CONTENTS CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

Foundations of Chemistry

Contents
1 Atomic Structure 2
1.1 Light and its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Electrons and their properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Wave-Particle Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4 Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Advanced Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

WARNING

The images presented in this lecture notes are sourced from Blackmann et al. Chemistry 2nd Ed,
Wiley. This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of Curtin
University in accordance with section 113P of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act). The material
may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any further reproduction or communication of this
material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act.

Page 1 of 17
 CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

1 Atomic Structure
In this module we will investigate theories focused on providing a description of atomic structure,
starting from simple models based on classical physics to more complicated descriptions founded
on quantum mechanics. These theories will help you rationalise observable phenomena such as
quantisation of energy. We will begin by studying the properties of light and describing how light
interacts with matter, which will lay the foundations to build and reflect on various models of atomic
structures.

1.1 Light and its Properties

Historically, the first description of light was provided as a wave, because the tipical properties of
light that we experience on a daily basis such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and reflection can
be modelled using mathematical functions of waves, e.g. y = A sin(x + ω). In fact, light is best de-
scribed as two perpendicular oscillating waves that travel linearly at the speed of light c, ≈ 2.998×108
m s−1 . One wave is an oscillating electrical field and the other one is an oscillating magnetic field.
The oscillation is such that both fields reach its maximum values concurrently. The two fundamental
attributes that we use to describe a wave are its wavelenght, λ, and frequency ν (the latter is some-
times indicated with the letter f ). Being a length, λ is measured in metres or submultiples (often nm
for light in the visible range), whereas ν is the inverse of time and it is measured in s−1 or Hz (Hertz).

Figure 1, shows that λ is simply the distance between two adjacent maxima of the wave. On the
other hand, ν is defined as the number of maxima that pass through a fixed point in space within
one second, as the wave travels through the point at speed c. Logically, and as also illustrated in
figure 1, λ and ν are inversely proportional, and in fact, for every wave, their product is equal to the
speed of light as shown in equation 1.

λν = c (1)
where λ is the wavelength, ν is the frequency and c is the speed of light.

The specific value of λ, or ν, determines the type of light, e.g. visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared
light etc., as shown in figure 2. Visible light in particular cover the range of λ between 400 and 750
nm, from blue to red light.

Note: The symbol of frequency ν is very similar to the symbol of velocity v, and this might
generate confusion as to whether frequency or velocity have to be used in a specific equation.
When in doubt, a definitive answer can be ordained by running a dimensional analysis of the
formula. For example, if velocity instead of frequency is used in equation 1, then the units of
c would be m2 s−1 , which does not make any sense as c is a velocity. If, on the other hand,
frequency is used in the equation, then the units of c would be m s−1 , which match the units
of velocity.

Wave functions also have an amplitude, which is defined as the height of the function at the maxima,

Page 2 of 17
1.1 Light and its Properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

Figure 1: Representation of light as a wave.

Figure 2: The electromagnetic spectrum.

as shown in figure 1. In terms of our perception of light, while λ and ν identify the specific colour (if
the light falls in the visible range), the amplitude correlates with the intensity of the light. For ex-
ample, dim and intense red light have the same λ, but the more intense light has a greater amplitude.

Page 3 of 17
1.1 Light and its Properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

One obvious question at this point relates to the energy of the light. How do we determine the energy
that the electromagnetic radiation carries, if we know its λ and ν? To answer this question, it is
useful to consider the so called photoelectric effect, figure 3.

Figure 3: Schematic diagram for the photoelectric effect.

In some cases, when light hits a metal surface, ejection of electrons can occur. The first observation
we can make refers to the principle of conservation of energy. In the metal, electrons are bound to
the nuclei via a Coulombic attraction. This means that the energy that the light provides to the
electrons must be able to overcome the attractive energy, which is referred to as the binding energy
Eb . Furthermore, since the electron is ejected from the bar, it acquires kinetic energy Ek , which is
expressed according to equation 2.

