Definitions for 3MB3 Cards

Memory and Learning Pt 2

- Memory: is the process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be
available when needed.
- Three main types of memory: Sensory, Short-term, and Long-term Memory
- Sensory Memory: temporary storage of sensory information, it lasts a couple of seconds,
if we choose to attend to them for processing, they are transferred to the short-term
memory through an attention gate.
- Short-Term Memory (STM): aka working memory, stores information that we are
currently processing (like the computer RAM). Stores information for a limited period of
time and has a limited capacity
- Chunking: Grouping incoming information into chunks to make it easier to process
(example of phone numbers, 800-555-HOME). Helps to prevent information decay in the
STM
- Maintenance Rehearsal: The repetition of the information to continue holding it in the
working memory for processing, or until it is transferred it to the long-term memory.
Helps to prevent info decay in the STM
- Elaborate Rehearsal: The use of previously stored experiences, values, attitudes, beliefs,
and feelings to interpret and evaluate information in working memory as well as to add it
to relevant previously stored information
- Long-Term Memory (LTM): the system that allows us to retain information for long
periods of time. Has unlimited permanent storage, can store all types of information
(concepts, decision rules, emotional states)
- Two types of Long-Term Memory: explicit memory and implicit memory
- Implicit Memory: stores information that you can retrieve without much effort related to
how to do certain tasks (e.g. how to drive, how to ride a bike, how to brush your teeth →
procedural memory)
- Explicit Memory: information that you consciously work to remember
- Two types of Explicit Memory: semantic memories and episodic memories
- Semantic Memory: information related knowledge about the world ( ie, “Jaguar is a
luxury car”)
- Episodic Memory: incidents that we were personally involved in that evoke imagery and
feelings (first day of school, graduation, a birthday party, etc). If very vivid and unique,
called “Flashbulb Memories”
- What is the Memory Process: External Inputs > Encoding > Storage > Retrieval

- Encoding: the process of placing information into the memory system

- Three Types of Encoding: Visual Encoding (encoding visual images), Acoustic Encoding
(encoding sounds), and Semantic Encoding (encoding meaning and symbolic
associations, involves the most cognitive processing)
- How does storage work in the Semantic Memory: Information about the world is stored
as concepts (nodes) connected to one another through associative links in a spider-web
like model called the Associative Network
- Nodes: can represent an attitude or description, a brand, a person, a product category
- Associative Networks: a network of nodes and associative links. Is different for each
person, because its built in light of their own
knowledge, experiences, and background
- Knowledge Structure / Schema: A set of connections surrounding a certain concept in your associative ne
- Retrieval: the process of accessing information from the long-term memory.
- Spreading Activation: When a certain part of your memory is triggered and activation
spreads through other nodes, which allows you to
access information in the different knowledge
structures. Means if a concept has a lot of
associative links, its easier to retrieve
- How do marketers measure retrieval?: Recognition
(showing a set of ads to respondents and asking
them if they recognize the ad) and Recall (respondents are asked to remember what ads
they’ve seen without any help or memory triggers)
- Factors that influence retrieval:
 o Physiological Factors (older adults have lower recall ability)
o Situational Factors (the environment when the message was delivered, such as
whether they were paying attention and what context the ad was in)
o Brand related Factors (brand familiarity, brand salience)
- Reasons that we forget?: Retroactive Interference (new information that replaces old
information), Proactive Interreference (prior learning the interferes with new learning),
and Competitive Interference (advertising of competing brands that interfere with
remembering a brands communication)
- Nostalgia Marketing: Marketers using nostalgia to trigger happy memories to trigger
happy memories that would be associated with their brand

Motivation and Affect

- Motivation: Is a drive that makes want to fulfill certain goals and is triggered by a
certain need. When this need is activated, it creates tension or a state of uncomfort,
which drives a person to fulfill their needs. Is about understanding why consumers do
what they do
- What is the process of motivation?: Need Activated >(tension)> Drive > Action >
Satisfaction
- Motivational Strength: The degree to which a person is willing to expend energy to
reach one goal as opposed to another reflects his or her underlying motivation to
attain that goal.
- Drive Theory: we are pushed to do a behavior due to internal tension that happens as
a result of unpleasant states of arousal like hunger and thirst for example. (i.e.
motivation is triggered from within)
- Expectancy Theory: we are motivated to do a behavior when we are expecting a
positive outcome, in which case we are pulled towards the incentive (i.e. motivation
is triggered by an external source)
- Motivational Direction: refers to the route you take to satisfy your needs
- Wants: specific way needs are satisfied, and they are shaped by consumers’ cultural
environment and experiences. In most occasions, there are different ways consumers
can satisfy a need, which is why marketers steer consumers towards their own brands
- Motivational Conflict: Consumers try to approach alternatives that have positive
outcomes and avoid alternatives with negative outcomes. When consumers have to
choose among different desirable alternatives to satisfy a certain need, this creates
motivational conflict. Can also be caused by certain alternatives having can pros and
cons or conflicting outcomes
- Three types of Motivational Conflict: Approach-Approach conflict, Approach-
Avoidance Conflict, Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
- Approach-Approach Conflict: When consumers have to choose between two
desirable alternatives, both with positive outcomes (exp, choosing between ordering
tacos or a burger, and wanting to approach both)
- Approach-Approach marketing strategies: steer consumers in the direction of your
brand (exp, timely ads that emphasize positives, or adjust price to make your
alternative more favorable)
- Approach-Avoidance Conflict: when an alternative has a positive outcome and a
negative outcome, leading to conflict of wanting to approach and avoid. Can stop
 consumers from buying or cause consumption guilt post-purchase. (example, thinking
about buying a really large sundae)
- Approach-Avoidance marketing strategies: come up with product solutions that
resolve the conflicting goals (exp, low-fat products, healthy snacks, reduce price)
- Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: When consumers have to choose between two

