Structures

STRUCTURES

S
tructures are an essential part of technology projects. This Mixed-ability needs
is why we start by looking at a real-life case in which the
In order to meet the needs of students of different abilities, a wide
structure of a bridge collapsed because of its bad design and
variety of classroom resources are provided as complements or
miscalculations as to how it would behave when affected by wind.
alternatives to the work in the unit: worksheets, lesson summaries
Students learn how different forces can act on any given object and and slide presentations with core content and curricular adaptations.
that these forces can cause an object to change its shape or state Also, since science combines many skills, it is important to pair up
(from a state of movement or rest). It is the object’s structure that students of mixed abilities, so that they can support each other.
prevents it from becoming deformed. Students also learn about the
The mixed-ability resources are to be used at the teacher’s discretion,
different parts which these structures consist of and the types of
although each lesson contains suggestions.
stress which they undergo.
The final task for this unit is the design, construction and testing of a Suggested timing
bridge made from paper and cardboard. This task is tailored to fit in
This unit could be worked on over a period of 4 weeks (approximately
with specific evaluation aims and criteria. It also allows the content
13 lessons). The number of sessions could be defined by the interest
to be introduced progressively through a common thread, which
of students on the contents of the unit.
also acts as a learning stimulus for students.
Preparation for the task must start from the beginning of the unit SECTIONS N.° SESSIONS
so that progress through the presentation of the theoretical and
practical content takes place simultaneously. The order of the Warmer 1
different stages of the task is shown in the student’s book by means 1. Structures 1
of a special symbol. 2. Forces and loads 1
The task also contributes to the development of key competences. 3. Stress 1
This occurs through the process of working out technical solutions,
and an analysis of the construction process when the results are 4. Man-made structures 2
checked. Digital competency is developed during the creation of 5. Structural conditions 1
an explanatory video which also requires competence in linguistic 6. Structural elements 2
communication. The task also has smaller activities which cover
different competences as summarised in this table: 7. Mechanisms 2
Procedures 1
Objectives Consolidation 1
LEARNING OBJETIVES Finishing the final task 1
• Understand the purpose of technology and its importance in the development
of civilisation.
• Know the technological process and its stages.
• Solve simple problems from identifying the needs of the environment and
respect the stages of the technological project.
• Identify needs study ideas develop solutions and construct objects that solve
simple problems.
• Making group decisions about the design and planning for construction of
the bridge.
• Recognise and respect the health and safety rules in the classroom workshop.
• Analyse a technological item in an orderly way and look after formal,
technical, functional, and socioeconomic aspects.
• Dismantle items analyse their parts and the function of each one.

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Contents
Forces and structures
❚  Natural and human-
made structures
Types of structures:
solid, lintel, vaulted,
built using a framework,
triangular, suspended,
pneumatic, laminated and
geodesic.
Definition of load:
Fixed and variable loads.
❚  Concept of internal
tension and stress.
Main types of stress:
traction, compression,
bending, torsion and
cutting.
Main elements
of human-made
structures: Concrete
slab, beam, pillar, column,
foundations, vault, arch,
lintel, cable suspenders,
bracing, flying buttress,
buttress, etc.
Conditions of human-
made structures: rigidity,
resistance and stability.
❚  Triangulation.
Final Task:
Design and
construction of a
structure
❚  Design, analysis, virtual
trial, construction and
testing of a bridge.
UNIT LESSON PLAN
Assessment criteria
1. solid, lintel, vaulted, built using a framework, triangular,
suspended, pneumatic, laminated and geodesic. .
3. To analyse how loads act on a structure, identifying and
describing the stresses which it undergoes.
2. To identify the basic structural elements of human-
made structures, describing their functions.
4. Can identify the conditions which a structure must meet
in order to function.
5. Can design and build simple structures in order to
experiment with them.
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Structures
Learning outcomes
1.1. Distinguishes between natural and human-made structures (CMCT).
1.2. Recognises the resistant structures inside buildings, everyday objects
and bodies. (CSC, CMCT)
1.3. Describes the typical characteristics of the different types of
structures, their advantages and disadvantages. (CL, CMCT)
1.4. Recognises basic types of structures in common objects and
structures. (CMCT)
3.1. Knows the interrelationship between forces, loads, stresses and
deformation in structures. (CMCT)
3.2. Understands the difference between the different types of stress.
(CMCT)
3.3. Links the different types of stress with the forces that cause them
and the deformations which they produce. (CMCT)
3.4. Recognises and gives examples of everyday objects which undergo
different types of stress. (CMCT, SIE)
3.5. Describes the transmission of loads through the elements of a
structure. (CL, CMCT)
2.1. Identifies the main structural elements present in buildings and
structures. (CEC, CMCT)
2.2. Knows the function of each element inside a concrete structure.
(CMCT)
2.3. Envisages the characteristic stress which each element of a structure
is subjected to under the action of certain loads. (CMCT)
2.4. Identifies the most suitable materials for the construction of different
structural elements according to the stresses which they will be subjected
to. (CMCT)
4.1. Knows the conditions which a structure has to meet. (CMCT)
4.2. Defines the concepts of stability, resistance and rigidity. (CL, CMCT)
4.3. Recognises when a structure is stable, resistant and rigid. (CMCT)
4.4. Knows how to use the means to ensure that a structure is stable,
rigid and resistant. (SIE,CMCT)
5.1. Experiments with everyday materials to solve simple structural
problems. (LL, SIEE)
5.2. Designs suitable structures to solve problems with the materials
shown. (LL, SIEE)
5.3. Builds structures that solve simple problems.(CMCT, LL)
5.4. Analyses and tests the behaviour of the structures which have been
built. (DC, CMCT)
5.5. Describes the characteristics of the structure and how it functions.
(CMCT, LC)
 Structures

UNIT CONTENT MAP

Oxford Projects >>>>>>

Interactive activities >>>>>>

STUDENT RESOURCES

Talking book >>>>>>

Animation 1:
Types of stress
Animation 2: Types
of structures
Video 1: The
collapse of Weblink 1: New Weblink 2: Temple of Debod
the Tacoma Bridge in Tajo de Weblink 3: Roman Coliseum
Narrows bridge Ronda (Málaga) Weblink 4: The Eiffel Tower

Structures
Introduction Final task 1. Structures 2. Forces and loads 3. Stress 4. Human-made structures
1.1. Natural and 3.1. Types of 4.1. Solid and lintel
human-made stress 4.2. Vaulted structures
structures 4.3. Triangular structures
4.4. Suspended structures
4.5. Reinforced concrete
structures
4.6. Laminated structures
4.7. Pneumatic structures
4.8. Spatial and geodesic
structures

Concept map
Presentation
TEACHER RESOURCES

Reinforcement worksheets >>>>>>

Curricular adaptation worksheets >>>>>>

4
 Structures

>>>>>> Oxford Projects

>>>>>> Interactive activities

>>>>>> Talking book

Animation 3:
Structural Weblink 5:
conditions Bridge contest

5. Structural 6. Structural elements 7. Mechanisms Analysis Procedures Consolidation Finishing

conditions 6.1. Pillar, column and 7.1. Linear of the final
5.1. How can pilaster transmission structures task
we make 6.2. Beam, joist and lintel of motion
Structure
a structure 6.3. Arches and vaults 7.2. Rotary
simulator
stable, 6.4. Flying buttresses and transmission
resistant buttresses 7.3. Transformation
and rigid? 6.6. Concrete slab of motion
6.7. Pedestal, base, slab
and pile
6.8. Cables, suspenders and
tension members

Concept map
Competence test
Extension
worksheet
Presentation
Unit tests

>>>>>> Reinforcement worksheets

>>>>>> Curricular adaptation worksheets

5
 Structures

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
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FINAL TASK +
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STRUCTURES Building a bridge

In this unit, you are going to design and build a bridge in the Ronda
Gorge to accompany the one that has existed since 1785. For this
task, there will be a class competition where everyone will present
a model of their design for the bridge.