1
Ek = m v2 (2)
2
where Ek is the kinetic energy, m is the mass of the moving object and v its velocity.

What is interesting about the photoelectric effect, is that if the λ of the light increases, it is found
that the ejected electrons travel at a slower velocity. Continuing to increase λ reaches a point where
electrons are not ejected any longer. For example, it is found that when blue light with λ at 400 nm
hits the surface of metallic K, electrons are ejected travelling at a velocity of 6.22 × 105 m s−1 . On
the other hand, if green light with λ at 550 nm hits the same surface, electrons are ejected travelling
at 2.95 × 105 m s−1 . Finally, if red light at 700 nm hits the surface, electrons are not ejected. It
is also found that increasing the intensity of the red light does not cause the ejection of electrons.
These observations prompted a reinterpretation of the nature of light, which was in this instance
described as particles taking the name of photons. When we describe light as a group of photons,
the intensity of the light is proportional to the number of photons. On the other hand, the energy

Page 4 of 17
1.1 Light and its Properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

of each individual photon is inversely proportional to λ ot directly proportional to ν, according to

equations 3 and 4.

Ep = h ν (3)
or, substituting ν according to equation 1:
hc
Ep = (4)
λ
where Ep the energy of the photon, h is Plank’s constant, ν is the frequency, c is the velocity
of light and λ is the wavelength.

It is now easy to explain why increasing the intensity of the red light does not cause the ejection of
electrons. Each electron carries the same amount of energy Ep , and this energy is not sufficient to
overcome the binding energy Eb . As Ep is transferred to the electron, a portion of it will be used to
overcome the nuclear attraction, whereas the excess energy is transferred to the electron as Ek . This
is why hitting the surface of metallic K with blue light causes the electrons to travel faster, as they
have higher kinetic energy. We can summarise these findings into equation 5, which directly derive
from the conservation of energy.

Ep = Eb + Ek (5)
where Ep the energy of the photon, Eb is the binding energy and Ek is the kinetic energy of
the travelling electron.

Logically, to eject the electrons, the energy of the photon must be higher than the binding energy. If
the energy of the photon is equal to the binding energy, in theory the electron is ejected but acquires
no kinetic energy (Ek = 0). The frequency of light whose photons carry an amount of energy equal
to the binding energy is commonly referred to the threshold frequency. Therfore, if you convert the
value of the threshold frequency in energy, the obtained value corresponds to the binding energy Eb .

Note: The principles of the photoelectric effect can be also applied to the ejection of electrons
from individual atoms, or molecules, rather than bulk materials such as a bar of metal. For
an individual atom equation 5 stands, but it is more common to refer to the attractive energy
between the electron and the nucleus as ionisation energy Ei , rather than binding energy Eb .

Let’s make an example of calculation for the photoelectric effect.

Example 1
With the previous data provided for the photoelectric effect on the bar of metallic K, verify
that the binding energy Eb for this element is 2.00 eV.

Solution Let’s begin by calculating the energy of the photons for blue, green and red light
(remember that 1 nm is equal to 10−9 m).

Page 5 of 17
1.1 Light and its Properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

6.626 × 10−34 J s · 2.998 × 108 m s−1

Epblue =
400 × 10−9 m
−19
= 4.97 × 10 J
6.626 × 10−34 J s · 2.998 × 108 m s−1
Epgreen =
550 × 10−9 m
−19
= 3.61 × 10 J
6.626 × 10−34 J s · 2.998 × 108 m s−1
Epred =
700 × 10−9 m
= 2.83 × 10−19 J

We can now calculate the kinetic energy of the electron when the surface is hit by blue or green
light (note we’ll combine the fundamental units obtained at the end of the calculations into J,
you can easily verify this is correct via a dimensional analysis).

