Mining Magazine - Sinking Skilfully

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Sinking skilfully
Publishing Date 30 Oct 2012 12:35pm GMT Author
Summary
Ed Northcote of Sinclair Knight Merz reviews three methods for vertical shaft sinking in mining, their advantages and
disadvantages, plus the associated risks and costs
A necessary early step in the study phase of any underground mining project is a review of how the ore is to be hauled
to the surface. The decision on which method to use depends on the depth of the mine, tonnages to be hoisted, local
topography, project and operational risks, capital and operating costs and the ability to maintain the system.
The three most common haulage systems to transfer ore to the surface are trucking fleets, flights of conveyors and
shaft hoisting systems. The first two haulage systems require a decline to be mined. Shaft haulage can be in a
decline, but is more commonly via vertical access to the orebody.
This article looks at vertical shaft sinking as an option and the three methods used to sink the shaft:
raise bore, strip and line;

blind sink; and
Horidiam.
When mine shafts are being considered, all too often the raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking method is adopted
without exploring the alternatives. Understanding the shaft-sinking cycle and what occurs in each phase of the cycle
provides further insight.
Shaft sinking is rated as one of the highest-risk undertakings in the mining industry, not only from the point of view of
safety of the shaft-sinking crews, but also from the point of view of risk to the project. A shaft-sinking operation in a
greenfield site frequently falls on a project’s critical path.
Mechanised shaft sinking uses raise- and blind-boring techniques – frequently for short (<500m deep) shafts. In
competent ground, the finish of the shaft barrel can remain unlined. This allows shaft furniture to be bolted directly
onto the country rock. In South Africa, this method has been very successful. For example, it has allowed a gold-
mining company to drill a series of short-lift, small-diameter, raise-bored shafts equipped with Köepe winders, which
were automated as elevators in buildings. This system improved the logistics for moving consumables and
personnel to the internal levels of the mine and therefore improved productivity.
Today, the raise and blind boring of shafts is a sophisticated process using dedicated machines, and this
mechanised process will not be further addressed in this article as it deserves an article of its own.
Raise bore, strip and line
There are five phases in the raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking method (see Figure 1, page 60). The raise-bore
phase requires different infrastructure from the shaft strip and line, and the equipment is again different in the
operational phase of the shaft. It also needs access to the bottom of the shaft and, in the case of deep shafts, a mid-
shaft access position may be required.
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Figure 1: schematic of raise-b ore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking method
Phase 1 is to drill an accurate pilot hole, using directional drilling techniques. For long shafts, this may have to be
done in two legs: collar to mid-shaft and mid-shaft to shaft bottom. The length of the directionally drilled hole is limited
by the drill rig’s ability to lift and control the drill rods. The cost of a directionally drilled hole rises with the increase in
required accuracy and length.
By the time the directionally drilled hole reaches the lower point, the mid-shaft or shaft-bottom excavation should be
completed. It is from this excavation that the raise-bore reamer is attached and the resulting drilling chips are
removed.
Phase 2 is to build a shaft collar that accommodates the loads generated by the raise-bore machine, shaft strip-and-
line activities and the operational shaft. Thoughtful and knowledgeable design is necessary to cover all the activities
required for quick establishment and demobilisation of this phase and for establishment of the next phase’s
infrastructure, thereby minimising the impact on the project’s critical path.
Establishing the raise-bore machine on the collar is the start of phase 3. Using the raise-bore machine, the
directional hole is drilled to a larger diameter to accommodate the raise-bore machine’s drill string. Before the raise-
bore reamer gets to the target zone, the decline and the shaft bottom excavation need to be completed.
Attached to the drill string is the raise-bore head reamer. The reamer is then used to increase the diameter of the hole
to at least Ø2.7m. The reamed hole is used during the shaft strip-and-line phase for the disposal of muck produced
when the shaft diameter is increased. Chips generated by the reaming activities are removed from the mid-shaft
position and trucked to the surface or deposited in underground excavations, if available, to reduce transport costs.
During phase 3, the construction of the shaft-sinking headgear and installation of the winders commences. In deep
shafts, it is not uncommon to use the permanent headgear for the sinking phase. Careful layout of the headgear and
the sky shaft saves time and cost at the change-over phase from shaft sinking to permanent operation.
When reaming of the raise-bore hole is complete, the machine is removed, ending phase 3. In the case of long
shafts, the raise bore is then relocated to the mid-shaft position to bore the second leg of the shaft.
Phase 4 starts with the sinking stage for the shaft strip-and-line winding plant, headgear, stage and kibble winders,
and the commissioning of mucking equipment and auxiliary plant, including compressed air, possible ventilation fans
and refrigeration plant, concrete batching and drill-rig maintenance.
A pre-sink is required, which will take the shaft sink from the sub-brace to a depth of approximately 50m or below the
weathered ground zone, whichever is the greater. This zone is required for the sinking stage to be installed to provide
clearance above the shaft bottom and prevent damage from flying rock when the shaft bench round is fired. The pre-
sink is lined with concrete as the shaft-bottom bench progresses. On completion of the pre-sink, the shaft-sinking
stage is installed.
Shaft sinking begins in earnest from this point. A specialist shaft-sinking multi-boom jumbo rig is used to drill the