YOU WILL LEARN TO…

What do you have to do?

1 Analyse the most important types of structures.
2 Design a bridge according to the specifications.
● Recognise different structures and
why they are necessary. 3 Make a group presentation and choose the best design.
4 Build the bridge.
● Understand how forces act on
a body and how they affect it. 5 Test the bridge once it is built.

● Distinguish types of structural 6 Make a video explaining the bridge and showing the
elements and learn when to use test.
them.
● Explain the different conditions The Puente Nuevo over the El Tajo Gorge in Ronda, Malaga
of a structure and analyse their
functions.
Specifications
● Identify types of stress that act
on each element in a structure. The space between the supports must be 50 m and cannot have any other support in between as
it is located over a cliff or gorge 100 m tall.
● Design and build a structure for
a specific purpose. The width of the bridge must accommodate two lanes of traffic (3 m each), a double cycle lane
(1,5 m each) one in each direction and a pavement for pedestrians (3 m wide).
The minimum clearance over the deck should be 4.5 m in order to allow for fire trucks. The minimum clearance is the space
You must build a 1:1000 scale model of the bridge. allowed for things to pass through
tunnels, under bridges and through
The materials you can use are: paper, cardboard, thread and glue. other structures

Before you begin… Answer

What kind of bridge is this?
What different structures can you see on the bridge?
Why do you think these structures were used?
Think about the project. Answer the following questions:
1. How wide should the bridge be?
2. What will the distance be between the supports on your scale model?
3. What should the minimum length of the model bridge be so that it is strong enough at each end?
4. What should the minimum weight be?
5. What will the total area of the bridge’s deck be?
6. Calculate the load that the bridge has to support for road traffic. If the load is 20 km/m2, how much
weight should the bridge hold?
7. For the purposes of testing our model bridge, choose a specific load in the middle of the arch which is
equal to the total of the previous question divided by 400,000. How much weight will we have to put
on the model bridge?

Structures 5

After watching the video, discuss the questions and elicit

Video 1: THE COLLAPSE OF THE TACOMA NARROWS BRIDGE
In the link to the video situated in the bottom left corner we can
see the famous case of the collapse of the structure of the Tacoma
Narrows Bridge (Washington, US, 1998), together with its causes
and the solution which was adopted. Students will become aware
of the importance of structures from the beginning of the unit.
In order to erect a structure successfully it is necessary to take into
account permanent loads (i.e. those which are always present on
the bridge) and variable loads from traffic and other actions such
as the effect of the wind, which was the determining factor in the
collapse of the bridge.
In order to solve the problem, a structure was adopted that was
permeable to the wind and built in such a way that could not
sway like the previous one.
CONCEPT MAP
The teacher can act as a guide to the unit and show the relevant
parts of the conceptual map to students and point out what is
being covered in the class.
PRESENTATION
In the same way, it could be useful to use the presentation as an
initial overview, at the beginning of each summary or at the end to
go over the contents.
answers:
•  What kind of bridge is this?
It is a (catenary) suspension bridge.
•  What different structures can you see on the bridge?
Vertical cables, and pillars or pylons.
•  Why do you think they used these structures?
In order to solve problems and avoid collapse, a structure was
adopted that was permeable to the wind and built in such a way
that could not sway.
Final task
Construction of a bridge
The project or task for this unit is the design and construction of a
bridge in the Tajo de Ronda. In order to understand what this task
requires, we need to have a short introduction to the project and
to three particular aspects:
❚ What do you have to do? It provides us with the steps we
have to follow in order to complete the project successfully.
❚ Specifications. It explains the features the bridge we will
design and build later must have.
❚ Before you begin. These are activities that involve dealing
with issues and calculations we need to bear in mind before we
start designing and building.

6

Once we are clear about the steps which we have to follow, the
project specifications and the solutions to any issues arising from
the tasks, we are ready to start thinking about our first ideas and
sketches.
It is necessary to bear in mind that throughout the unit there are
different activities, indicated by the project symbol, which will
help us to achieve a better result at the end of the project.
Weblink 1: NEW BRIDGE IN TAJO
DE RONDA (MÁLAGA)
Using the Google Maps tool, students can get a panoramic view
of this.
Answer key
1. How wide should the bridge be?
Total width of the bridge: two lanes of vehicular traffic 3 m ×
× 2 m = 6 m; two for bicycles of 1.5 m × 2 m = 3 m; 3 m of
pavement for pedestrians, 12 m in width.
2. What will the distance be between the supports on
your scale model?
On a scale of 1:100 and measuring 50 m on the ground, the
distance between the supports on the model will be 50 cm.
3. What should the minimum length of the model bridge
be so that it is strong enough at each end?
As a minimum and depending on the type of bridge that
will be built, it needs to be 10 cm for each side in the
supports.
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Structures
4. What should the minimal height of the bridge be? And
of the model on a scale of 1:100?
The bridge must have a minimum height of 4.5 m. On the
model that will be 4.5 cm.
5. What will the total area of the bridge’s deck be?
The area between the supports on the deck will be 12 m ×
× 50 m = 600 m2.
6. Calculate the load that the bridge has to support for road
traffic, bearing in mind that the aforementioned load is
20 kN/m2, what is the total weight which it must bear?
600 m2 × 20 kN/m2 = 12 000 kN
7. For the purpose of testing our model bridge, let us take
a specific load in the middle of the arch which is equal to
the total of the previous question divided by 400 000. How
much weight will we have to put on the on the bridge?
12 000 × 1 000 N / 400 000 = 30 kN, which amounts to an
approximate weight of 3 kg or three milk cartons of 1 L each.
OXFORD PROJECTS
First of all there is an introduction to the unit. Some initial
questions are asked and the task of the investigation which has
to be solved by the end of the activities is set. The task presents
a practical problem which requires students to draw on any
acquired knowledge and their own investigation in order to solve
it. It’s important to convey the idea that they will be learning
concepts and/or methods which they will be using later to solve
a practical problem.
 Structures

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1. STRUCTURES 2. FORCES AND LOADS

All physical bodies or objects have a structure. Its purpose is to maintain the Physical bodies and objects need a structure to support the different forces that act 6
act on: have an effect on
object’s shape and not to break when a force acts on them. An elephant’s skeleton on6 them, like gravity which attracts objects to Earth and cause them to have weight.
7
squeeze: press something hard, usually
to change shape
1
groove: long, narrow hollow space or the grooves1 on a plastic cup are examples of structures.
on a surface
2
frame: hard structure of an object Sometimes the structure is easily identified in the body or object, like the bones of A force is anything that can deform a body (static effect) or make it move
3
column: vertical stone used to support
vertebrates, the frame2 of a boat or the columns3 and beams4 in a building. For or stop (dynamic effect).
roof or arch
4
beam: horizontal straight piece of other objects the structures are not easy to distinguish because the whole object
wood/stone to support roof or floor forms the structure.
5
deform: change the natural shape