1
Ekblue = · 9.109 × 10−31 kg · (6.22 × 105 m s−1 )2
2
= 1.76 × 10−19 J
1
Ekgreen = · 9.109 × 10−31 kg · (2.96 × 105 m s−1 )2
2
= 3.99 × 10−20 J

With these values, we can now obtain the value of the binding energy Eb .

Ebblue = 4.97 × 10−19 J − 1.76 × 10−19 J

= 3.21 × 10−19 J
Ebgreen = 3.61 × 10−19 J − 3.99 × 10−20 J
= 3.21 × 10−19 J

As expected, the value of Eb is the same in both cases, as it only depends on the nature of the
metal. Knowing that 1 eV correspond to 1.602×10−19 J, the value of Eb corresponds to 2.00 eV.

You can also note that, as expected, the energy of the red photons is lower than the binding
energy, hence no ejection of electrons occurs.

While we have a new way to describe light as particles called photons, it does not mean that describing
light as a wave is incorrect. In fact, although it might seem rather strange, we describe light as having
a dual nature, which is often referred to as wave-particle duality. We just need to use the appropriate
description of light (and associated mathematical treatment) depending on the context. For example,

Page 6 of 17
1.2 Electrons and their properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

if we need to explain phenomena such as diffraction and reflection, we treat light as a wave; on the
other hand, if we want to describe the photoelectric effect and more generally interaction of light
with electons, we treat light as photons. You can always intercovert light between waves and photons
using equations 3 and 4.

1.2 Electrons and their properties

We should be quite familiar at this point with the fact that atoms are composed of positively charged
nuclei, containing positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. In the more classical representations, protons, neutrons and electrons are described as par-
ticles. Let’s focus our attention on the electrons.

An electron that is isolated in the universe and moves linearly has as associated kinetic energy Ek ,
which can assume any value depending on the velocity of the electron, according to equation 2.
However, when an electron is interacting with a nucleus, it is also subject to a potential energy UE .
This potential energy is originating from the Coulombic attraction between the positive and negative
charges of the nucleus and electron, respectively. According to classical physics, equation 6 provides
the formula for UE .

qn qe
UE = k (6)
d
where UE is the potential energy, qn is the charge of the nucleus, qe is the charge of the electron,
d is their distance, and k is Coulomb constant.

It is easy to understand why a negative value of potential energy represents an attraction, whereas
a positive value represents a repulsion. Opposite charges attract, meaning that the product qn · qe
always result in a negative value of UE , given that the distance is always a positive value. On the
other hand, same charges repulse each other, resulting in a positive value of UE (for example repul-
sion of two negatively charged electrons).

The concepts of potential energy and ionisation energy seen before are directly linked. Since
the potential energy represents the energy of attraction between the nucleus and the electron and
the ionisation energy is the energy that must be provided to the electron in order to overcome the
attraction from the nucleus, we can simply establish equation 7.

UE = −Ei (7)
where UE is the potential energy and Ei is the ionisation energy.

In simple terms, to make an example, if the potential energy of the electron in an atom of H is equal
to −2.18 × 10−18 J, then to free the electron from the nuclear attration and ionise H to H+ , you need
to provide 2.18 × 10−18 J.

Mathematically, the value of UE in equation 6 is defined for every value of d, aside from 0 (which

Page 7 of 17
1.2 Electrons and their properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

would correspond to a collapse of the electron onto the nucleus!). Accordingly, if we provide the
electron an amount of energy (a positive quantity) that is lower than the ionisation energy (e.g. by
shining light as in the previously described photoelectric affect), the electron will still be in interac-
tion with the nucleus, but its negative potential energy would have increased (in other words, since
we are dealing with netative values, the value would have gotten closer to 0). The only quantity
we can change in equation 6 is the distance; therefore, providing energy to the electron increases its
distance from the nucleus. The process of providing electrons with an amount of energy in the form
of photons, without causing ionisation, is termed absorption.