benches. The holes are charged and fired, advancing the shaft bottom.
Fumes generated from the charge can be drawn down the raise-bore hole into the mine’s ventilation circuit. Should
the raise-bore hole be blocked by the recently fired round, the fumes are displaced using the air from the surface
ventilation fans.
On re-entry to the shaft after the round has been fired and fumes displaced, the shaft barrel is scaled of loose rock to
make the area safe. The exposed shaft barrel may require rock bolting and, in more onerous conditions, meshing
and possibly shotcreting. There are techniques that allow for the shaft lining to be lowered before the full 6m lift is
completed. Under the Western Australian surface-support guidelines, any surface greater than 3.5m must be
meshed or shotcreted, a precaution that others might like to consider even where it is not compulsory.
Once the shaft is made safe, the muck is cleared from the shaft bench using one of many types of mucking machine.
The muck is cleared through the Ø2.7m raise-bore hole reporting to the targeted excavation. This muck is loaded into
trucks for transport either to surface or, if available, to disused excavations underground.
As soon as the distance below the installed shaft liner is greater than 6m, the shutter curb ring can be lowered and
accurately installed, and concrete poured and cured before the remainder of the tub is lowered.
On the cleaning of the bench, a final compressed air ‘blow-over’ is given before the jumbo drilling boom is brought
back to drill the next round of holes for charging.
In the case of deep shafts, more than one leg is required, and a mid-shaft position is excavated for the repositioning
of the directional drilling rig and later of the raise-bore machine. This activity can progress as a parallel activity to the
stripping and lining of the shaft. The decline to the shaft bottom and the shaft-bottom excavation must have been
completed before the raise-bore reamer is attached.
Phase 5 is the establishment and commissioning of the permanent equipment, namely the winding plant and related
infrastructure for hoisting, permanent headgear and surface transport of rock. For most of this phase, the activities for
the permanent plant are in parallel with those of phase 4. Only on removal of the sinking stage, sinking sky shaft,
ropes and related sinking infrastructure is phase 5 on the critical path.
Horidiam method
Horidiam is a variation on the commonly employed raise-bore, strip-and-line technique. It has proved to be
successful in competent ground, and is mainly used for the sinking of large-diameter ventilation shafts up to 1,000m
deep.
The horidiam method uses six phases. Phases 1, 2 and 3 are similar to the raise-bore, strip-and-line method (see
Figure 1), requiring a directionally drilled hole to a target zone, followed by a raise-bore hole drilled for the stringer
rods and the hole being reamed out. In the case of Horidiam, the reamed-out hole is used to drill the charge holes for
the final shaft diameter.
Phase 4 (see Figure 3) starts with the completion of the removal of the reamer and raise borer, and installation of the
Galloway stage to start the shaft pre-sink to a depth of ±50m below the collar. After the blast, rock is removed from the
bench by using compressed air to blow the rock down the raise-bore hole. This rock is removed from the target zone
at the bottom of the raise-bore hole, usually by an LHD and truck combination.
Figure 3: schematic of Horidiam shaft-sinking method (phases 4-6 only)
If, during the pre-sink, the weathered zone has not been traversed, a benching stage is installed to continue the shaft
sink. The benching stage, unlike the single-deck Galloway stage, is a multi-deck construction designed to provide
access for manoeuvring the shaft shuttering, aligning and securing prior to the placing of the concrete between it and
the country rock. Access to the stage is gained using a cage running on the stage suspension ropes.
Once the weathered zone has been mined through and supported, phase 5 starts with the removal of the benching
stage. A Horidiam stage, equipped with rock drills, is lowered down to the top of the raise-bored hole in the floor of the
recently completed bench.
From the Horidiam stage, about 17 charge holes are drilled on the raise-bore diameter at an angle of ±15º below the
horizontal, vertically spaced throughout the hole at 1.2m, drilled to the length of the shaft’s finished radius. Where
required, spilt sets are used to support the country rock.
On arrival at the bottom of the raise-bore hole, the drilling machines are removed from the Horidiam stage and
replaced with explosive-loading equipment.
Phase 6 begins with the holes being charged and fired from the bottom, that is, near the target zone up the shaft, in
sets of two rings at a time. After each blast, the rock is removed from the target zone at the shaft bottom using an LHD.
Access to the Horidiam stage is via a specially designed personnel cage known as ‘the bullet’, which runs on the
Horidiam stage suspension ropes.
This technique does not allow for shaft lining, resulting in a rough wall finish. The rough finish may also have
tolerance issues that could impact on the ovality or vertical alignment of the shaft, which in turn may affect clearances
between the shaft side wall and conveyances running on rope guides, or may reduce ventilation air quantities through
increased friction loss.
Once the diametral holes have been drilled, the limiting factor is usually the blasting times, which need to coincide
with the mine’s blasting cycle and the rate at which rock can be removed from the target zone. It is important to keep
the raise-bore hole clear at all times from the build-up of broken rock. If the hole becomes blocked, ventilation in the
shaft stops, which can make working conditions on the Horidiam stage unpleasant and possibly unsafe. It also
prevents the water that accumulates in the shaft from draining out of the raise-bore hole. This presents a safety
hazard when the LHD removes the rock and then breaks the seal between the top of the pile and the raise-bore hole,
frequently resulting in a mud rush.
The Horidiam method is only suitable for non-personnel-entry shafts, such as ventilation shafts, as there is no
reinforcement or support to the shaft barrel. The walls are rougher than for a lined shaft and the ground conditions