A structure is the set of elements in a body that are made to resist the effects
of the forces that act on it. A structure prevents a body from breaking or
deforming5.
direction intensity
(proportional
to the length
Understand of the arrow)
point of
application
Static effect Dynamic effect trajectory
(outwards)

Understand

6. Say if the force doing the following actions produces a static or

dynamic effect: hitting a golf ball, sitting down on a sofa, pushing
a shopping trolley, your heart pumping blood, squeezing7 a piece of To define a force, we have to
plasticine and giving your friend a hug. specify its intensity, direction and
Understand the point of application

1. Can you clearly identify
which part of the bottle
forms its structure? What
parts of the bottle are
used to make it stronger?
2. What structures can you see in these photos? Are they natural or man- There are two main types of loads: Apply
made? Justify your answer.
❚ Fixed or permanent loads are constant – they don’t vary8 over time. An 7. Illustrate the forces of
example would be the weight of the structure of a bridge and its component the actions in activity 6.
1.1. Natural and man-made structures parts (columns, road surface, etc.).
Natural structures are not made by man. They are in living beings, in their ❚ Variable loads vary over time, like the traffic going across a bridge or the
composition, or the result of a geological process, for example, the shell of a crab, wind hitting it.
a bird’s nest or a cave.
A load is a force that acts on a structure. It can be fixed or variable.
Man-made structures are made by people to satisfy a need. Some examples are
the legs of a table or the case of a camera. 8
vary: be different or change state or
Loads produce stress on the structure of a body. The same load can cause condition
Understand different effects depending on the shape of the structure, the point of application,
the direction, and the trajectory.
3. Name five natural and five man-made structures.
4. Identify the structure of the following objects. Understand

8. Listen and say which concept is defined.

load force structure

Key concepts Key concepts

❚ A force can deform a body,
❚ A structure is the set of a pen a plastic cup a camera a rocking chair a bicycle make it move or stop it.
elements in a body that
prevent a body from breaking ❚ A structure bears the effects
or deforming. Analyse of the forces acting on it.
❚ Structures are natural or 5. Find a photo of a Roman bridge and a suspension bridge. What ❚ A force that acts on a body
man-made. parts of each bridge forms their structure? is called a load.

6 Structures 7

1. Structures Although students have an intuitive idea of what a force is,

they tend to find it difficult to understand its definition and
In this section we deal with the concept of structure using some systematisation because it is a relatively complex concept. The
concrete examples to focus students’ attention on its definition definition of force which is provided in the text is the classic
in general terms. It is useful to bring up the issue from the start one, based on recognition of its possible effects. To make this
so that the students can discuss what they understand by the more concrete and to identify the two possible effects (static and
structure of a body, and also help make them aware of any pre- dynamic) a simple activity is suggested in which the student must
existing knowledge they may have on the topic. distinguish what effect is produced by the application of different
forces on a variety of objects.
Having started working on the text, we deal with identifying, in
each example, which elements of the body in question belong To expand on this point, the representation of stresses can be
to the structure and which do not. The definition of structure achieved by means of vectors and explaining that in order to
which is provided in the text is a simple definition which can define a force we must know its direction, magnitude and point
be expanded on by the students as they progress through the of application. We can demonstrate all these characteristics
various parts of the unit. through the force which we apply to a table, causing it to move.
Students can also be told that the effects of permanent loads
1.1. Natural and man-made structures can be seen from a simple study of their actions on bodies.
We establish the difference between natural and man-made However, the situation is more complex in the case of variable
structures by being able to study the latter within the field of ones because they can appear in different combinations,
technology as a product of human activity. sometimes counteracting each other (e.g. snow on a tree and
wind which pushes the branches upwards). In such cases, the
Having identified structures we move on to an explanation of the most unfavourable combinations must be taken into account.
concepts of forces and loads.
The group can be asked to identify which loads act on different
objects (a crane, a building, a racing car) and what it is that
2. Forces and loads differentiates those which are fixed from those which are variable.
We can begin by posing two small questions about forces and Students can be asked a question at this point to get them to
structures. By doing this, we can introduce the concepts which think about a load and the effects and changes in shape that
will be studied. We can also experiment by using the simple action it produces. By considering this briefly, we can introduce the
of pressing a rubber from different positions with our fingers and concept of tension produced by a load on a body in order to relate
observing what happens. it later to the concept of stress and its various types.

8
 Structures

Answer key Understand

Understand 6. Say if the force doing the following actions produces

a static or dynamic effect: hitting a golf ball, sitting
1. Can you clearly identify which part of the bottle forms down on a sofa, pushing a shopping trolley, your
its structure? What parts of the bottle are used to heart pumping blood, squeezing a piece of plasticine
make it stronger? and giving your friend a hug.
No. The bottle itself represents a structure. The bottle is an Golf ball: dynamic effect
example of the minimal structure capable of containing a
Sitting on a sofa: static effect
given liquid. The indentations in the bottle make it stronger
and more resistant. Pushing a shopping trolley: dynamic effect
Heart: dynamic effect
2. What structures can you see in these photos? Are
they natural or man-made? Justify your answer. Squeezing plasticine: static effect
We can see a seashell in which a hermit crab lives and which Hugging a friend: static effect
also holds the structure of its exoskeleton, and we can see
the frame of a fishing boat. Although the crab uses the shell Apply
to protect itself, the only man-made structure is the frame of
the boat because it is the only one built by human beings. 7. Illustrate the forces of the actions in activity 6.
All the forces are easy to demonstrate, just make sure to specify
3. Name five natural and five man-made structures. the point of application, the direction, and the magnitude
Natural: a bird’s nest, the human skeleton, a tree trunk, the which can be shown as small, medium or large in order to
shell of a tortoise, a stalactite. simplify matters. In the case of the heart which pumps blood
around your body, there is not just one force involved but
Human-made: a cylinder of butane gas, a dam, a suspension
several acting together. This can be illustrated using various
bridge, a car chassis, the Eiffel Tower…
radial lines from inside.
4. Identify the structure of the following objects: a pen,
a plastic cup, a camera, a rocking chair and a bicycle. Understand
The structure is the part used to bear stresses. In the case of
the ballpoint pen it is the outer cylinder which we hold with 8. Listen and say which concept is defined.
our fingers, for the vase it is the whole thing, for the camera Anything that can deform a structure (force)
it is the casing, for the rocking chair it is the legs, the seat and A set of elements in a body (structure)
the back, for the bicycle it is the frame.
A force that act on a structure (load)
Analyse
5. Find a photo of a Roman bridge and a suspension
bridge. Analyse: What parts of each bridge form their
structure?
In the case of the Roman bridge, the arches and the foundations
form the structure of the bridge. As for the suspension bridge,
it is the deck, the cables, the pillars, and the foundations.

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FORCES 3. STRESS Bending

AND DEFORMING If we pull one of our fingers, bend it backwards, or push our palms together, we ❚ This is when forces try to bend9 the 9
bend: make something into a curve
body they act on. or angle
can feel a tension that grows as we pull, bend or push harder. 10
twist: turn the ends of something in
❚ They are not opposing, in the same different directions
We also notice that the feeling is different in each case because we have applied 11
divide: to separate something
force in a different way each time. trajectory direction, but separate 12
hook: a piece of metal bent so that it
from each other. holds something
Stress is the internal tension which all bodies experience when one or ❚ Examples include the deck of a
more forces are applied to them. bridge between the supports or the
bar in a wardrobe.