The opposite process is also possible. If we have an electron with a certain (negative) value of po-
tential energy, and the electron releases some of its energy creating photons, its potential energy
lowers, because we are substracting the energy value of the created photon from the negative poten-
tial energy. From equation 6, this means that the value of d has lowered, hence the electron is now
positioned closer to the nucleus. This process is termed emission.

Because d can theoretically assume any value, then we might expect that if we send photons of any
energy to an electron, without causing ionisation, the photons will disappear as they add their energy
to the electron, and the electron will increase its distance to the nucleus according to the change in
its potential energy and equation 6. However, this is not what it is observed!

Figure 4: Absorption of light.

Figure 4 schematises the phenomenon of absorption of light. The lamp emits white light, or in
other words an ensemble of waves having all the λ values of the visible region, from 400 to 750 nm.
Using a particle description for white light, it is composed of photons with energy ranging between
4.97 × 10−19 and 2.65 × 10−19 J. All these photons are passed through a glass tube containing the
atoms of a gas. According to our reasoning, no light should exit the tube, as when the photon inter-
act with electrons in the atoms, they disappear transferring the energy and increasing the distance
between the electrons and the nuclei. However, it is observed that some of the light exits from the
glass tube. When this light is dispersed with a prism, separating all the values of λ, it is noted that
some specific values of λ are missing. This effect is exemplified by the black lines contained within
the separated λ values on the detecting figure 4.

Page 8 of 17
1.2 Electrons and their properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

Figure 5: Emission of light.

A similar trend is observed during the emission of light, as schematised in figure 5. Here, the electrons
in the atoms of the gas within the tube have been provided extra energy via an electrical discharge
(so according to our models, these electrons now resides further away from the nuclei, at an arbitrary
distance). It might be now expected, that the electrons will start to reduce their energy arbitrarily,
and producing light with any associated λ. However, as it can be seen in the detecting screen, it
appears that only waves of specific λ, or photons at specific energies, are detected.

The pattern of black lines seen in the absorption and coloured lines seen in emission is always the
same if the gas tube is filled with the same species. Each element seems to have specific patterns
in absorption and emission, meaning that these can be used as fingerprints to identify the specific
atoms. For example, figure 6 displays the emission lines in the visible region characteristics of H,
Ne, Na and Hg. Furthermore, and quite importantly, the coloured lines detected in emission fit ex-
actly the black lines missing from the absorption experiment. What does this experimental evidence
suggest and how can we explain it? For sake of simplicity, let’s focus our attention to the simplest
atomic model, H.

When we consider equation 6 and the fact that only photons at specific energy are absorbed by
the electron in the H atom, we can deduce that the potential energy UE of the electron cannot
assume any arbitrary value, but it is rather restricted to specific values. Since the potential energy
and distance between the electron and nucleus are linked by equation 6, this would imply that the
electron can only reside on the surface of a sphere at a specific distance from the nucleus. This is
the model of atomic structure presented by Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford in 1913. This model
is in agreement with what is observed in the absorption phenomenon, as the electron is only able
to interact with those photons that change the potential energy to the fixed allowed value. In other
words, the electron can only be positioned on the surface of concentric spheres at fixed distances from
the nucleous, residing in the centre. Conceptually, this is similar to a ball positioned on the steps or
a staircase, which can only occupy fixed positions with respect to the ground, as illustrated in figure

Page 9 of 17
1.2 Electrons and their properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

Figure 6: Characteristic emission lines for H, Ne, Na, and Hg.

7. The fact that the potential energy of the electron can assume only specific values is referred to as
quantisation of energy, and it is a typical phenomenon observed at atomic level.

Figure 7: Analogy between the fixed values of potential energy of an electron in a H atom and a ball
on a staircase. Note that for the scheme on the left, each line represents the surface of the sphere at
a fixed distance from the nucleus that the electron can positioned on.