should be taken into account. As this method is relatively cheap, the diameter of the shaft can be increased to
overcome the roughness factor. The lack of shaft lining and of need for a conventional stage reduces the cost.
Equipment evaluation
Winders
In all three shaft-sinking methods, the duty of the shaft-sinking winders is usually not as onerous as in the permanent
phase, particularly when the shaft is used for rock hoisting.
If the permanent winders are available at the start of the shaft sink, it is not unusual to use them for shaft sinking. This
can save cost and time on the shaft-sinking project.
In the raise-bore, strip-and-line method, construction, installation and no-load commissioning of the shaft-sinking
winders commence as early activities after the shaft-sinking contractor has mobilised.
Both stage- and kibble-winder duties tend to be light, even in deep shafts. The kibble winder is mainly used for
transport of personnel and equipment to the stage or shaft bench. As the stage’s functions are usually to move the
barrel shutter work and provide cover, the overall suspended mass is less than 20t. Suspension of the load presents
little problem, as the stage requires a minimum of four ropes for stability – which can be achieved by using two ropes
in two falls.
In blind sinking, winder installation and commissioning is a phase 1 activity and, depending on the winder package,
can be the schedule’s critical path. The winders required in blind shaft sinks are large (typically a 2,200kW double-
drum kibble winder and 250kW stage winder are required). For deep shaft sinks, the kibble payload can be as high
as 16t, which is then hoisted approximately 2,000m.
For shallow shaft sinks, the stage winder is usually a simple double-drum or two-drums-coupled winch, while for
deep shaft sinks stage winders are more complex and robust, weighing up to 130t. To suspend large loads at depth
requires multi-fall ropes. This in turn requires large lengths of rope wrapped onto large drums.
A common layout (see Figure 4) is the rope drum, tensioning tower and capstan-style drive. The rope drum allows for
a low-tension coiling of the ropes, which can be achieved during manufacture. The rope pull required by the stage is
generated through the chimes wheel drive.
Figure 4: shaft-sinking equipment
In very deep shafts, the Blair stage winder is used. While similar to the above stage in that there is a rope magazine
and a tensioning tower, there are two chimes wheel drives that are grooved drums rather than a tapered chimes
wheel.
The two chimes drives, while providing more support to the rope, increase the angle of wrap and therefore increase
the T1/T2 ratio, which allows for increases in the rope end load, namely the size of the sinking stage.
Two winders are required for the Horidiam shaft-sinking method. The same winder is used for the Galloway,
Benching and Horidiam stages. In the Galloway and Benching stage cases, the conveyances are suspended from
four ropes, usually achieved using two ropes in two falls. The Horidiam stage is suspended from two ropes. Stability
is not a problem as the Horidiam stage is a close-tolerance fit to the raise-bore hole.
The stage winch is usually fitted with large drums to accommodate the rope length and is typically capable of 50t rope
pull at approximately 0.5m/s.
To access the stage, a small single-drum winch can be used. A rope pull of typically 5t at ~2.5m/s is required for a
shaft approximately 1,000m deep.
Headgear
The layout of the headgear for the raise bore, strip and line and the blind sink shaft presents a challenge to the
designers. In all shaft-sinking methods, the main load frame of the permanent headgear can be used in the shaft-
sinking phase. However, if the shaft does not require headgear (such as a ventilation shaft), then contractors usually
have a shaft-sinking headgear that can be used, or will get one purpose-built.
Designing the headgear to accommodate the loads for two different functions (sinking and operational), while
keeping the structure simple to reduce not only cost but also time in the change-over from sinking to permanent, is
the real test to the designers’ experience and ingenuity.
For the raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking method, the headgear construction commences during phase 3 and is
completed at the start of phase 4 for use by the sinking contractor.
The period between awarding the shaft-sinking contract and the headgear being available for shaft sinking tends to
be longer than for a blind shaft sink. This may mean that only part of the headgear’s construction is on the project’s
critical path.
The change-over from the sinking to the permanent, operational headgear needs to be planned at the outset of the
design. There can be cost and schedule benefits in using the load frame for the permanent headgear during the
shaft-sinking phase. Factors that would influence this are the use of the shaft, the layout of the permanent winders
and the availability of the winders.
The A-frame configuration is often favoured, as it allows the main loads to be taken in the headgear and quick
change-out of the sky towers, as required by the various phases and duties.
Commissioning of the headgear for the shaft sinking and permanent phase will be on the project’s critical path.
In blind sinking, the headgear construction commences in phase 1 in parallel with the construction of shaft sinking
winders and related infrastructure. Blind sinking needs less design and fabrication time for the headgear than the
strip and line option, and as a result this could be a schedule risk to the project.
Where the permanent headgear is used during the sinking phase, the final duty will more than likely provide the
governing conditions. In the event of only personnel or material hoisting, the defining load may be the shaft-sinking
activities, which could increase the cost of the permanent headgear. As with the strip-and-line shaft sinking technique,
the A-frame configuration is commonly used, providing flexibility and schedule efficiencies with the sky tower change-
out.
As the Horidiam shaft-sinking method is usually for ventilation shafts, there is no permanent headgear. However,
should the shaft be designed for permanent winding, it is possible to use the permanent headgear for shaft sinking.
Shaft collar and pre-sink