3.1. Types of stress Torsion

The soft sweet in the photos
can be easily deformed
because it is elastic. With
objects made of more rigid
material, the deformation
is less obvious. When you
are trying to find out what
kind of force is acting on a
structure, imagine that the
material was more elastic
and then think about what
kind of deformation would
be produced.
We classify stress by the deformation it produces: traction, compression, ❚ In this case, the forces try to twist10
bending, torsion and shearing or cutting. the body they act on.
❚ The forces try to turn and they act in
Traction
different directions.
❚ Traction is produced when forces try to stretch the body they act on.
❚ Torsion happens when we sharpen a
❚ These forces are opposing. That is, they go in the same direction but with pencil or turn a key to open a door.
different trajectories – away from each other.
Shearing or cutting
❚ Objects like the rubber band of a catapult, the cables on a suspension bridge or
the chord on blinds. ❚ When we apply this force, we are
using forces that try to divide11
something.
❚ These forces act very near each
other, but not opposing – one goes
up and the other goes down. Key concepts
❚ When we cut a sheet of metal or ❚ Stress is the internal tension
when a picture hangs on a hook12 that appears in a structure
on the wall, this stress is in action. as a result of the action of
a load.
❚ We use
Understand
– traction to stretch a body.
Compression 9. What kind of stress do the legs of a chair bear? When is the stress
– compression to crush or
greater: when you or someone heavier than you sits on a chair? Why? compress a body.
❚ We see this when forces try to crush or compress a body.
10. What is the best way to break a piece of uncooked spaghetti, by – bending to bend a body.
❚ These forces are opposing, with the same trajectory – inwards on the object. stretching or bending it? What kind of force is acting on the piece of
– torsion to twist a body.
❚ The legs of a table, the columns of a bridge or a person’s legs while standing spaghetti in each case?
– shearing or cutting to cut
all experience this kind of force. 11. Listen and decide what kind of force is applied in each case and a body.
what stress each object bears.

Analyse

12. Look at the photo. Analyse

the stress that the bridge will
bear if a heavy load is in the
middle. Illustrate how the
different parts of the bridge
would deform.

8 Structures 9

3. Stress Once students have realised that there are different types of stress,
the next step is to name and explain them.
To begin this section we can ask students a question about the ❚ Traction: to test whether an object undergoes traction, it is
effects that forces produce inside objects. By doing this, we can useful to get students to hold objects in their hands and to
help them see that stress is related to what happens inside objects. apply forces to them in order to try to stretch them. In so doing,
Their answers will reveal how close they are to the concept which the objects will undergo traction.
we are going to study.
❚ Compression: when forces are involved in squashing or
The sidebar information box Forces and deforming can be used as compressing an object. You can ask students to identify objects
a way of introducing the different types of stress. Simply draw on in the classroom which are compressed.
the same bar the different combinations of forces (using arrows)
which correspond to a variety of stresses. ❚ Bending: when forces are involved in bending an object. Ask
students to identify objects in the classroom which are doing
Another important point is to relate stress, not load, with the this.
breaking of a material or object. It is the stresses which deform
and break objects. Therefore, what concerns us is not so much the ❚ Torsion: when forces are involved in twisting an object.
force which acts on those objects but the effect on their insides. ❚ Cutting or shearing: when forces are involved in cutting an
Even though the quantification of stress is not a compulsory part object.
of this course, we can ask simple questions about the effects of Each type of stress can be explained by demonstrating its effect by
varying the section or load on a body and try to elicit spontaneous pretending to deform a rigid bar and by providing real examples.
answers from the students, for example: «The legs of this table In general, types of stress are understood intuitively by students. It
bear a certain stress. What would happen if we reduced the helps a lot to identify them by using a gesture and a verb (stretch,
length of the legs by half?» squash, twist, etc.).
For each of the stresses presented, it is advisable to get the
3.1. Types of stress students to carry out two types of mental operation. The first
Before beginning to explain the different types of stress we one is to imagine the movement or situation required to recreate
suggest getting students to look at some pictures where we have the examples given. The second one, which can be set up as an
applied different forces to a marshmallow. This will help explain activity, is to identify the opposing forces which are involved in
the deformation this object underwent and we can also ask them each type of stress, locating them in specific situations.
to match each picture to the type of stress they believe is involved.

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 Structures

Stress Example Load Reaction Answer key

Pendant Weight of the Neck
pendant Understand
Shoulder Weight of the piece Shoulders 9. What kind of stress do the legs of a chair bear? When
Traction
straps of clothing
is the stress greater: when you or someone heavier
Cord of a Weight of the Wall fastening than you sits on a chair? Why?
Venetian blind Venetian blind
Compression; the stress is greater when the force used is
Chair legs Weight of the chair Ground
greater. The stress which the legs of the chair undergo is one
Compression Legs Own weight Ground of compression. The legs are compressed between our weight
Tree trunk Weight of the tree Ground and the floor which does not let them sink into it.
Shelf Weight of the books Side panels
10. What is the best way to break a piece of uncooked
Bed base Weight of the Legs of the bed spaghetti: by stretching or bending it? What kind of
mattress and the base force is acting on the piece of spaghetti in each case?
Bending
people
It is easier to break the spaghetti by bending it. This is a
Wardrobe rail Weight of the Attachment to
clothes the wardrobe
bending stress whereas stretching it would be one of traction.
This is due to the shape of the spaghetti and the fact that it’s
Keys Force of turning the Lock so thin and hard that it can’t withstand being bent.
key by hand
Pencil Force which we use Resistance of 11. Listen and decide what kind of force is applied in
Torsion
sharpener the pencil
each case and what stress each object bears.
Bicycle Pedalling Resistance of
the pedals a) There are a lot of books on that bookshelf.
Hook Weight of the Wall b) The horse is pulling the car.
picture c) The man is putting up a flag.
Cutting
Guillotine Blade Fixed part of the
d) I am making orange juice with this orange.
guillotine
e) I’m cutting this paper in two pieces.
Animation 1: TYPES OF STRESS f) He is getting all the water out of the t-shirt.

From this animation students can learn about the effects which Analyse
stress has on objects.
12. Look at the photo. Analyse the stress that the bridge
will bear if a heavy load is in the middle. Illustrate
how the different parts of the bridge would deform.
If a load were placed on the bridge, its centre would tend to
dip, compressing the pillars which reach as far as the arch
below the centre and the whole arch that forms the bridge.

11
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4. MAN-MADE STRUCTURES 4.3. Triangular structures

13
stack: a group or pile of material
placed one on top of another
14
lintel: a horizontal support across the
top of two vertical posts or columns
Over time, human beings have become better at building structures. We know These structures are made from bars, normally metal or wooden. The use of
more about them and we have lighter and stronger materials. triangular shapes means they are not easily deformed. This makes them ideal
for building bridges (triangular beams), covered with large trusses15 and vertical 15
truss: a framework of posts and
structures, like towers and scaffolds16. beams
4.1. Massive structures and lintels 16
scaffolds: a structure for construction
workers on the outside of a building
The first man-made structures were carved from rock or were built by stacking13 truss height
rocks or other materials. This left little space between them, like in the Mayan or
Egyptian pyramids.

Short stone or wooden lintels14 were also used to make windows and open spaces,
for example, in Greek temples.

Understand queen post truss Pratt truss

13. Look at the photos. Railway bridges use the height of the truss so that the
a) What kind of stress do the stones in the pyramid bear? And the trains can cross them

columns of the bridge?