alternatives with two undesirable outcomes. Happens with expensive purchases

(example, if your laptop breaks, you will have to choose between paying money to
repair it or pay more money and buy a new one)
- Avoidance-Avoidance marketing strategies: try to understand consumers’ pains
associated with the purchase and offer solutions to ease the situation (exp, emphasize
benefits, show how it causes less pain, offer payment solutions)
- Types of Needs: Biogenic, Psychogenic, Utilitarian, and Hedonic Needs
- Biogenic Needs: Needs that are elementary to sustaining life like food, water, air, and
shelter
- Psychogenic Needs: Needs that relate to belonging and relevant to being a member of
a culture like status, power, and affiliation
- Utilitarian Needs: Needs that focus on objective and tangible attributes of products
(ie, performance and durability)
- Hedonic needs: Subjective and Experiential needs that satisfy consumers’ self-
confidence, excitement, and fantasies are
- Types of Psychogenic needs that can dictate behaviour: Need for achievement,
affiliation, power, uniqueness
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: a hierarchy of biogenic and psychogenic, where lower
level needs have to be met before moving to the next level of the hierarchy
- Levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: (from bottom to top) Physiological > Safety
> Belongingness > Ego Needs > Self-Actualization
Self, Personality, and Lifestyle
Self-concept: refers to the beliefs a person holds about his or her own attributes and how he
or she evaluates these qualities
Multiple selves: consumers have multiple selves that are activated at different times
depending on where and who we are. To fulfil our roles identities, we buy different
products / services
Examples of self-concepts: Actual-Private Self (How I actually see myself), Ideal-Private
Self (How I would like to see myself), Actual-Social Self (How other people actually see
me), Ideal-Social Self (How I wish other people would see me)
Self-Concept and Consumption Cycle: Product brand image > relationship between self-
concept and brand image > Behavior to seek products and brands that improve/maintain self-
concept > satisfaction by purchase that contributes to desired self-concept > reinforce self-
concept > repeat (best to see graph on slide 10 week 7)
Self-Product Congruence: assumes that products will be chosen when their attributes match
some aspect of the self
Extended Self Theory: some possessions are more significant than others. Such possessions

do not just help us show our self-concept, but they become part of our own self-identity. Can
be major possessions (home or car), but can be simple (souvenirs or an object that signifies a
relationship or important memory)
Brand engagement: the extent to which an individual includes important brands as part of his
or her self-concept. Consumers with high brand engagement are more likely to build
“personal” connections with their preferred brands
Self-Esteem: the positivity of a person’s attitude towards themselves. A person’s satisfaction
with the physical image they present to others is affected by how closely that image
corresponds to the image valued by their culture.
Body image: a person’s subjective evaluation of their physical self. Research has shown that
when consumers’ self-esteem is threatened, they tend to unfairly over-criticize the products.
Gender roles: the culture’s expectations of how people of a certain gender should behave.
Have evolved across time and is different across different cultures.
Sex-typed Behaviours: Behaviors and traits seen to associate with only one gender
Sex-Typed Products: Products targeting only one gender
Agentic Goals: goals related to self-assertion and mastery, typically expected of men
Communal Goals: goals related to affiliation and building harmonious relationships, typically
expected of women
Should we segment by gender?: Recent research demonstrates that humans aren’t defined by
gender and that gender has no bearing on a person’s interests. Using gender as the main
segmenting metric can be limiting and will make marketers fall into stereotypes, rather than
study what consumers actually want or what they are like
LGBT Advertising: Ads inclusive of the LGBT identities, do not only influence the LGBT
community positively, but also the non-LGBT who value equality and acceptance, especially
among Gen Z.
Personality: combination of traits and behaviors that form an individual’s distinctive
character.
Freudian Approach to Personality: emphasizes the role of our unconscious motives in
dictating our behavior. People channel their unacceptable desires in acceptable outlets to
balance between the ID and the superego
Three aspects of Freudian Personality: Id, Ego, Superego
Id: The component of the self that is entirely oriented toward immediate gratification
Ego: The system that mediates between the Id and the Superego and balances between
temptation and virtue. It finds a way to satisfy the Id, in manners that are socially acceptable.
Superego: The person’s conscience. It internalizes society’s rules and works to prevent the id
from seeking selfish gratification.
Motivational Research: the first attempt to apply the Freudian approach in marketing and
advertising. Idea that consumers buy products that symbolize certain underlying motives, and
has a developed a list of underlying motives for consumption (Slide 56 for list)
Karen Horney’s approach to personality: Peoples personality can be described in terms of
people’s relationships with others. Specifically, being Compliant, Detached, or Aggressive
Carl Jung’s approach to personality: people are shaped by the cumulative experiences of past
generations, stored in our collective unconscious. Created the idea of archetypes
Archetypes: These shared memories that are symbols of good or evil like the devil, mother
earth, wizards, and so forth
Brands Personality: A set of characteristics that become associated with a brand, ways that
marketers classify their brands in terms of archetypes. Creates expectations about key brand
characteristics, and can provide a competitive advantage
5 dimensions that consumers perceive brands: Sincerity, Excitement, Competence,
Sophistication, and Ruggedness
How do brands create a personality: associate with a celebrity, build a fictional character
with personality, use imagery that reflects certain trains, reflect personality in brand
communication