In the raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking technique, the complexity of the shaft collar is increased, as it has to
accommodate the loads imposed by the raise-bore machine, and hence is a higher design risk. This could lead to
conservative design with the consequential increase in cost and time to construct.
The vertical loads resulting from the mass of the machine and the tension induced in the drill string down to the
cutting head are significant. In addition, the torsional load specific to raise boring is an additional load and will
increase the cost of the shaft collar.
An alternative is to raise-bore the first leg from a simple concrete pad before constructing the shaft collar. Given the
timing of the decline arriving at the base of the second leg, this will often be a viable option.
Complexity of the brace design is not significantly increased to accommodate the blind shaft-sinking technique, and it
is therefore a lower-risk structure than for the strip-and-line method.
For Horidiam shaft-sinking methods, the design complexity, associated cost and schedule risks are similar to those
for the raise-bore, strip-and-line method.
Sinking-cycle Activities
Drilling
In the raise-bore, strip-and-line plus blind shaft-sinking methods, jumbo drill rigs are commonly used to drill the shot
holes.
Jumbo drill rigs are available in various configurations with up to four booms. Opinion remains divided as to the ‘best’
number of booms. Discussions revolve around too many booms making for a crowded shaft bench, impacting on
productivity and safety. On the other hand, if one boom/drifter fails, the remaining booms/drifters have to complete the
drill cycle; thus the more booms on the jumbo rig, the greater the redundancy and lesser impact on the drilling cycle.
The drifters and most booms are hydraulically powered.
For hydraulic drifters, round lengths of between 3.2m and 3.5m can be drilled, with experiments being done at 6.0m.
Depending on the ground conditions, drilling rates of between 0.6m/min and 2.1m/min can be achieved. Cycle times
vary with the number of holes to be drilled, but are generally planned to take less than three hours.
Unlike the raise-bore, strip-and-line plus blind shaft-sink methods, where the drilling activity is normally done at the
shaft’s bottom, Horidiam is done from a multi-deck stage. This is a safer option, as each of the stage decks is
guarded from the other and has limited crew, thereby reducing crowding and the potential of safety incidents.
The risk profile is higher for the raise-bore, strip-and-line method than for blind sinking. In the centre of the bench is
the raise-bore hole, down which the waste rock is deposited for removal at the mid-shaft/shaft bottom. This is
normally fitted with a cover during drilling activities. However, there are transition periods when the cover is either
being removed or installed that need specific job safety analysis and management.
Charging the holes

