IPE 431 (Machine Tools)

Lecture – 2
Regulation of Speed and Feed Rates
Introduction
• The optimum and most economical speeds for the two machining
movements—the cutting and the feed movement are determined by-
• tool materials and workpiece materials
• tool shape
• type of machining processes
• required surface quality
• Single-purpose machines often need only be designed for the one
cutting speed and feed rate required for that operation.
• The designer of multi-purpose machines has, however, to provide a
certain speed range which covers the requirements of different
operations, types and shapes of workpieces and qualities of the
surfaces that are to be machined.
Introduction
• The values of the required cutting speeds depend upon-
• technical considerations:
• cutting properties of the tools
• surface finish of the machined surfaces and
• economic considerations:
• tool life
• costs
• The greater the variety of materials used for tools and
workpiece, the wider is the required cutting speed range.
Introduction
• The cutting and feed movements may be either rotary or
rectilinear according to the machining process.
• However, in the majority of cases, the movements of the
driving elements are rotary, so that changes in speeds are
usually obtained by varying the rev/min of the driving shafts.
For this reason, the problem of varying the rev/min is very
important.
Objectives of Speed and Feed Regulation
• A machining operation should be conducted at such values of cutting
parameters (speed, feed, depth of cut etc.) that ensure the minimum
cost price of the machined component.
• The machining cost can be expressed by the equation:
C = Cmt + Cnpt + Ctc + Ct
Cmt = the cost of machining time;
Cnpt = the cost of non-productive time; such as loading and unloading, idle travel of cutting tool.
Ctc = tool changing cost per component;
Ct = the cost of the tool per component;
Objectives of Speed and Feed Regulation
• If the machining cost is optimized, it yields a particular value of tool life.
• This optimum tool life can be achieved on a particular operation only by working
at optimum values of cutting speed v, feed s, and depth of cut t.
• In order to machine a part of arbitrary diameter, the spindle rpm must be set as n =
1000v/πD, i.e., there must be a stepless regulation of v so that any desired value of
the spindle rpm may be set corresponding to the optimum cutting speed.
• By a similar logic, the machine tool should have provision for stepless variation of
the feed rate.
• Economically, viable systems of stepless speed and feed rate regulation have,
however, not yet been designed for a majority of machine tools.
• On such machine tools only certain discrete values of the spindle rpm and feed
rate are available.
Speed-range ratio
• When the specification for the working range of the machine requires
that a diameter range of 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 to 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 and a speed range from 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 to
𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 be covered the obtainable rev/min must then be:

1000 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 1000 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
ߨ 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛
and 𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ߨ 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥

• The speed-range ratio, 𝑅𝑛 = = . = 𝑅𝑣 . 𝑅𝑑
𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑅𝑣 = cutting speed-range ratio

𝑅𝑑 = diameter range ratio
Speed-range ratio
• For straight-line cutting movements (for instance, planing), the speed-
range ratio depends only upon that of the cutting speeds
• In the case of rotary cutting movements (turning, drilling, and
milling), the diameter-range ratio must also be considered.
Speed-range ratio
• The cutting speed-range ratio for machining workpieces varying from
alloy steels to light alloys can be very high.
• For instance, if carbide tools are used
• vSteel about 300 ft/min
• vlight alloy about 6000 ft/min
• The cutting speed range ratio becomes 6000/300 = 20
• If high-speed steel tools are also to be used
• vsteel approximately 60 ft/min
• It can rise to 6000/60 = 100.
• It may be possible to obtain economically a spindle speed-range ratio
of 100 by means of a gearbox.
Speed-range ratio
• If, however, a diameter range of, say, dmax = 2 in. to dmin = 0.2 in.
(2/0.2 = 10) is also specified (as may be the case in radial drilling
machines), the speed-range ratio of B = 100 x 10 = 1000 may become
uneconomical, and it will become necessary to reduce the specified
working range of the machine.
Laws of Stepped Regulation
• In stepped regulation of speed, only certain discrete values of the
spindle rpm are available on the machine tool.
• A pertinent question that arises is what should be the criterion for
choosing these discrete steps?
• Between two extreme available values 𝑛1 and 𝑛𝑧 of the spindle rpm,
the same number of z intermediate steps may be placed in a number of
ways.
• Let us analyze three cases -

• Geometric • Arithmetic • Logarithmic

Progression Progression Progression
Laws of Stepped Regulation
• Calculate the rpm values and diameter range served by each rpm for
the following conditions:

𝑛1 = 30 rpm
𝑛z = 375 rpm
Number of speed steps, z = 12
v = 20 m/min.
Assume, initial diameter = 212 mm.
 Geometric Progression (GP) series
• The rpm Values Constitute a Geometric Progression

ϕ is the geometric progression ratio.

