CUT-AND-FILL MINING

Introduction

This method uses artificial support to the full extent. As shown in

the figure, it starts from the bottom of the stope and advances
upwards by taking horizontal slices of ore from the roof.

The broken ore is loaded into the ore pass and the stope (face) is
therefore cleaned completely unlike all other underground mining
methods.

After each slice is taken, the vacated volume is filled, in order to

support the walls and to provide a working platform. The fill will
perform both duties much more effectively than that in shrinkage
method.

The fill material can consist of waste rock from developments. Or

it can be bi-products of the mineral processing plants. Probably a
combination of these would be the most suitable material to fill the
stope after mining. In any case, it needs to have certain particle
size and other characteristics in different layers of the stope.

The fill material can be mixed with water so that when the water is
drained off, the surface is smooth. There are, however a variety of
filling methods available.

In some cases, the fill material is mixed with cement (and water)
so that it leaves a smoother and more durable surface as well as
providing a stronger support to the walls.

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Application

The standard application is that cut-and-fill can be applied to

steeply dipping ore bodies with reasonably firm ore.

Compared with sublevel stoping and shrinkage, used in similar

conditions, cut and fill offers the advantage of almost full
selectivity.

The method can be applied to irregular ore bodies with any type of
discontinuities. It can easily extract the high-grade ore and leave
the low-grade parts in the fill.

Developments

1) A haulage drift is required at the bottom of the stope, similar

to sublevel stoping and shrinkage methods.
2) Raises from the haulage drift are to be developed, through the
undercut, right up to the face. These are mainly for ore
transportation to the level below although they can be used
for other purposes such as men/materials transport and
ventilation.
3) In the beginning of the stope an undercut of about 5m has to
be made to allow production drilling to start.
4) Raises have to be made from the stope to the level above.
These are commonly used for ventilation and the
transportation of fill material.

Production
Drilling and blasting are the means of production.

Two systems of drilling are practiced:

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 1) Drilling vertical or inclined upwards holes which is the most
commonly used system. In this method, large sections of the
stope back can be drilled in any one round and a large
number of drill holes can be blasted simultaneously. Simple
and light-weight wagon drills are usually used for roof
drilling.

The main disadvantage of this system is that the headroom

increases to about 7m when the ore is removed. This, together
with the uneven ceiling produced after blasting, makes the
stope an unsafe place to work. To solve this problem, smooth
blasting needs to be carried out, in order to trim the roof,
before loading the ore.

2) Drilling horizontal holes can also be carried out in this

method. Here, after loading is completed, the distance
between the floor and roof is filled with hydraulic means
completely, so that only a narrow space is left as undercut. In
his system, drilling can be done with normal jumbos.

In this case, the size of the drilling round is limited. But with
modern faster drilling and loading equipment, the size of the
round has lost some of its importance.

One advantage is that with horizontal holes a more smooth

face can be obtained. Also, after loading is complete, the
headroom is only about 4m, making it easier to control.

In this system, selectivity is even higher. Drills can be

adjusted to leave the unwanted ore in place and also to dig
into the walls for the extraction of high grade ore.

Ore Transport

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The use of LHD is predominant. Generally, since the surface of the
fill is smooth, it is suitable for rubber-tyred equipment. The
distance to travel is also suitable for LHD.

Conclusions

1) The method has a broad range of applications, broadest

amongst all similar underground mining methods.
2) Selective mining is possible to the full extent.
3) Recovery can be high, although variable. An approximate
figure is 50-60% or even higher.
4) The method is applicable in weaker, less predictable and
irregular rock conditions.
5) Hydraulic filing has given the method some boost. It has
become more frequently used.
6) Mechanizability is high due to the smooth and strong surface
of the fill. Mobile mechanized drills can be used. If ramps are
provided between the stopes, then the equipment are
transported from one stope to another and hence increase
capacity utilization of the machinery to an acceptable level.
This would allow slightly more expensive drilling and
loading machines to be used.

7) It is the inherent characteristic of the method to be highly

discontinuous. This is of course duo to the presence of filling
process. Recent new methods have aimed to decrease the
time spent on filling operation.

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Cut-and-Fill Mining: Advanced

General Approach

For many decades, cut-and-fill method was perhaps the most

widely used method, especially in metal mines. It was then
replaced by other methods to a great extent and wherever possible.

The method has recently gained some popularity again since many
mines reached depths where ground stability has become an issue.
Sublevel stoping, for example, needs a large open stope therefore
utmost ground stability is required. In unstable conditions, dilution
increases.

