territory stretched over modern Syria to the Euphrates.
Their homeland is known by various names, Paddan-Aram, or “Aram of the Two Rivers”
being one of the more common. The Assyrians checked their expansion east, but the
vacuum created by the invasions of the Sea Peoples allowed them to spread west and
south to found various city-states in formerly Canaanite areas. These states are lumped in
the English versions of scripture as “Syria”. These nations, Aram-Damascus, Beth-
Rehob and Zobah had strong military traditions and their chariot armies were used as
mercenaries throughout the region, notably being hired by Ammon. All were defeated by
David and became his vassals until late in the reign of Solomon, when Rezon, a bandit
leader during David’s time, became king in Damascus and started a regional power that
would be troublesome to the divided kingdom until destroyed by the Assyrians around
750 BC.

Moab: Moab is mentioned extensively in the scriptures, east of the Dead Sea and
generally between the wadis of Arnon and Zered, but extended north on occasion. The
Moabites were frequent thorns in the side of the Israelites right up to the time of David,
though he fought it expeditious to have his parents seek refuge there, since according to
the scripture, one of his ancestors was Ruth, a Moabitess. David found it necessary to
execute a large number of Moabites during his reign and the kingdom was subdued until
after the death of Solomon, when it revolted time and again until weakened Israel could
no longer maintain its grip. Flavius Josephus tells us that Moab was finally destroyed as
a nation by Nebuchadrezzar and its identity was submerged by successive Persian and
Arab invaders and last held a racial identity in the second century BC.

Edom: This small kingdom stretched from the bottom of the Dead Sea to the tip of the
Gulf of Aqabah, and the Edomites are mentioned as far back as the book of Genesis,
claiming descent from Esau. The establishment of the Israelis in Palestine brought them
into conflict with the Edomites, but full-scale war did not break out with them until the
days of Saul. These fierce warriors raided into Israel until David was forced to harshly
subjugate them and occupy the territory. Solomon built a port on the Gulf of Aqabah, but
it was lost when the Edomites revolted after the death of Solomon and bedeviled the
kingdom of Judah, usually in concert with Moab and Ammon. Once Judah was
destroyed as a nation, some Edomites moved into lower Judah and became known as
Idumeans. Arab invasions overran the original Edomite homeland and an invasion by the
Nabateans in the 3rd century BC caused more migrations into Judah. The newly formed
enclave of Edom or Idumea was subjugated by Judas Maccabaeus and John Hyrcanus
and they were incorporated into a reconstituted Jewish state. The line of Herod can be
traced to Edomite ethnicity.

Philistia: The Philistines do not have the long scriptural pedigree that Israel’s other
enemies did. They were relatively more recent arrivals, but their impact was so important
that the region, once Canaan, then Israel, became Palestine for centuries. This race of
Indo-Europeans arrived by way of Crete and the Aegean Islands as part of the waves of
Sea Peoples that began in the 14th century BC. They are first mentioned in the annals of
Egyptian Pharaoh Rameses III, sometime around 1185 BC. This pharaoh conquered the
Philistines and moved them into their present location, based around 5 cities along the
coast of what is now the Gaza strip. Though early scriptural references to them as far
back as the book of Genesis, these are felt to be anachronisms. Their Mycenaean roots
have been verified archaeologically by the discovery of pottery, carriages for portable
idols and the uncovering of a large temple area near Ekron that is identical in design with
temples elsewhere in the Aegean. While the root word probably refers to the name of the
people itself, the Hebrew name for them has come to mean “invader”. These warlike
people in their tall headdresses, instead of wiping out existing Canaanite culture, seem to
have adopted a great deal of it while retaining their own rites and language. They battled
the Israelites for the Jezreel Valley trade route for centuries until their power was broken
by David. They fought with a combined arms method of chariots interspersed with light
infantry, followed up by heavy infantry in full armor.
The Philistine city of Gath is singled out during the reign of David as being home
to warriors of gigantic stature, though narratives vary on whether Goliath, the most
famous was 6 cubits and a span or 4 cubits and a span (six feet nine inches vs. nine feet
nine inches). The Philistines were restless after the death of David and remained
independent and somewhat troublesome people, last mentioned in scripture at about the
time of the return from the Exile, though they are mentioned in the story of the
Maccabees. As part of the neo-Babylonian Empire, their identity as a distinct racial
group disappeared, though the name was resurrected by the Romans to punish the Jews
after their revolts in the 1st century AD, by naming the former province of Judea after
them, though using the Romanized Greek name of Palestine.