 Geometric Progression (GP) series
• Diameter range for different rpm values in GP series:
 Geometric Progression (GP) series
• Saw diagram (geometric progression):

Geometric Progression ratio,

 Geometric Progression (GP) series
• Before we change over from a speed n1 = 30 rpm to n2 = 37.5 rpm an
allowance of 42 mm must be machined from the workpiece diameter.
• Again, providing for a maximum depth of cut of t = 5 mm, this allow n11 =
300 rpm to n12 = 375 rpm, we have to take a depth of cut of 2.1 mm which
can be easily accomplished in one pass.
• In order to make the machine tool performance equally feasible in the
whole rpm range, the low rpm values should be brought still closer while
the high rpm values can be widened a little.
 Arithmetic Progression (AP) series
• Difference between adjacent rpm values is constant.

• For a particular cutting speed which is the maximum permissible under the
selected cutting conditions, the diameter range of workpieces that can be
machined by a particular spindle rpm value nx can be determined as
follows:
 Arithmetic Progression (AP) series
• Hence, the diameter range served by this particular rpm is
 Arithmetic Progression (AP) series
• Saw diagram (Arithmetic progression):
Arithmetic Progression (AP) series
 Logarithmic Progression (LP) series
• Diameter range is a function of the diameter.
 Logarithmic Progression (LP) series
• Diameter range for different rpm values in LP series:

Here, M = 0.88 (approx)

and p = 0.5
 Logarithmic Progression (LP) series
• Saw diagram (logarithmic progression):
 GP, AP and LP series
• Both GP and AP
• at low spindle speeds the diameter range is wide hence needs to add
more speed steps between calculated values.
• at high spindle speeds, the diameter range is very narrow and hence
some of the speed steps are redundant.
• But considering both cases, GP is more uniformly distributed or better than
AP.
• From the point of operational efficiency of the machine tools, logarithmic
progression is most suitable.
• In practical applications, GP series is commonly used in machine tool
drives because of a number of advantages.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
1) Constant loss of Economic Cutting Speed in the whole rpm range
• Suppose the spindle rpm values constitute the following series:

• Consider that the optimum cutting speed 𝑣𝑜𝑝𝑡 is such that it lies between
the rpm values 𝑛𝑗 and 𝑛𝑗+1

• Obviously, of the two rpm values, 𝑛𝑗 and 𝑛𝑗+1 we select the one which
gives a cutting speed closer to 𝑣𝑜𝑝𝑡 .
• The difference between the actual cutting speed and the optimum cutting
speed is known as the loss of economic cutting speed.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
• The difference between the actual cutting speed and 𝑣𝑜𝑝𝑡 , and hence the
loss of economic cutting speed is maximum when the optimum cutting
speed lies at the middle of two speeds provided by 𝑛𝑗 and 𝑛𝑗+1 .

• The maximum loss of economic cutting speed is then:

• Now,
 Kinematic advantages of GP series

• be constant, must be constant.

• This means that the spindle rpm values must lie in a geometric
progression.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
2) Constant loss of Productivity in the whole rpm range
• If depth of cut, t mm and feed rate, s mm/rev then material removal rate, Q
depends on only cutting speed, v m/min.

• The rate of material removal, Q = 1000 t s v mm3/min.

• The maximum relative loss of production volume can be expressed as:

 Q   v  n j 1  n j  1 
       1 - 
 Q  max  v  max n j 1  
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
3) Better design features
• When all the rpm values of a spindle are obtained from a single
transmission i.e., by changing gears only between two shafts, then any of
the series discussed above can be utilized for designing the speed box. The
desired rpm values are obtained by using appropriate transmission ratios of
various gear pairs.
• If the rpm values are changed by mounting a new pair of gears on the shaft
every time, then changing of speeds becomes time consuming,
inconvenient and economically infeasible, especially if speeds have to be
changed frequently as in general-purpose machine tools.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
3) Better design features
• If the rpm values are obtained by mounting gear pairs of the appropriate
transmission ratio on the shafts permanently, then the axial dimensions of a
single transmission speed box become too large.
• These considerations underline the fact that speed steps in a speed box
should be obtained not through a single transmission between two shafts
but through a group of transmissions between a number of shafts.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
• 3) Better design features
• This features can be realized in an actual speed box design only if the rpm
values lie in a geometric progression and may be explained by the
following properties of a geometric progression:
 Designing a Speed Box: Selection of Range Ratio
 The following information is essentially
required before we can start designing a
stepped drive.
1. The highest output rpm, nmax
2. The lowest output rpm, nmin
3. The number of steps z into which the
range between nmax and nmin is divided.
4. The number of stages in which the
required number of speed steps are to
be achieved.
 Designing a Speed Box: Selection of Range Ratio
• Typical values of Rn for some groups of machine tools:

• A variety of cutting tools of different shapes and compositions are used on

general-purpose machine tools, and therefore, Rn values are relatively
large.
• On the other hand, in grinding machines the grinding wheel diameter
generally varies in the range Rd < 2 and the wheel material being the same,
Rn values are small.
 Designing a Speed Box: Selection of Speed steps
• Suppose the rpm values n1, n2,…, nz constitute a geometric progression.
Then,

• The value of z can be determined provided Rn and ϕ are known.

 Standard values of ϕ and guidelines for selecting a proper value
• The standard values of ϕ are established from the following two main considerations:
1. In machine tool drives, two speed motors are often used; the ratio of the two
speeds is generally equal to 2 (e.g., motors have rpm values of 3000 and 1500, or
1500 and 750, etc.). If the spindle rpm values constitute a geometric progression
for the lower rpm of the motor, then according to the property of geometric
progression, the spindle speeds should increase two times when the motor speed is
switched to the higher one.

2. The geometric progression should be developed by keeping the standards of

preferred numbers and preferred series in mind. The geometric progression should
then satisfy the condition:
 Standard values of ϕ and guidelines for selecting a proper value
• The standard values of ϕ are obtained from the condition that they must simultaneously
satisfy the previous two equations:

• where S' is an arbitrary whole number, then

• The standard values of S2 from the series of preferred numbers are 40, 20, 10 and 5.
• Correspondingly S’ = S2/l0 = 4, 2, 1 and 0.5 and S1 = 3S' = 12, 6, 3 and 1.5.
• The corresponding standard values of ϕ are:
 Standard values of ϕ and guidelines for selecting a proper value
• The standard values of ϕ, their characteristics and the specific loss of economic cutting speed:

• It is desirable to select a small value of ϕ so that the loss of economic cutting speed and, hence,
productivity loss is low.
• Also, for a particular value of the range ratio, the number of speed steps increases with a reduction
in the value of ϕ. On the other hand, a large number of speed steps make the drive complicated and
expensive.
• The proper value of ϕ must be selected by weighing these contradictory factors and striking a
judicial balance.
 Standard values of ϕ and guidelines for selecting a proper value
• Relation between speed-range ratio Rn and no. of speed steps z at
standard progression ratios:
 Standard values of ϕ and guidelines for selecting a proper value
• Recommended values of ϕ in machine tools:
 Break up of Speed Steps
• The value of the number of speed steps, z is rounded off to the nearest
whole number, preference being given to the number which can be broken
into multiples of 2 and 3.

• For example,

• Numbers between 5 and 7 are rounded off to z = 6

Numbers between 7 and 8.5 are rounded off to z = 8
Numbers between 8.5 and 10 are rounded off to z = 9
Numbers between 11 and 13 are rounded off to z = 12
 Transmission Range of a Group
• Suppose, a speed on one shaft yields two speed values on the
next shaft, i.e., the number of speed steps of the particular
transmission group is p = 2.
• The maximum reduction of speed is limited to four times to keep
the radial dimensions of the speed box within reasonable limits.
• The maximum increase of speed is restricted to two times due to
limitations of the pitch line velocity.
• The transmission range of the group is:
 Structural formula
• Suppose, there are z speed steps n1, n2, n3…….nz in a particular
transmission group such that

• Since the speeds on the last shaft of the speed box must constitute a
geometric progression, the following relationship must be satisfied:

• Here X is known as the characteristic of the transmission group, and it

denotes the number of steps of the spindle rpm geometric progression by
which two adjacent rpm values of the particular group are separated.
 Structural formula
• The number of speed steps:

• This expression can be written in a number of ways by arranging p1, p2,

p3,…, pu in different positions.
• Since the rpm values of the output shaft of the speed box ought to be in a
geometric progression, there must be one transmission group that has a
characteristic X1 = 1; this group is known as the main transmission group,
and it has a progression ratio = φ1 = φ
• The next transmission group has a characteristic X2 = p1 and
a progression ratio = φX2 = φp1 where p1 is the number of speed steps in
the first group; similarly, the third transmission group has a characteristic
X3 = p1 * p2 and a progression ratio φp1p2.
 Structural formula
• Thus, a more elaborate expression for z may be written as follows:

• Where,
• This equation is known as the structural formula of the speed box.
• Suppose, the number of speed steps z = 12 of a speed box are to
be realized in three stages, i.e., u = 3. The number 12 may be
written as a multiplication of 2 and 3 in three different ways.
• Z = 2 x 2 x 3 or 2 x 3 x 2 or 3 x 2 x 2
Structural formula
 Combinations of Structural formula
• Let us consider one such combination, z = 2 x 3 x 2
 Structural Diagram
• The structural formulae are represented in the
form of special graphs known as structural
diagrams.
• For plotting the structural diagram, we draw u + 1
vertical lines at a convenient distance from each
other; the first vertical line represents the
transmission from the motor shaft and the rest
represent the transmission groups of the speed
box.
• We now draw an array of horizontal lines
intersecting the vertical lines at a distance of log φ
from each other.
• The number of horizontal lines is equal to the
number of speed steps z of the speed box.
Structural Diagrams
 The selection of the best structural diagram
• The selection of the best version is guided by the following two factors:
A. Transmission ratio restriction: The maximum value of the
transmission range of a group is ig < 8.
B. Minimum total shaft size: In a speed box,
• the nmax and nmin values on the last shaft (spindle) must necessarily
be the same in all the versions of structural diagrams. However,
• the nmin and nmax values for the intermediate shafts will differ for
each version.
• The best version is the one which ensures the minimization of the
total shaft diameter and this will be the case in which the nmin values
of the intermediate shafts are maximum and the nmax values of the
intermediate shafts are minimum.
 The selection of the best structural diagram
• Besides factors (A) and (B) discussed previously the following guidelines,
which stem from rationality of the speed box design and its exploitation
can also be helpful in selecting the best diagram:
a) The number of gears on the last shaft (spindle) should be the
minimum possible.
b) The transmission ratio between the spindle and the shaft preceding it
should be the maximum possible, i.e., speed reduction should be the
maximum possible.
c) The number of gears on the shafts should not generally be more than
three, though in exceptional cases it may be four.
d) imax * imin = 1 favors the least radial dimensions of the gear box.
 The selection of the best structural diagram
• Let us now analyze structural diagrams a and e that we have drawn.

The transmission range of the mth group is:

Where, pm is the number of speed steps in

the mth group and Xm its characteristics.
 The selection of the best structural diagram
• Let us now analyze structural diagrams a and e that we have drawn.

The transmission range of the mth group is:

Where, pm is the number of speed steps in

the mth group and Xm its characteristics.
Structural Diagrams
 The selection of the best structural diagram
• We can similarly analyze the remaining four structural diagrams also.
Upon analysis, we find that,
 The selection of the best structural diagram

• Hence, if the selected value of the progression ratio is φ = 1.26, then all the
six structural diagrams qualify for selection as far as consideration of
factor (A) is concerned.
• If φ = 1.41, then diagrams b and e are ruled out.
• If φ > 1.41, then none of the structural diagrams is suitable for designing
the speed box and an attempt must be made with a different arrangement of
the speed step distribution, e.g., z = 3 x 2 x 2.
• Finally, if all attempts fail, then it becomes necessary to design the gear
box with special structure.
 The selection of the best structural diagram
• If more than one structural diagram satisfies
the transmission-range constraint, then these
must be analyzed keeping factor (B) and the
additional guidelines in mind.
• A comparison of the six structural diagrams
reveals that diagrams a and c are better than the
rest because nmin values of shaft III in both
these diagrams are maximum.
• However, diagram a scores over diagram c
when shaft II is compared; the nmin value of
shaft II in diagram a is higher as compared to
the corresponding values of diagram c.
• It may be thus seen that structural diagram a is
the best among all the considered versions.
 Why Structural Diagrams?
• The structural diagram gives information about
a) the number of shafts in the speed box.
b) the number of gears on each shaft.
c) the order of changing transmissions in individual groups to
get the desired spindle speed.
d) the transmission range and characteristic of each group.
Thank You.