The method is very flexible and versatile. It can therefore be

applied or adapted to almost any ore body. Different versions suit
different conditions. It is the last resort of the mining design
engineer.

The standard application is:

- A slice of 2.5-3m thick is removed from the back of he stope.

- The back is dressed and rock bolted.
- The broken ore is then loaded and dropped through the ore
pass to the level below.
- After loading, he ore pass ring is constructed upwards by 2.5-
3m.
- The stope is then filled.

Relative to other similar methods, it is usually applied to:

1- Ore bodies with considerable vertical extent.

2- Areas that require selective mining.
3- Ore bodies with weak wall conditions.

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 4- Ore bodies that have sufficient grade (value) to compensate
for this expensive method.

It is noted that in sublevel stoping and shrinkage, the ore body dip
has to be higher than the angle of repose. Cut-and-fill does not
have this requirement. It is only the inclination of the ore pass that
has to be more than the angle of repose. This does not have to be
the same as the ore body dip.

The amount of ground control operations is high and the tonnage

of ore broken and loaded in each cycle is small. Therefore the
amount of non-productive work is great and productivity of the
method can therefore be very limited.

Also, due to the great amount of non-productive work, the

production can be quite cyclical.

Suitable Ore Bodies

The method can be adapted to almost any ore body with relatively
high vertical extent.

The ore body must be accessible at both top and bottom as well as
at regular intervals throughout its vertical extent.

Although the method can be applied in almost any geological

conditions, from economics point of view, it should only be
adopted where other methods cannot be applied, mainly due to
boundaries irregularities, discontinuity and walls instability.

The method allows sampling to be done before mining operations

start in the stope. Selective mining can therefore be utilized to the
full extent.

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The size and shape of the stope can be modified or changed
readily. Perhaps the only requirement is that the ore is strong
enough to stand during rock bolting and then with the rock bolts,
during the filling operation.

Good planning, systematic sampling and careful supervision can

produce mineral with less dilution than any other method.

Initial planning
Once it has been decided that cut-and-fill is the best method of
exploiting an ore body, or perhaps the only method that can be
applied, the first consideration is the availability, suitability and
cost of the fill material and its transportation to the stope.

Nowadays, mill tailing with hydraulic transportation is the most

commonly used in modern mines. In some cases, this is not
possible, mostly due to:
- Location of the mill
- Quantity of tailing

If this is the case, then back filling will be used, i.e. the waste rock
from developments will be dropped into the fill area. In such cases,
probably a floor has to be made or a cap, such as a steel sheet,
should be laid down. This will minimize dilution during loading.

After all the considerations regarding the filling process, perhaps in

the next stage or at least in one of the early stages, transportation of
the ore in the stope has to be designed and the suitable machinery
chosen. The reason is that the type of loading machines will
determine the number and size of the developments required.

On the other hand the most important factor in choosing the

transport equipment is the size and continuity of the ore body.

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As regards these and other machines, it must be decided whether or
not equipment will be captive in the stope.

If captive in the stope, then development costs are minimized. But

if size and continuity allow ramps to be made, the development
cost will increase but the production operation becomes more
flexible, less cyclical with a higher possibility of the total output
from a mine to become continuous.

Another decision to be made is the height of the mining section in

each drilling cycle. This to a large extent depends on the strength
of the walls and the roof.

After this decision, the drilling machine can be chosen.

The type and number of ore passes depends upon:

i) Type and size of drilling machine
ii) Dip of the ore pass
iii) Considerations in the level below

Since miners must enter and leave the stope every shift (plus many
other reasons mentioned before), the distance between levels
usually needs to be kept to a low value of 45m.

Access to the level above at all times and availability of adequate

ventilation are the other requirements of the operational process.

Stope planning

Unlike sublevel stoping, in this method most of the planning is

done after entering the mine, actually in the stope and by the
production team. The main reasons for this fact are:

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 i) Variability of the ore body and the ore zone
ii) Flexibility and adaptability of the method

In areas where continuity is the problem, the size of the stope is

usually determined by the ore boundaries. In these cases, simply all
the ore within the boundaries is removed.

In areas of good continuity, the length of the stope is determined

by operational considerations such as length of time each cycle
takes and the exact components of each cycle i.e. drilling, loading,
filling etc.

The ramp design has to be done at about this stage. If rock is to be

transported through the ramps, the maximum gradient should be
15. If it is to be used only for machinery, it should be 15-20 deg.