Analyse Howe truss Warren truss
b) What is the purpose of the spaces between the lintels? Do they bear
stress? 15. Identify what material was used to build the
Eiffel Tower. Find out which material we use
The Eiffel Tower. This was the
nowadays for these kind of structures and list tallest structure in the world
the advantages. for many years queen post truss Pratt truss

4.4. Suspended structures

This type of structure uses cables, called suspenders which the structure hangs
from. When they can be adjusted, they are called tension members. Howe truss Warren truss
The cables only bear traction stress, but the advantage is that they can adapt Analyse
their shape to different loads at different times and they are incredibly light.
A massive structure Lintels 16. Look at the different
Cables are used to fasten bridges, marquees17, antennas and towers.
types of trusses. Which
4.2. Vaulted structures There are many kinds of suspended structures which can cover large spaces like ones would be better
stadiums and pavilions, without the need for columns or pillars. for a bridge? And for a
With arches and vaults, builders could cover larger spaces and have bigger gaps in roof? Give reasons for
the structures. your answers.

Vaulted structures are formed by arches and vaults using stones that are cut suspender
in such a way that the only stress they support is compression – no problem for catenary suspender
17
marquee: a very large tent
hard stone.

The Romans used round arches to build bridges and aqueducts and they used
barrel vaults and domes to cover basilicas and pantheons. Later, pointed arches
and ribbed vaults were used in mosques and cathedrals. We still use them today.

Apply

14. Find different types of arches

in vaulted structures on the
Internet and in books about
art and architecture and draw
them. Illustrate the different
types of stress they experience.
What kinds are they?
Ribbed vaults and pointed arches
Suspension bridge Cable-stayed bridge
Understand
17. Look at the bridges and explain how they transfer loads through the
various structural elements which you can see in the photos. For bridges
Bridge with round arches of the same length, which bridge would have thicker cables? Why?

10 Structures 11

4. Man-made structures Also, ask what types of structure could be built from sand on the
beach and which could not.
The question which students are asked here is about the different
types of bridges they can think of. With the help of everyone in In the photo of the stone bridge, students can try to find out what
the group, you could brainstorm the oldest to the most modern would happen if the load of a weight corresponding to a person
one to make them aware of the differences between one and situated in the centre of the bridge is taken across the structure.
the other and their possible relationship to the different types of This can be used as a preparatory exercise for any work on
structures. framework structures. This activity can also be used with any loads
and structures that feature in the unit.
In this section two important aspects of structures come together.
On the one hand, a classification is established. On the other hand, 4.2. Vaulted structures
this formal classification is related to the historical evolution of
As regards these types of structure, if time permits, you can teach
structures. Also, although we are referring to building structures,
students using slides with pictures of different vaults and arches
these structural types are applicable to technological objects as
which have been built in different eras.
well.
One of the advantages that arches have is that the greater the
By starting from early history, the basic types of building structure
load placed on them, the more securely their parts fit together.
can be listed.
They can be broken by lateral forces which are produced at the
You could also mention that all the structural elements which level of the lower lateral arch stones if they are not counteracted
have appeared are still used today. Also, although their use is by a greater load which centres these forces.
less common, it is normal to come across load-bearing walls and
arches in buildings these days. 4.3. Triangular structures
Before beginning to explain the types of structures, ask students Triangular structures made of wood go back a long way in history.
to do a drawing in their notebooks of the bridges which they can They were already in use during the Middle Ages (mainly for roof
see on the double-page spread. Also, ask them to analyse how trusses). Their advantages compared to other types of structure
one of them collapsed. In this activity they can also make a sketch are their lightness and the fact that they require a small amount
or diagram of the bridge from their task designs. of material.
Their weak points are the joints, which must resist traction stresses.
4.1. Massive structures and lintels For the calculation of forces these joints must never be considered
It is important that students notice the simplicity of very early rigid but as if they formed free joints – hence the importance of
man-made buildings as well as the importance of stability in the triangular shape.
the design of these primitive structures. You can also discuss the When the first foundries appeared, the use of triangular metal
limitations caused by the material used (parts extracted from rocks). structures became more common. It was the era when pavillions

12

and structures associated with the railway, such as bridges and
stations, were built.
4.4. Suspended structures
Suspended structures have been used since ancient times as
precarious suspension bridges thanks to the availability of ropes
and vines in the majority of civilisations.
These structures have the advantage of being able to adapt to the
loads which they have to bear (this can be verified by suspending
objects from a rope). This ability to change shape is a practical
drawback in modern buildings (it would be ridiculous if a bridge
changed its shape when a vehicle crossed it). However, it gives the
bridge the structure fixed loads that are superior to the variage
variable loads, which make the variable loads almost imperceptible
for the structure.
Suspended structures can be extremely light, but this is also a
drawback, especially when the wind is blowing from a lower to
higher level and lifts up the structure – the reason why weight is
added to the decks of bridges.
In the video on the collapse of the Takoma Narrows Bridge (US)
shows the effect of the wind on the deck of the bridge. We can
also see how materials which we think cannot be deformed, such
as steel and concrete, acquire an unusual ductility when facing
large loads.
Weblink 2: THE TEMPLE OF DEBOD
A virtual tour at this monument.
Weblink 3: ROMAN COLISEUM
A virtual tour at this monument.
Weblink 4: THE EIFFEL TOWER
A virtual tour at this monument.
Answer key
Understand
13. Look at the photos:
a) What kind of stress do the stones in the pyramid
bear?
b) What is the purpose of the spaces between the
lintels? Do they bear stress?
The stone blocks on the pyramids are compressed. As with the
pillars on the bridge, the lintels are subjected to bending and
their purpose is to let water pass under them.
13
Structures
Apply
14. Find different types of arches in vaulted structures on
the Internet and in books about art and architecture
and draw them. Illustrate the different types of stress
they experience. What kinds are they?
The arches are subjected to compression. Some of the main
types are discussed on page 17 of this unit.
Analyse
15. Identify what material was used to build the Eiffel
Tower. Find out which material we use nowadays for
these kinds of structures and list the advantages.
The Eiffel Tower was built using an iron alloy called cast iron
which contains a high level of carbon. Nowadays this type of
structure is made from steel. The main advantage with steel is
that it can be welded. The joints in the Eiffel Tower are riveted.
16. Look at the different types of trusses. Which ones
would be better for a bridge? And for a roof? Give
reasons for your answers.
Beams with a horizontal upper section are well-suited for
building bridges because of the uniformity of their parts. The
slope of the trusses is ideal for roofs because it has a suitable
shape. However, in strictly structural terms, the shape of the
most suitable beam for bridge construction is when the upper
member has the shape of an arch. This is similar to the one
which was experimented with in the simulation of structures
section, although its construction is more complex.
Understand
17. Look at the bridges and explain how they transfer
loads through the various structural elements which
you can see in the photos. For bridges of the same
length, which bridge would have thicker cables? Why?
In the first case, the weight of the deck is transmitted to the
catenaries through the cable suspenders. In the second, the
cable suspenders transmit the weight directly to the pillars.
The cable suspenders must be thicker in the second case
because the force which they support for a similar section of
the deck is larger because of the slope.
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4.5. Reinforced concrete structures 4.7. Pneumatic structures