Cleaning and charging the drilled holes is shaft-specific and carries the same risk level in any of the three shaft-
sinking methods. Safe operating procedures need to be written and the crews trained in their use.
By using pre-prepared charge harnesses, and assuming the holes are dry, charging and firing can be completed
within an hour.
Moving the stage, firing and re-entry

For the raise-bore, strip-and-line plus blind shaft-sinking methods, the risk profile in either method will be similar
when moving the stage and firing the round. When moving the stage up, care needs to be taken not to foul shaft
services (ventilation and machine water pipes plus possibly power and communications cables).
After the round has been fired, the shaft bottom has to be re-entered to start the next activity of making the shaft barrel
safe and then mucking. In the strip-and-line method, the raise-bore hole may be blocked with the recently broken
ground. This can block ventilation and result in less than adequate clearing of blasting fumes, creating a health issue
for the crew and delaying the cleaning cycle. It is strongly recommended that an additional ventilation connection be
developed above the base of the raise-bore muck pile if hole blockage is an issue.
Moving the stage for the Horidiam shaft-sinking method is a relatively simple exercise, in that the power cables can be
coiled on the top deck of the stage.
Making safe and cleaning

The strip-and-line method relies on the raise-bore hole for cleaning the round. If the fragmentation is correct, blocking
of the hole is unlikely. However, if there is a change in ground conditions and the drilling, charging and firing
sequence does not take this into account, fragmentation may block the raise-bore hole.
Cleaning rates are affected by the fragmentation achieved and by any water in the shaft. Rates of 110t/h to 140t/h for a
Herman Mucker have been reported. Final blow-over is achieved using a Ø50mm compressed-air hose.
Where the broken rock is removed by LHD, safe operating procedures need to be enforced to ensure that the muck
pile does not block the raise-bore hole. This will impact on shaft ventilation and could result in water being trapped.
This may result in a mud rush when the broken rock is cleared. Hang-ups are also possible if the muck is left for
some time and concrete lining equipment has been washed out, forming a solid mass at the base of the raise bore.
Fragmentation in blind shaft sinks is important in that if the rock is too large, loading times are increased, which
impacts on shaft progress. There is an additional risk in the kibbles being overloaded. An overloaded kibble could
drop rocks onto the sinking stage and injure the crew. Common practice is for the stage hand to inspect kibbles for
overloading before leaving the confines of the stage.
Cleaning rates for the 0.87m3 Cactus Grab have been recorded at 160t/h with final clean-up being achieved using a
Ø50mm compressed air hose.
Clearing the Horidiam round involves similar risks to those of the raise-bore/strip-and-line technique associated with
LHD mucking.
Equipment maintenance
The equipment used in both raise-bore, strip-and-line and the blind-sink methods is similar. The kibble winder and
the interlocking safety circuits are the most sophisticated items of equipment and require an experienced
maintenance crew.
Suspending the kibble from the winder rope are high-tensile chains that connect to the kibble using drop-nose pins
placed through forged lugs on the kibble. The chains and pins need to be inspected daily and non-destructively tested
at least once every six months.
To guide the kibble down the shaft, a kibble cross-head (sometimes called a monkey) is used. The monkey
stabilises the kibble’s travel by using the stage ropes. To minimise wear on the ropes, sacrificial phosphor-bronze
bushes are installed in the cross-head and run on the ropes. These need to be checked and replaced regularly.
In the blind-sink option, the mucking equipment requires a special skill set. In most countries, the Cryder, Brute or
Herman Mucker is used. This is usually a hydraulically powered bucket-type/clam-shell excavator on a hydraulic arm
suspended from the bottom of the sinking stage. In large shafts it is not uncommon to have two muckers in the
sinking stage.
In South Africa the Cactus Crab is used. This is also suspended from the bottom of the stage, but is usually
pneumatically powered.
Schedule
No matter which shaft-sinking method is selected, the preparation and set-up times are major activities in shaft-
sinking contracts. These can be influenced by the availability of skilled people and shaft-sinking equipment, the
logistics of getting the equipment to the site, and the level of infrastructure available at the site.
After award of the contract for raise-bore, strip-and-line shaft sinking, six to nine months are required for mobilisation
and site establishment.
During this time, kibble and stage ropes are ordered (a common long-lead item), headgear laid out and, if necessary,
fabricated (another possible long-lead item), and plant and equipment are transported to site, installed and
commissioned. In parallel, recruitment, risk assessments and training are completed for the site-specific tasks. It is
important to note that this shaft-sinking technique is not an option unless timely access can be gained to the target
zone.
Access to the target position or shaft bottom can be on the shaft’s critical path, particularly if the shaft is a greenfield
site. If it is a brownfield site, the impact on the schedule to access the target zone can be reduced if the shaft is close
to existing excavations.
The cost and the time are usually part of the mine’s development, and as a result can be completed before the shaft
being required, making raise bore, strip and line an attractive shaft-sinking method.
An average pilot-hole drilling rate of 12m/d to 18m/d, and a rate of 8m/d to 9.6m/d for reaming are commonly used in
planning. Shaft sinking and lining rates are between 4.2m/d and 5.2m/d.
For blind shaft sink, the mobilisation and set-up time is similar to the time for raise bore, strip and line.
During the pre-sink phase, advance rates are always slow as the sinking crew go through their learning curve. In
addition, the pre-sink often includes complex sub-brace arrangements. The shaft sinking rate in this phase is usually
between 1.5m/d and 2.0m/d.
Sinking rates are affected by ground conditions and the support or sealing required. In the sinking contract, it is
common practice to define advance rates through various ground conditions. In competent ground and as the crew
settles down into a production cycle, shaft sinking and lining rates are commonly between 3m/d and 4.5m/d ,