To establish the potential energy of an electron in a H atom, it is sufficient to know the distance

Page 10 of 17
1.2 Electrons and their properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

between the electron and nucleus: since these values of distance are fixed, it is convention to assign
numbers to the sequence of concentric spheres that can accommodate the electrons on their surfaces,
with 1 being assigned to the smallest sphere (electron is closest to the nucleus), and the remaining
spheres associated sequentially to integer numbers 2, 3, 4 etc.. These numbers are referred to as
n, or principal quantum numbers. When the electron in H is associated to the principal quantum
number 1, it has the strongest attraction to the nucleus, as it resides at the shortest possible distance
and its potential energy UE is the lowest (remember potential energy is always a negative number!).
This arrangement is also known as the ground state. When the electron is associated to any higher
quantum number, from 2 onward, the arrangement is termed excited state. Therefore, ebergy is
provided to the atom for a transition from the ground to an excited state. Vice versa, energy is
released when the atom decays from an excited state to the ground state.

Note: A first method to identify the surface of the concentric spheres where the electron can
reside on in a H atom used letters instead of numbers. These spheres were termed shells and
were identified with the letters K, L, M, N in order of increasing radii (e.g. the K shell would
be associated with principal quantum number 1, the L with 2, and so on).

An analysis of the energies of the photons absorbed and emitted for a H atom resulted in the empirical
equation 8, which allows to calculate the potential energy of the electron as a function of its principal
quantum number.

α
UE = (8)
n2
where UE is the potential energy, α is a constant of value −2.18×10−18 J, and n is the principal
quantum number of the electron. Note that this equation is only applicable to an H atom.

Let’s make a couple of examples on how to use equation 8 to calculate the potential energy of the
electron and the energy absorbed or released during absorption and emission of light.

Example 2
The potential energy of the electron in a H atom is −1.51 eV. Determine whether the H atom
is in the ground or an excited state and, if the latter, determine its principal quantum number
n and the energy that would be liberated is the electron decays to the ground state. Then
convert of the energy of the liberated photon into the associated wavelength.

Solution If the H atom is in the ground state, the principal quantum number n of the electron
would be 1, then according to equation 8, the potential energy would be −2.18 × 10−18 J. We
can therefore convert the potential energy of −1.51 eV in J to determine whether the H atom
is in the ground state.

Page 11 of 17
1.2 Electrons and their properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

UE = −1.51 eV · 1.601 × 10−19 J eV−1

= −2.41 × 10−19 J

Since the potential energy is higher than that of the ground state, the H atom is in an excited
state.

To determine the principal quantum number of the electron in this excited state, we solve
equation 8 for n.

s
−2.18 × 10−18
n=
−2.41 × 10−19
=3

We have now to determine how much energy is liberated when the electron decays from the
excited to the ground state. In other words, we have to determine the loss in energy as the
electrons transits between the principal quantum numbers 3 and 1. Note that we are expecting
this difference in energy to be a negative value as the electron is lowering its potential energy
from the excited to the ground state. However, when quoting the energy of the photon, this
value has to be multiplied by −1, as photons cannot have negative values of energy. The energy
released is given by the difference in potential energy between the end state, n = 1, and the
initial state, n = 3, each of which is determined with equation 8.

−2.18 × 10−18 −2.18 × 10−18

∆E = J − J
12 32
= −1.94 × 10−18 J

The energy of the photon emitted is therefore 1.94 × 10−18 J. We can now find the associated
value of λ for the emitted light using equation 4.

6.626 × 10−34 J s · 2.998 × 108 m s−1

λ=
1.94 × 10−18 J
−7
= 1.02 × 10 m

When an electron in a H atom decays from the third shell to the first shell (or changes its
principal quantum number from 3 to 1), light is emitted with λ at 102 nm.

Equation 9, derived directly from equation 8, provides directly the frequency ν of light emitted by
an electron decaying between two states having principal quantum number na and nb (with na > nb ).
When solving these exercises, you can choose to use equation 8 or 9, according to your preference.