18
advances: improvement or progress Concrete led to major advances18 in construction because it could be made into Pneumatic structures are light and easy to transport, set up21 and dismantle22.
19
rebar: strong steel bars used in any shape. Concrete resists compression and with steel rebar19 frameworks it can For this reason, we use them in constructions like field hospitals or funfair attractions
construction also bear traction. for children. These structures use compressed air inside them. When they expand,
they stretch the outer plastic surface. This makes them stay upright23.
It is a very strong material which is used in all types of building, mostly in framework
structures like your school:
4.8. Spatial and geodesic
❚ Under the floor you are on concrete steel mesh (rebar)
weight there is a horizontal structure These are three-dimensional structures of bars, which combine the properties of
called slabs, which consist vaults with triangulated structures to create curved shapes and cover large spaces. Understand
beam
of small beams called joists
20. Look at the photo. Can
and material in between them
joist this type of structure
(ceramic blocks, bricks or
bear bending?
polystyrene).
column/pillar
❚ The slabs transfer your weight
to the beams (made of joist ceramic block
21
set up: to put together, construct
concrete and steel rebar) and
22
dismantle: take apart, into pieces
foundations Section of slab. Observe how the bricks are placed
23
upright: standing, vertical
then to the columns (vertical 24
node: a point in a framework where
between the joists.
supports). lines or bars join or intersect
Geodesic dome of the Oceanográfic in the Detail of the node24 of the geodesic
❚ The columns don’t sit directly on the ground because they would sink. Between Science Park in Valencia structure
the columns and the ground are the foundations, which spreads out the
Analyse
weight of the building and its load.
❚ Reinforced concrete can be used to build huge arches, bridge piers, plates and 21. Look at the photo. How do the bars join the metal nodes? What kinds
roofs, as well as pillars and beams in structures. of stress are acting on these nodes?

A building structure 4.6. Laminated structures They consist of linear bars and nodes that connect them. They use triangles
and tetrahedrons, the three-dimensional equivalent of triangles, because these
Apply These are formed by laminates of metal, plastic or composite material like reinforced shapes cannot be easily deformed.
concrete. Their curved shape and folds give them their strength.
18. Listen and point to
❚ The curved shape makes the laminates bear the stress of traction and Analyse
the different elements
in the structure of this compression on their surface.
22. Many structures combine several of the ones we have seen. Examine the
building. ❚ The folds and ribs give rigidity in exact points. So, for example, the rim on a
20
viaducts in the photos and say what structure types and materials are
plastic cup prevents the cup from deforming when we drink and the grooves used in them. Can you find the relationship between the shape and the
20
ribs: like the bones in your chest on the side make it stronger when we hold it. material of the parts and the types of stress they bear?

grooves rim

The viaduct in Madrid The Hacha viaduct, Granada

Evaluate
Key concepts
The Oceanográfico by Félix Candela 23. Think about the materials that you could use for your bridge: thread, ❚ Artificial structures are made
paper bars, wire, cardboard, balsa wood, etc. How and why will you use by humans.
Apply
these materials for building the different parts of the model?
❚ Structures can be: massive
19. Experiment with laminated structures. Place a sheet of paper flat or lintels, vaulted, triangular,
Apply
between two desks. Does it stay horizontal? Try again, but this time, suspended, reinforced concrete,
bend the sheet of paper like the structure in the photo. What happens? 24. Think about the different structure types we have looked at. What kind laminated, pneumatic, spatial
Why? of bridge do you want to build for the unit project? Draw a sketch. and geodesic.

12 Structures 13

4.5. Reinforced concrete structures 4.7. Pneumatic structures

The importance of framework structures lies in the fact that Structures of this type are not rigid and are of limited use.
they are mostly used in the construction of buildings and They are basically used to cover spaces, but it is not possible to use
houses. them to construct buildings that bear weight.
It makes no difference what material they have been built from
because they all function in a similar way and the result is the 4.8. Spatial and geodesic structures
same. They both pass on the load from a particular place to In this section we look at spatial grid structures.
the foundations, creating living space between the floors of
They are structures which combine the advantages of triangular
the building.
structures with those of domes and three-dimensional structures.
If you know about a building under construction near the Their advantage is that they only require two types of parts for
school, you can organise a short visit or, for homework, get the their construction (linear bars and nodes), which is why they are
students to find out about the type of concrete slab which is very quick to assemble.
being used (one-directional blost with bricks, bidirectional with
panels, flat slabs …) and how it is being built. To do this, you
can ask students to take photos of the construction work and Animation 2: TYPES OF STRUCTURES
use them to point out the features which they have learned
about. Animation in the form of an activity. This involves matching each
photo of a structure with the type of structure.
In order to support the explanation it is a good idea to point
out structural elements in the classroom which are mentioned
in the text.
Answer key
4.6. Laminated structures
Apply
Laminated structures provide considerable resistance despite their
limited thickness because their particular curved shapes make 18. Listen and point to the different elements in the
them behave like vaults or cable cars. structure of this building.
The easiest way to explain this is by getting students to think of In the photo we can see the deck’s side beams and the pillars
the piece of metal used to cover holes in the road. It is not very of two of the floors. The loads placed on the framework
thick, but can bear the weight of vehicles because it bends when are first passed on to the joists. These pass them on to the
they pass over it, changing itself into an inverted arch that can main beams and from there they go down from one floor to
withstand traction instead of bending. another until they reach the foundations of the building.

14

19. Experiment with laminated structures. Place a sheet of
paper flat between two desks. Does it stay horizontal?
Try again but, this time, bend the sheet of paper like in
the structure in the photo. What happens? Why?
Placing a sheet of paper between two desks demonstrates
the effectiveness of the folds and curved shapes in laminated
structures. A sheet rolled up into a hollow tube or folded in
four remains standing better than if completely flat because
it takes on the shape of an arch or has an edge which can
withstand the bending it experiences.
Understand
20. Look at the photo. Can this type of structure bear
bending?
These structures cannot bear large loads. They remain upright
because of the balance between the compression of the
air inside them and the traction of the outer membranes.
However, they are just self-supporting and cannot have
different storeys, nor can they bear bending stress without
becoming very deformed.
Analyse
21. Look at the photo. How do the bars join the metal
nodes? What kinds of stress are acting on these
nodes?
The nodes of this type of structure must be designed to
withstand compression and traction when they are joined to
the bars because these are the two types of stress which the
bars put on them.
22. Many structures combine several of the ones we have
seen. Examine the viaducts in the photos and say
15
Structures
what structure types and materials are used in them.
Can you find the relationship between the shape and
the material of the parts and the types of stress they
bear?
The Madrid viaduct is a concrete arch in which the load from
above is distributed across vertical supports made of concrete.
All of its parts are compressed. The Hacho viaduct is a structure
consisting of compressed vertical pillars made from brick
subjected to compression and a triangular metal girder (the
girder is bent and each member tensioned or compressed).
Materials such as concrete, brick and stone can be used in
parts subjected to compression. Steel can be used in parts
which may be tractioned.
Evaluate
23. Think about the materials that you could use for your
bridge: thread, paper bars, wire, cardboard, balsa
wood, etc. How and why will you use these materials
for building different parts of the model?
Wire and thread can only be used in parts such as cables or
bars which will be tractioned. Paper and cardboard bars can
be used for many purposes, but they must be sufficiently
thick if they are going to be compressed. Balsa wood is easily
breakable and you have to bear in mind its position (as is the
case with cardboard) at the design stage. It always offers more
resistance in the direction of its grain.
Apply
24. Think about the different types of structures we have
looked at. What kind of bridge do you want to build
for the unit project? Draw a sketch.
Student’s own answer
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5. STRUCTURAL CONDITIONS Rigidity