although rates as high as 6m/d have been recorded.
If the shaft-sinking plant and equipment are ready for use, mobilisation and site establishment for Horidiam takes
between four and five months. The raise-bore schedule for Horidiam would be the same as for the raise-bore, strip-
and-line shaft-sinking method.
Mining of the weathered zone depends on the ground and depth required before the shaft barrel walls are stable. This
mining rate for reasonable ground would be of the order of 3m/d.
Once the benching stage has been removed, the Horidiam stage installed, and the services commissioned, drilling
3m-deep holes from a three-deck stage using L500 Tamrock drifters will achieve 1.5 rings at 1.2m intervals per 8h
shift.
Commonly, there are three shifts a day for seven days a week, resulting in an advance rate of approximately 7m/d.
Limiting this progress is the ability to fire the round when required and remove the muck from the target zone and out
of the mine. Both activities may have to coincide with production cycles.
Risks
The table (below) outlines the different risks of the shaft-sinking systems.
The following are typical risks that are considered as being similar in severity for all shaft-sinking methods:
shaft-sinking winding plant, stages, jumbo drilling rigs, shaft shutter, etc;
headgear availability for shaft sinking;
construction of headgear;
drilling holes;
moving the stage, firing and re-entry;
making safe;
passing kibble through the sinking stage;
moving the drill rig;
lining the shaft barrel; and
availability of suitably experienced and qualified personnel.
Shaft sinking is a hazardous activity and as a result requires strong and vigilant management. Training and retraining
of the crews are imperative in the drive to maintain a safe and injury-free project. Job safety analysis needs to be
implemented and reviewed regularly for continuous improvement.
Conclusion
When deciding which shaft-sinking technique to employ, it is important to look at the project from as many aspects as
possible. Selection needs to take into account cost, schedule, contractors’ safety record and the risks pertinent to the
project.
The vertical-advance capital cost for blind shaft sinking is marginally more than for raise bore, strip and line. However,
when the cost of the decline to access the target zone is taken into account, the blind sinking option can become the
more cost-effective option. Blind sink also becomes more attractive if mid-shaft access is required.
The cost associated with removing rock from the shaft bottom is built into the blind shaft sink rate. A common error is
not accounting for this cost in the raise-bore, strip-and-line method. This cost can be significant, particularly when the
rock has to be trucked to the surface. If possible, the rock should be tipped into disused workings close to the target
zone.
While a decline access may be available, or required in the mine plan, the cost to access the mid-shaft position may
more than off-set the additional cost incurred by the blind shaft-sink option.
When using the raise-bore, strip-and-line sinking method, project delays incurred through timing of the blast,
ventilation and waste-rock removal can impact the shaft’s progress, resulting in the sinking crew being stood down.
However, this is a management issue and the project teams should assess their ability to control these issues,
including in the contractual obligations of underground-mining contractors, as part of the project risk assessment.
To complete any financial analysis, a net-present-value or economic value-added calculation must be completed.
Project risk needs to be factored into the evaluation. This would cover the availability of plant and contractors, skills to
resource the shaft sink, schedule risks to the project and geological risk.
The intersection of water-bearing geological features needs to be understood – particularly the size and flow rate of
these features – if the raise-bore technique is to be used. Should a significant structure be intersected and not
detected until it holes into the target zone, it could present a high risk of flooding the mine. In blind sink, cover drilling
provides early warning of these geological structures, and they can usually be sealed without major impact to the
mine.
Where the shaft is being sunk in ground that is not self-supporting or has significant water structures, blind sink
shafts will provide the opportunity to control and isolate these risks.
From a schedule perspective, if access to the shaft bottom is not available for the raise-bore, strip-and-line method,
then the blind sink method is likely to be of shorter duration.
It is hoped this article will be useful in the prefeasibility stage and will generate discussion on the optimal shaft-
sinking method for a project, resulting in cost-effective and timely outcomes.
Ed Northcote is regional manager – b usiness development at Sinclair Knight Merz in Brisb ane, Australia.
www.skmconsulting.com
Blind sink method
There are four phases in the blind shaft-sinking method (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: schematic of b lind shaft-sinking method
Phase 1 is the establishment of the shaft collar and shaft-sinking infrastructure for the shaft-sinking kibble and stage
winders, headgear, compressed air, ventilation fans, concrete batching, drill rig and mucking equipment
maintenance.
As with the strip-and-line method, a pre-sink is required, which will take the shaft bottom from the sub-brace to a
depth of approximately 50m or below the weathered ground, whichever is the greater.
During this phase, the shaft-sinking crew will be trained in the sinking cycle. It is not uncommon to have a mock-up
shaft in which the crews practice. This can be beneficial in reducing the learning-curve time and identifying and
improving work practices and safe methods.
Phase 2 is the commissioning and installation period for the shaft-sinking equipment. Where large shaft sinks are
undertaken and, depending on the design, the sinking stage may be too large to install once the headgear has been
erected. In these cases, the stage is constructed and lowered into the pre-sink shaft before the headgear is
constructed over the shaft. Modular construction techniques are used to expedite the erection of the headgear.
The kibble and stage winders are commissioned in parallel with roping up the winders ready for completion of the
headgear. Once roped up, the system is load-commissioned and the training and system practised in the mock shaft
are tested.
Shaft sinking is not unlike a production cycle in that the following activities are repeated until the required shaft depth
has been achieved. Only at stations does the shift activity and cycle change.
The shaft-sinking cycle is:
drill charge holes;