Page 12 of 17
1.2 Electrons and their properties CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

1 1
 
ν=β 2
− 2 (9)
nb na
where ν is the frequency of the emitted light, β is a constant of value 3.29 × 1015 s−1 , and na
and nb are the principal quantum numbers of the electron before and after the decay (na > nb ),
respectively.

Example 3
Use both equations 8 and 9 to calculate λ of the emitted light from an electron in a H atom
decaying from the fourth to the second shell.

Solution When the electron is in the fourth shell, its principal quantum number is 4; on the
other hand, the electron in the second shell has principal quantum number 2. We can calculate
the energy loss of the electron using equation 8.

−2.18 × 10−18 −2.18 × 10−18

∆E = J − J
22 42
= −4.09 × 10−19 J

The energy of the emitted photon is −∆E, 4.09 × 10−19 J, so we can now calculate λ.

6.626 × 10−34 J s · 2.998 × 108 m s−1

λ=
4.09 × 10−19 J
−7
= 4.86 × 10 m

Let’s now try and use equation 9 to calculate ν, and then directly convert it to λ.

1 1
 
ν = 3.29 × 10 15
2
− 2 s−1
2 4
= 6.17 × 1014 s−1
2.998 × 108 m s−1
λ=
6.17 × 1014 s−1
= 4.86 × 10−7 m

As expected, the obtained result is the same independetly of the equation used. Note that
the decay of an electron in a H atom from quantum number 4 to quantum number 2 emits
visible blue light at 486 nm. This line can be seen in figure 6. In fact, the lines present in
the emission spectrum of H in the visible range correspond to the decay of electrons between
quantum number 3 → 2, 656 nm, 4 → 2, 486 nm, 5 → 2, 434 nm, and 6 → 2, 410 nm.

Let’s summarise our discussion of atomic structure so far, using H as a model. The negatively charged
electron orbits around the positively charged proton and there is a potential energy of attraction be-

Page 13 of 17
1.3 Wave-Particle Duality CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

n = 4
n = 3

n = 2

n = 1

Figure 8: The Bohr model of atomic structure; in the two-dimensional figure, electron can only be
located on any of the concentric cicles, but not in between them.

tween the two particles, UE . The potential energy of the electron cannot assume any arbitrary value,
but is restricted to fixed, or quantised, values. This is deduced from the absoprtion and emission
experiments in figures 4 and 5. According to equation 6, this implies that the electron can only
be at fixed distances from the nucleus. Figure 8 schematises this atomic model, where the electron
can be located on the surface on the concentric spheres, called shells, with determine radii. These
shells are associated with integer numbers, called principal quantum numbers n. Knowing n allows
to calculate the potential energy of the electron, via equation 6. The electron can transit between
two shells: energy must be provided to the electron to increase n, whereas energy is released if the
electron decays decreasing n.

Our current description of atomic structure nicely explain the observed phenomena related to quan-
tisation of energy. However, there are still some questions that remains unanswered. Why is energy
quantised? Why doesn’t the electron fall onto the nucleus, since perpetual motion is impossible to
achieve?

1.3 Wave-Particle Duality

When a beam of electrons passes through a very small aperture, diffraction is observed. Interestingly,
diffraction is a phenomenon that is typical of waves, rather than particles. As we have seen before,
the wave-particle duality applies to light, but it also applies to particles like electrons. Equation 10,
which takes the name of De Broglie’s equation, provides us a way to describe a moving electron (and
more generally a moving particle of mass m) as a wave with a specific value of λ.

Page 14 of 17
1.3 Wave-Particle Duality CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

h
λ= (10)
mv
where λ is the wavelength, h is Plank’s constant, m is the mass of the moving particle and v
its velocity.

Let’s make an example of treating a moving electron as a wave.

Example 4

An electron is travelling at 1.00 × 105 m s−1 . What would be its λ if you were to describe it
as a wave, instead of a particle?

Solution We can directly use equation 10 to calculate λ.