25
fulfil: do or achieve something that is
expected
26
bury: put into the ground
27
brace: make stronger with cables, wood
or metal
Understand
25. Look at the pictures? Which
structure do you think is more
stable? Which one is less stable?
Why?
26. Which of the structures is the
oldest one in history? Why?
For structures to have rigidity and to avoid deforming, we need to consider
There are three conditions for a structure to work well:
three basic aspects: shape, joints and triangulation.
❚ Stability: the capacity of a structure to remain upright and not fall over. A
❚ We choose a shape on the basis of the stress it bears.
structure’s centre of gravity must be centred over its base and close to the
ground for it to be more stable. ◗ Compression: we use thick elements, often hollow, to avoid buckling28.
❚ Resistance: the capacity of a structure to bear the tensions that it’s subjected ◗ Traction: we can make the section bigger and tighten29 the elements that
to without breaking. A structure’s resistance depends on its shape and the traction is acting on.
material used to build it.
◗ Bending: we make the breadth30 bigger and use more material on the top To avoid buckling we have to
❚ Rigidity: all bodies deform slightly when a force is applied to them, but this and bottom of the elements. make sure the load-bearing
elements are not too thin.
deformation must not prevent the structure from fulfilling25 its function.
Understand
28. Why is buckling
dangerous in a
Hollow beams can bear compression well I and T beams are best for resisting bending
structure?
❚ To make rigid joints between the
parts of a concrete structure, we use
corbelling
steel rebar frameworks. In metal 28
buckling: bend and break under
structures, we use corbelling. This pressure
The centre of mass of an object is the point around which the weight is evenly distributed
29
tighten: make tighter or less easy to
makes the welding area and the joint
move
bigger. 30
breadth: width or distance from one
5.1. How can we make a structure stable, resistant ❚ To prevent deforming, we can use
side to another

and rigid? triangular structures or add cross-

bracing using crossed cables.
Stability
Metal structure
To give a structure stability we can:
Apply

30. Imagine a structure made from four ice-cream sticks, joined with
paper fasteners or screws.

1. Widen its base.

The communications tower in
Montjuïc. This leaning tower is
designed so that the weight of the
top part rests on the base.
Analyse
27. Look at the photo.
Where is the tower’s
centre of gravity? Give
reasons for your answer.
a) What would happen if you pressed on two of the corners? Understand
b) If we reinforce the square structure with a diagonal stick, would it still
be possible to deform it by pressing on those two opposite corners? 29. Look at the cables that
c) Could we reinforce the structure with thread or wire? How many cross each other in the
pieces would be necessary? photo. What do you
think they contribute
Analyse to the structure?
4. Brace27 it so it doesn’t
3. Centre the weight in fall over (with braces we 31. Look at the photo of the model
2. Bury26 the bottom section in the the lowest part and/or widen the radius of the
bridge. How does it solve the
ground and use strong foundations. add extra weight. base).
problems of stability, resistance and
Resistance rigidity?
❚ Resistance depends on the material used to build the structure, the quantity of Evaluate
Key concept
material used and the shape of the structure.
32. Now that you have studied all the different aspects of a structure,
❚ For a structure to serve its
❚ All materials have a tensile strength. This is the maximum force per unit of check your design for your bridge. Draw a sketch on a scale of 1:2 or
purpose, it must be stable,
surface area that they can bear without breaking. Examples of the strongest 1:3 of your model. resistant and rigid.
materials are steel, stone, cement, wood and plastic.

14 Structures 15

5. Structural conditions 5.1. How can we make a structure stable,

In order to get the students thinking about the conditions which a
resistant and rigid?
structure must meet, we can get them to suggest which conditions ❚ Stability: If we look at the four pictures, we can see the
they think are necessary. We can use this opening question as a shapes which fulfill this first condition: increase the size of
warm-up activity. the base, embed the lower part in the ground, centre the
weight of the object in its lower part and make the structure
Bear in mind that this section introduces three extremely important
tauter.
concepts for the design of structures: stability, resistance and
rigidity. It is a good idea to emphasise that they do not necessarily ❚ Resistance: This can be explained as the relationship between
act together, but are independent of each other and all are vitally the material which the structure is made of, the quantity which
important. it uses and its adaptation to the stress which it must bear with
its resistance.
Usually, the only condition which links these structures instinctively
is resistance. Extreme examples can be given: a bendy bridge that It is also a good idea to introduce the students to the concept
is unbreakable, a fish tank that withstands the load exerted by the of breaking strain and to show it in a graph that shows the
pressure of the water very well without becoming at all deformed, relationship between stress and deformation.
but which breaks at the slightest knock, etc. ❚ Rigidity: to make structures rigid we must consider the shape
In addition to the three basic requirements which every structure of the parts, the joints and the triangulation.
must meet, we can also mention the importance of the economic ❚ Shape of the parts: We can make use of the pictures of
viability of the project and its aesthetic appearance. different structural designs to explain which are the most
It is worth spending some time explaining what the centre of suitable for each type of stress.
gravity of a body is. For this purpose students can use a book, ❚ Joints: The joints between bars, whether they are made of
biro or other object which is unstable in a vertical position. The metal or wood, are never completely rigid. In structural terms,
reason why a body keeps it balance is because its centre of gravity they are regarded as joints and it is necessary to use shapes
is vertically aligned inside the bearing surface. The larger the base which are not deformed by stress despite the possibility of the
which supports it, the more stability it has because it can move its joint turning. The exercise with the ice cream sticks and paper
centre of gravity without leaving the base. When the body leaves fasteners can serve as such a good example of this.
the base, it becomes unstable and falls over.
❚ Triangulation: The triangle does not guarantee that the
Before seeing how we can make sure that a structure meets the structure will keep its shape (in fact, the bars lengthen or
three conditions, we need to ask a new question to make the shorten depending on different stresses). It is its ability to
students think about their designs in terms of these three aspects: change its shape freely that is important. We can see this in the
stability, resistance and rigidity. triangular brackets that are used to reinforce the metal joints