charge holes;
move the stage up;
fire the round;
forced ventilation prior to re-entry; and
make safe and clean the round.
Approximately every 6m of progress in the shaft barrel, the shaft lining is brought down to provide protection from and
support to the country rock. This is the same activity with the same issues as per the strip-and-line method.
Where ground conditions are poor, the shaft country rock can be supported using various techniques. These can
range from bolting and meshing with a shotcrete finish, to lowering the shaft lining down to the shaft-bottom bench,
which increases the shaft-sinking cycle.
In areas where there is evidence or forecast of water or gas that could affect the shaft’s safety and progress, cover
drilling is required. An allowance of between 24 and 48 hours may be required to install the stand pipes and complete
the cover drilling. Should there be an intersection of water or gas, the cover-drill cycle is extended to handle and seal
the ingress
In phase 3, the shaft-sinking cycle activities have become routine and their durations should have settled down. The
duration, stoppages and material movements during each activity must be recorded. This information can then be
used to forecast problems and solve exiting deficiencies, resulting in an ever-improving cycle as the shaft advances.
In phase 4, the shaft-sinking equipment is stripped from the shaft barrel, the shaft equipped and brace
commissioned for the shaft’s operating duty. Good planning will have the majority of this construction being done in
parallel with the shaft-sink activities.
Mid-shaft access
The raise-bore, strip-and-line and Horidiam methods require shaft bottom access, but depending on the shaft depth
may also require a mid-shaft access.
Shaft-bottom and mid-shaft accesses need these zones to be available by the time the raise-bore reamer is attached.
It is possible to start drilling the pilot hole for the raise-bore strings ahead of the mid-shaft access being available.
However, to avoid delays, it is important that the access is available once the pilot hole arrives.
Accessing the mid-shaft or shaft bottom could be the project’s longest activity, putting it on the schedule’s critical path.
Mid-shaft access can add significantly to the capital cost of the project, particularly if the area has no use in the
permanent layout of the shaft. Common functions for mid-shaft access after construction would be:
egress of the rising main run-of-mine dewatering pipes;