Egypt and Assyria: The two main empires of the period were little mentioned during this
period in history. Egypt had been seriously damaged by the invasions of the Sea Peoples
and their Libyan allies and was in a period of revitalization. They would not be serious
players in the area until after the kingdom was divided. Assyria was also in a period of
change after being challenged by the Babylonians and would not be a major threat to the
region until the 9th century BC.

The Art of War during David’s time

Warfare had been undergoing a slow revolution since around 1200 BC that was
still evolving as David gained control of Israel. The dominant formation in warfare had
been the chariot. This two-wheeled cart driven by two or four horses was the ancient
equivalent of today’s battle tank as the shock arm of the army. Dating back to Sumerian
times, this weapon had been improved from a heavy four-wheeled cart to a lighter, more
maneuverable vehicle. Two or three people occupied it, one driver and a warrior, and for
the Hittites, who favored the heavy chariot, a shield bearer. The occupants would fire
arrows or spears held in quivers attached to the side of the chariot, which was of wood
with bronze sheathing. The Egyptian type was useful on the open plains where speed
could mean outflanking an enemy formation or attacking from the rear while infantry
pressed from the front. The Hittite variety was more solid for the rougher ground of the
Levant area, but was slower. With breeding turning out larger and heavier horses, the
chariot was phased out eventually by cavalry, but was still used up until early in the
Common Era by the Celts. During this period, all major armies had chariot forces. They
were very expensive to maintain because of a huge logistics tail or grooms, maintenance
men, and extensive stables and pastureland. Also, because the charioteers were good
targets, heavier bronze scale armor was developed to deflect arrows and spears.
Regardless, even the small kingdoms of Aramea had large chariot forces, likely made up
of nobles who could afford to outfit themselves.
Cavalry is not mentioned during this time, though riding mules is frequently
mentioned. Until the invention of the stirrup much later, cavalrymen were basically light
forces able to harass the flanks with arrows and spears.
Missile troops were prevalent, but it’s not clear how organized they were. Saul
was shot by an arrow during his last battle. David slew Goliath with a sling. Joab killed
Absalom with three javelins, or darts. The spear was more of a hand weapon than a
missile weapon at this point.
Infantry came in two flavors, heavy and light. Light infantry, as the name implies
were either unarmored or lightly armed and were faster and more maneuverable than
heavy infantry. If armored, they usually only wore helmets and small shields. These
units depended more on missile weapons than heavy infantry. Light infantry helped the
Israelis outmaneuver their foes in the hill areas and could ambush troops in valleys or
choke points, which is why the Philistines were unable to totally defeat the Israelis.
Nations with chariot armies used light infantry to run with the chariots to screen the
flanks of the charioteers. The heavy infantry was usually armed with swords, long spears
and daggers. They had more elaborate helmets, breastplates and greaves, usually of
bronze. The heavy infantry usually formed up in phalanxes and advanced with shields
locked, spears thrust out in front. While heavily armored, these troops were vulnerable to
chariot attacks and were less useable in the hills where rough terrain broke up their
formations. The Philistines were the primary users of heavy infantry.
Militia usually filled auxiliary roles either as missile troops or light infantry.
Militia were farmers for the most part, and had little formal military training, though
David rotated militia units in and out of active service, much as National Guard units do
active duty time each year in modern times. They were usually unarmed and had very
cheap or crudely made weapons. Militia units were usually raised by tribal levy and
fought as a tribal unit.
The typical battle of the period found the two opponents drawn up in lines. The
Israelis would divide their forces into three parts, a center, left and right wing. The main
body would be screened by light troops. Religious ceremonies would precede the
actually commencement of fighting, and it was not uncommon for a side’s holiest relics
to be brought to the battlefield. Once the two sides had made their dispositions, tauntings
by the warriors on each side would take place, and occasionally a battle between
champions would occur to settle the matter. After a certain amount of chest-beating, one
side or the other would advance with a shout. Forces would respond to trumpet calls or
banner signals. Chariots would seek the flanks, while the larger army would seek to use
its wings to envelop the other side. If chariots failed to break the enemy’s line, then the
two infantry forces would clash until one side caused the other to break. Chariots or
horsemen would then take up pursuit of a beaten foe, turning a retreat into a rout and
often a rout into a massacre. Victorious armies would then loot the enemy’s camp and
either go home or continue on. The camp was usually set up in a square formation, with
wagons helping for form barricades in an arrangement known to the Israelites as ma’gal
complete with pickets and tribal ensigns to denote segments inside the camp. Soldiers
were housed in tents within the camp, except during protracted sieges, such as at
Ammon, when “booths” or wooden structures were erected. Prisoners could either
expect horrific torture and dismemberment, as Saul feared when he committed suicide, or
enslavement.