6.626 × 10−34 J s
λ=
9.109 × 10−31 kg · 1.00 × 105 m s−1
= 7.27 × 10−9 m

Note: At times, there is some confusion between equations 2 and 10. The first refers to the
kinetic energy or a particle moving with a certain mass; the latter refers to the wavelenght
that the particle would have if described as a wave.

How does treating electrons as waves, instead of particles, helps us in defining atomic structure? Let’s
consider for example and atom of He, which would have two electrons, both with principal quantum
number 1. This means that you could represent them as two particles located on the surface of the
smallest sphere in figure 8. However, if we treat electrons as waves, then a more appropriate drawing
would be represented by figure 9. Particles occupy a finite location in space, but waves extend over a
region of space. For a wave to exist around the nucleus, it requires to be a continuous wave, like those
represented in figure 9. If the wave is not continuous, then it cannot exist in the specific location, as
a non-continuous waves does not make any physical sense. For a wave to be continuous, an integer
number of λ units must be contained within the specific shell. As consequence, the electron is capa-
ble of existing only at specific distances to accommodate a continuous wave, and it cannot exist at
distances where a continuous wave cannot be accommodated around the nucleus. In a very simplistic
manner, describing electrons as waves, provides a justification for the quantisation of energy.

How does the Bohr atomic model work for atoms other than H, that have more than one electron?
Evidence shows that the same model apply, and that electrons sequentially fill all the various shells.
The maximum number of electrons that each shell can contain is reported in the table below.

Page 15 of 17
1.4 Review Exercises CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

Figure 9: Representation of two electrons as waves occupying the same shell.

shell n max number of electrons

K 1 2
L 2 8
M 3 18
N 4 32
For example, H has 1 electron in the first shell, Li has 2 electrons in the first shell (n = 1) and 1
electron in the second shell (n = 2), N has 2 electrons in the first shell (n = 1) and 5 electrons in
the second shell (n = 2). Logically, the maximum number of electrons are accommodated in a shell
before the shell at the next principal quantum number is occupied, because electrons with lower
values of n interact more strongly with the nucleus.

1.4 Review Exercises

Exercise 1
A sample of gaseous H atoms in the ground state interacts with light, causing the electrons
to be excited to the fourth shell. What is the value of λ for the electromagnetic radiation
interacting with the H atoms?

Answer: 97.4 × 10−9 m

Exercise 2
The binding energy of Ni is 3.017 × 1024 eV mol−1 .

(i) Can electrons be ejected from a bar of Ni using electromagnetic radiation with wavelength
λ at 567 nm?
(ii) What is the value of the threshold frequency for Ni?

Page 16 of 17
1.5 Advanced Exercises CHEM1000 Principles and Processes in Chemistry

Answer: (i) no; (ii) 1.21 × 1015 Hz

Exercise 3
The threshold frequency of Cu is 1.12 × 1015 Hz. Consider a bar of copper illuminated by
photons with an energy of 5.00 eV.

(i) Determine the velocity of the ejected electrons.

(ii) Determine the λ of the ejected electrons if they were described according to their wave
nature.

Answer: (i) 3.60 × 105 m s−1 ; (ii) 2.02 × 10−9 m

Exercise 4
What would be the wavelength of a proton travelling at 90% of the speed of light, if it were
to be treated as a wave?

Answer: 1.47 × 10−15 m

Exercise 5
How many electrons are occupying each shell in an atom of Mg?

Answer: 2, 8, 2.

1.5 Advanced Exercises

Exercise 6
An H atom in the excited state has its electron characterised by principal quantum number n
equal to 5. The electron decays by sequentially emitting two photons. The first photon has λ
equal to 1281 nm. Determine λ for the second photon.

Answer: 102 nm.

Exercise 7
The first ionisation energy of Ar is 1521 kJ mol−1 . What would be the velocity of the ejected
electrons if the Ar atoms were hit by electromagnetic radiation whose ν is twice the value of
the threshold frequency?

Answer: 2.36 × 106 m s−1 .

Page 17 of 17