ventilation of the upper regions of the mine; and
head rope changing for Köepe winders.
For deep shafts, three excavations (top, centre and lower) are required for the raise-bore, strip-and-line and Horidiam
shaft-sinking methods.
The top excavation provides access and ventilation to the top of the raise-bore chip pile. It will also provide drainage to
the top of the pile, which is a safety feature reducing the possibility of a mud rush.
The centre excavation is used to store and collect the raise-bore chips. These are cleared using an LHD. The lower
excavation provides a covered and protected position from where the directional drilling and raise-boring are carried
out for the lower half of the shaft.
While the central excavation could be re-used in the permanent phase, the upper and lower are an additional cost to
the project required by the strip-and-line sinking method.
For the blind shaft-sink method, no mid-shaft excavation is required, negating any risks associated with mining to this
position. If possible, it is worth considering that levels are best developed before the shaft face arrives at that location.
The alternative is to develop the plats and levels from the shaft floor at the level, which is time-consuming, inefficient
and therefore relatively expensive.
Shaft collar
The shaft collar is an intricate construction that is required to provide some or all of the following:
improved load-bearing capability for the sky tower and possibly the headgear;
exit of services from the shaft to the brace area;
entrance to the shaft for power and communications cables;
intersection of the bulk ventilation duct with the shaft barrel;
headgear foundations;
sub-brace foundations and lining;
sealing of the shaft barrel through the weathered upper geological formations;
sealing of brace to suit mine ventilation requirements; and
protection of crews working in the shaft during sinking (brace doors) and kibble-handling facilities.
Shaft lining
The risks associated with the placement of the shaft lining are similar for the raise-bore, strip-and-line and for the
blind shaft-sinking methods.
There is an opportunity to reduce the shaft-sinking cycle by running the activities of shaft shutter lowering, alignment
and filling with concrete concurrently with shaft-bottom mucking. This needs to be risk-assessed and suitable safety
procedures identified and practised.
The Horidiam sinking method does not allow for shaft lining.
Cover drilling
In all shaft-sinking methods, a curtain grout can be achieved from the shaft collar. Also, cover drilling can be done
from the bottom of the pre-sink to a depth limited by the geology of the area. In most sites, reliable cover at depth is
difficult to achieve.
Where there could be a significant water intersection at depth, the raise-bore, strip-and-line plus Horidiam shaft-
sinking methods are at high risk. When drilling the pilot hole for the raise-bore reamer rods, there is no control over
the ingress of fissure water. There are techniques that can be used to seal the pilot hole.
In the blind-sink method, there are tried and tested cover-drill practices that provide advance warning of water and gas
intersections. Coupled with this knowledge, there are well-known grouting procedures that are capable of controlling
and, in the majority of cases, sealing the aquifer. Should sealing of the aquifer not be possible, pumping
arrangements can be installed to pump water to the surface.
There are also tried and tested methods of recovering flooded shafts where the cover drilling has failed to detect large
ingress of water. While this is not ideal, it is a lower risk than flooding the mine.
Cost comparison
To arrive at the range of capital costs below, data from a number of tenders has been collated for concrete-lined
shafts that are approximately 1,000m deep and 7m in diameter.
The shafts were to be used for rock hoisting and equipped with rope guides for the conveyances. The capital cost of
the shaft furniture and hoisting system is not included. Also excluded from the percentages are logistics to get the
plant to and from the site and the cost of preparing the site. These can be significant in remote or mountainous
locations.
Comparisons of risks
Raise bore strip and

Risk Blind sink Risk Type
line
Accuracy required to
Schedule and
Directional drilling intersect mid-shaft N/A
cost
position.
Complex structure to
accommodate the
Shaft collar raise bore activity with N/A Technical
the permanent
requirements.
Lose rods in pilot
Raise bore N/A Schedule
hole.
Reamer head losses
N/A Schedule
a cutter.
Removal of raise bore
chips by others.
Underground mining Schedule and
N/A
contractor interface cost
with shaft sinking
contractor.
Logistical issues in
removing the muck
out of the mine Schedule and
N/A
impacted by possible cost
mine production
taking precedence.
Timely access
required for shaft
Access to mid-shaft
sinking ventilation N/A Schedule
position
and removal of raise
bore chips.
Cover drilling
available to detect
Not able to seal water
and possibly seal
if an intersection is
Intersection of aquifer intersection.
encountered in Cost and
aquifers in the shaft Where total sealing
directional or raise schedule
barrel is not possible, able
bore hole. Risk of
to control ingress of
flooding mine.
aquifer water and
pump out.
Risk of raise bore
Bench strip Not applicable. Schedule
rock pass blocking.
Traffic generated by
the removal of waste Traffic issue
rock generated from Risk of overloading becomes a
Removing waste the shaft sink can the kibble resulting schedule delay.
rock conflict with in rocks falling out Falling rock can
operations production and down to shaft. result in an injury
traffic – shaft sinking or fatality.
can stop.
Interface with open
raise bore in
Falling from transition from
Not applicable Injury or fatality
heights mucking to bench
floor activities and
prior to blasting.
© Aspermont UK (Mining Communications Ltd) Albert House, 1 Singer Street, London, EC2A 4BQ

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3/5/2014 Mining Magazine - Sinking skilfully

raise bore, strip and line;

Raise bore, strip and line

Figure 1: schematic of raise-b ore, strip-and-line shaft-sinking method

Figure 4: shaft-sinking equipment

Shaft collar and pre-sink

Charging the holes

Moving the stage, firing and re-entry

Making safe and cleaning

Blind sink method

Figure 2: schematic of b lind shaft-sinking method

The shaft-sinking cycle is:

drill charge holes;

egress of the rising main run-of-mine dewatering pipes;

Raise bore strip and

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