The drilling equipment is chosen by the thickness of the ore to be

removed in each cycle. If this thickness is to be 2.5-4.5m, then jack
leg drills or very simple jumbo drills are used.

Generally, if ramps are provided, then the mine can afford to use
more sophisticated equipment, for example, more expensive jumbo
drills. In cases where long horizontal holes are required, then
standard long hole drills are used.

The location of the ore pass is primarily determined by

considerations on the level below such as access. In designing the
ore pass, it should be remembered that its direction may have to be
changed during the life of the stope.

The ore passes may be lined with timber, circular steel, poured
concrete etc. Exact calculations are necessary to determine the life
of the ore pass with respect to the wear factor.

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Development
Quite a simple and straightforward set of development openings
are required. If ramps are not made, the amount of developments
are minimal. Ramps increase the amount of developments greatly
but add to the flexibility and continuity of the production.

Drilling

There are two most commonly used drilling methods:

1) Breast Mining- This is used where weak wall conditions
exist. In this method, the stope is filled to about 0.8-1.2m of
the roof and mining proceeds by drilling relatively longer
horizontal holes.

LHD’s are most efficient in this case since the roof is more
controlled and therefore less dangerous for miners. The
thickness of the ore removed in each cycle is about 3-4m.

A more continuous and systematic flow of mineral is

achieved when breast mining is practiced. Drilling operations
are also more controllable.

2) Overhead Mining- In this case, the stope is filled, up to

about 2.5-3m of the roof and simple jumbos or jack-legs are
used.

A ``V`` shape cut is first made at the end of the stope and the
rest of the holes are drilled at about 60 degrees from the
horizontal. The length of holes is normally 3-4.5m. Usually
the whole face is drilled and then blasted. The new face is

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 then smoothed and rock bolted, using broken ore as working
platform.

Slushers can be more efficient than LHD’s in such

conditions, since often the broken ore has to be removed
from the top of the pile.

Long holes of up to 15m have been used in this system and it

has been successful in narrow stopes with strong wall rock. If
it can be applied, it will be economically advantageous.
Danger from the roof is the main constraint and for this
reason, small electric remote control LHD’s should be used.

Advantages and Disadvantages

a) Advantages

- Minimum developments before mining starts.

- Possibility of selective mining.
- Versatility under varying conditions.
- Openings are small therefore low dilution.
- Change to another method can be achieved readily.
- Investment in machinery is small.
- Large extent ground movements such as subsidence are kept
to minimum.

b) Disadvantages

- Ore production is highly cyclical.

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 - The method is labour intensive and especially skilled labour
intensive.
- Use of mechanization is low therefore low productivity.
- Personnel work under freshly cut roof that can cause safety
problems.
- Degree of ground control is very high making the method an
expensive one.

El corte y relleno por debajo de la mano, también conocido como corte y relleno, es una variación
del método de minería de corte y relleno . Originalmente fue desarrollado por Inco Ltd. con el fin de
abordar las condiciones anormales del terreno encontradas en Sudbury, Ontario, Canadá .
Este método se usa principalmente para facilitar la recuperación del pilar, pero a veces se usa como el
método principal de detención. Históricamente, la minería de conjuntos cuadrados ha sido el enfoque
más eficiente para la recuperación de pilares, pero es bastante costosa en rocas no competentes. La
necesidad de un método más seguro y rentable de recuperación de pilares en condiciones de terreno
pobres condujo al desarrollo de corte y relleno subterráneo. El corte y relleno manual ofrece costos
reducidos, seguridad mejorada y una estimación más precisa del ciclo de minería en comparación con
la minería en serie . El mineral se extrae de arriba hacia abajo eliminando un corte de mineral y luego
construyendo largueros de madera a lo largo del corte. Los largueros de madera se utilizan como
soporte para una estera, creada colocando troncos y malla de alambre. El corte se llena
entonces. Como sugiere el nombre del método, la minería continúa debajo de la alfombra llena. En la
imagen de la derecha, las esteras en su lugar son visibles en la parte inferior de cada corte

The Lucky Friday mine was a cut and fill operation located in Mullan, Soshone County, Idaho. Using a
slice cut and fill method with timber and hydraulic sand fill, it achieved an annual production of 167,829
tonnes[1]. The ore body was 396 to 488m long on the strike and 1421m on the dip, averaging a width of
2.3m and a dip of 70⁰[1]. The characteristic of the ore was fairly strong and the foot wall and hanging
wall were highly fractured and sheared, considered to be very weak.

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