Weapons and Armor of King David’s Day

The weapons of the period were also undergoing a revolution. The discovery of
forging iron had revolutionized more than just warfare. However, the secret was not
universally shared and the quantities not yet in mass production, so bronze remained a
likely material for this time period. Brass is mentioned in accounts, but it was unlikely to
be in use at this time.
The simplest weapons were the rod and sling, described elsewhere. These were
weapons readily available to the masses and easily produced by individuals who needed
only minimal skills. Another dual use weapon was the bow. The simple single curved
bow was common, but the composite bow, using layers of wooden strips bonded with
animal horn and sinew allowed a significant increase in range. The Egyptians used a
double convex bow and so several types were available to the armies of the time.
We have already discussed the evolution of the sword, the axe and the spear. The
main advantage of better forging allowed for more secure heads on the weapons, giving
the user the ability to hit harder without fear his weapon would fall apart. Handles were
usually wrapped with leather and sword hilts were either wooden or bone, and examples
of all these are readily found in museums, some cleverly decorated. Israelis traded in
their short swords for the longer variety favored by the Philistines as captured weapons
became available and supplies of bronze from the looted Aramean kingdoms came in. As
noted, the spear as a missile weapon had several varieties. The Israelites had different
terms for each type. The basic spear had a bronze or iron head and was called the
chanith. A heavier version was the romach. Finally, the lightest version, the javelin or
dart, was the gaison. Besides these weapons, daggers, clubs and maces were probably
used along with farm implements.
Armor started with the shield. The heavy shield was either oval or door shaped,
the tsinnah. The light shield was the maghen, the small round shield. Both were
commonly made of leather over wicker or wood. Archers and light troops used the
maghen, while the regular infantry deployed the tsinnah. On the march, the tsinnah was
carried over the shoulder and was covered until the time of battle to preserve the often-
elaborate decoration.
Helmets varied in style, the simplest being a bronze or iron cap. Excavated
remains and palace decorations show a wide variety. The Philistines had tall upside
down truncated cones, almost like reversed lampshades. It gave them a ferocious
appearance and probably gave rise to the stories that they were giants. Some were
rounded with earflaps and had woolen liners. Others were tall and pointed. Metal
helmets were expensive, and doubtless the Israelites reserved them for officers and the
rank and file either did without or wore leather helmets. The coat of mail, or shiryon,
was not made of links as we think of it from medieval times. It was a leather garment of
varying length (charioteers and archers had longer coats because they couldn’t use shields
in battle), pierced with a series of holes. Thread or leather laces went through holes and
bronze scales or plates were attached in an overlapping fashion. This scale-mail was
vulnerable at the armholes, as mentioned in the death of King Ahab. Sometimes a
breastplate is referred to in English versions, but during David’s time, the word shiryon
seems to be used for all instances, so Goliath’s breastplate was likely a shirt of scale mail.

For further reading:

Arms and Armor, Eyewitness Books series, Alfred Knopf, New York, New York, 1988

The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Tyndale publishing, Wheaton, Illinois, 1980

Nelson’s Illustrated Encyclopedia of Bible Facts, Halo Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1995

The Hebrew Kings, Joan Comay, William Morrow and Company, New York, New York,
1977

The New Oxford Annotated Bible, Revised Standard Version, Oxford University Press,
New York, New York, 1973

Bible History Online at http://www.bible-history.com/

“A Brief History of Chariot Warfare and Its Effects on the Catastrophe of ca 1200 B.C.”

by Brian Hollenberger at
http://filebox.vt.edu/users/bhollenb/EDCI5314/portfoliobkh/html/History_of_Chariot_W

arfare.html

“The Chariot in Egyptian Warfare” by Troy Fox at:

http://touregypt.net/featurestories/chariots.htm