16

between beams and columns. Triangular structures are very
easy to build with strips of paper, ice-cream sticks, toothpicks
etc. The process of forming triangles in the structure is called
‘triangulation’.
As regards the rigidity of very long parts subjected to
compression, we can expand the explanation by referring to
the buckling that occurs if these parts are too thin. Furthermore
we can relate this to the fact that the shape of a part can help
to counteract this effect in structures.
Animation 3: STRUCTURAL CONDITIONS
An animation which explains the conditions which a structure
must meet in order to be stable, resistant to the tensions which it
experiences, and rigid or able to control its deformation.
Answer key
Understand
25. Look at the pictures. Which structure do you think is
more stable? Which one is less stable? Why?
The pyramid is the most stable shape because of its large base
and because most of its mass is near the ground and centred.
Its centre of gravity (COG) is located at a third of its height.
The inverted trapezium has its COG in the centre but its mass
is concentrated in its upper part which is unsafe (the height
of the trapezium’s COG is h x (2a + b) / 3 (a + b). Finally, the
third structure in the middle is not stable because its COG falls
outside its base and it will fall over.
26. Which of the structures is the oldest one in history?
Why?
The pyramid was used before the others as a structure because
of its stability and the ease with which it could be adapted to
the material which was used in the past, i.e. stone.
Analyse
27. Look at the photo. Where is the tower’s centre of
gravity? Give reasons for your answer.
The tower’s centre of gravity is between the antenna and the
rear part, in the centre of the base to make it stable.
Understand
28. Why is buckling dangerous in a structure?
Because it adds bending stress to the elements which are
designed to withstand compression, making it easier to
break them. Furthermore, when buckling occurs, it is a self-
perpetuating process.
17
Structures
29. Look at the cables that cross each other in the photo.
What do you think they contribute to the structure?
They provide rigidity because they cannot become laterally
deformed.
Apply
30. Imagine a structure made from four ice-cream sticks
joined with paper fasteners or screws.
a) What would happen if you pressed on two of the
corners?
It will become deformed.
b) If we reinforce the square structure with a diagonal
stick, would it still be possible to deform it by pressing
on those two opposite corners?
In this case, the triangular bar prevents a change of shape in
any direction when resisting compression as much as when
resisting traction.
c) Could we reinforce the structure with thread or
wire? How many pieces would be necessary?
To make the square structure rigid using thread or wire, one or
the other must be placed in the two diagonals since the thread
or wire only bears traction stress.
Analyse
31. Look at the photo of the model bridge. How does it
solve the problems of stability, resistance and rigidity?
Stability has been achieved by means of the symmetry,
the centred position of the pillars (part of the bridge that
projects on both sides) and the enlargement of the base in
the foundations. Resistance is provided by the thickness of
the deck and the suspender cables. And rigidity is achieved
by means of the shape and the fixed joints (in some cases
involving the overlapping of parts).
Evaluate
32. Now that you have studied all the different aspects of
a structure, check your design for your bridge. Draw a
sketch on a scale of 1:2 or 1:3 of your model.
Student’s own answer. It is part of the task portfolio.
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6. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 6.3. Arches and vaults

In this unit, we have seen different types of structural elements. Now, let’s look at These are two –or three– dimensional curved elements, which are used to cover
the most important ones according to their function. the space between two walls or columns. The pieces in them resist compression
stress and so are usually made of materials like stone.
6.1. Columns, pillars and pilasters ❚ Arches are built using a temporary structure called a centring, which holds
the pieces (the arch stone) that form the arch in construction. When the top
These are vertical elements that support the weight of the structure on top of
piece, called the key stone, is in place the arch can stay in position on its own.
them and transfer it to a lower level or to the foundations.
This means that it is self-supporting and it requires no mortar1 or cement.
They resist compression stress and, depending on the historical period, are made of Here are some types of arches:
stone, reinforced concrete or metal.
❚ Pillars are round or rectangular.
❚ Columns are cylindrical and usually have a decorative as well as structural
function.
Understand
❚ Pilasters are columns or pillars which are part of the wall. semicircular
33. Point to the centring in
lobed
6.2. Beams, joists and lintels the picture of the arch
pointed horseshoe in construction.
These are linear horizontal elements that keep a space between two supports.
Pilasters in the Palazzo Te, Italy ❚ Vaults are built by using a series of arches in a line (a barrel vault) or intersecting
❚ Beams sit on pillars and transfer the weight of the slabs or the roof.
arches (a rib vault).
❚ Joists are smaller beams within slabs that carry the load to the beams.
❚ Lintels are used to create open spaces between columns for openings,
windows or doors in walls. They were also called architraves in classical
architecture.

These elements bear bending stress and nowadays they are made of steel or
reinforced concrete. Remember that concrete resists compression and the steel
rebar framework resists traction.

In ancient times, when stone was the most common construction material, lintels
could not be very long, so the openings they made were very small.

The Doge’s Palace in Venice

Understand

34. What types of arches

A semicircular arch A rib vault
can you see on the front
A lintel in popular architecture
of this building?
Apply
4
35. In your notebook, draw diagrams of the structures on these pages.
Label the structural elements, the material used in each part of the 3
structure and identify the types of stress each part bears. 2
5
36. Using the development plan 6
of an arch stone on the right,
build an arch using five pieces. 1
Put it together horizontally 4
on a piece of cardboard. Raise 2
r 5 3
it carefully and check that it 6
stays up by itself without any 36º
glue. R 1 development plan
of an arch stone
A Greek temple (The Parthenon, Athens)

16 Structures 17

6. Structural elements 6.3. Arches and vaults

We begin this section of the unit by asking a question about the Both are curved structural parts. An arch is a two-dimensional part
structural elements which they remember having studied in the and a vault is a three-dimensional one.
unit and about the function of each one of them. In this part we can explain about the materials which are used to
Before starting we can elicit different answers in a group make these parts and the stress which they bear.
brainstorming session before beginning the classification. As regards arches, it is advisable to explain the different elements
It’s a question of classifying and explaining the simplest structural and parts of an arch as well as how it is constructed. We can use
elements in terms of the role which they play. the illustration in the margin which clearly shows the centring of
the arch and the overlapping of pieces in the absence of the key
6.1. Columns, pillars and pilasters stone.
We explain that this concerns vertical parts subjected to We can also describe the different types of the most common
compression stress. Their main function is to transmit loads arches including their use in different historical periods and
through the different storeys as far as the foundations. cultures such as the pointed arch in the Gothic period or the
We also refer to the materials used for these elements. horseshoe and lobed arch in Islamic culture.
As an activity we can get the students to notice the vertical A very visual way of explaining what a vault is, starting with the
elements that can be seen in the picture of the Té palace in Italy barrel vault, is to describe it as an arch which has been moved
which appears in the margin. along a longitudinal axis. In this way we can move from a
two-dimensional element to another which is used to cover a
6.2. Beams, joists and lintels continuous space such as the nave of a religious building.
These are linear elements and in this case they are horizontal.
Their main function is to cover a space between two points. Answer key
Beams, joists and lintels are the most important types. Nowadays
the materials used in horizontal structural parts are steel and Understand
reinforced concrete. The importance of these materials when
compared to stone must be emphasised. They have made it 33. Point to the centring in the picture of the arch in
possible to bridge increasingly large distances. construction.
To identify some of these parts we can ask the class about the The centring is a wooden structure which is used for support
pictures of the Greek temple and the lintel. and as a mould while the arch is being built.

18

34. What types of arches can you see on the front of this
building?
There are pointed arches in the lower cloister and lobed arches
in the upper cloister.
Apply
35. In your notebook draw diagrams of the structures
on these pages. Label the structural elements, the
material used in each part of the structure and identify
the types of stress each part bears.
Stone parts mainly bear compression because this is the stress
which this material is best at withstanding.
19
Structures
36. Using the development plan of an arch stone on the
right, build an arch using five pieces. Put it together
horizontally on a piece of cardboard. Raise it carefully
and check that it stays up by itself without any glue.
When making the keystones it is necessary to make sure that
the sides which support each other are flat. You can also build
a cardboard centring and place the pieces over it. In the end,
take it away and put the keystone in place.
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6.4. Buttresses and flying buttresses 6.7. Footings, plinths, shallow foundations and piles
These are used to hold up the loads of arches and vaults. The purpose of these elements is to distribute the load of the structure, building or
beams
bridge so that it does not sink. These elements together are called the foundations.
❚ A buttress can be part of a wall and is used to reinforce the wall and transfer
There are different types:
the loads from the vaults to the ground.
❚ A footing is a type of platform34 at the base of a structure that holds the 34
platform: a raised structure which
❚ A flying buttress is an exterior arch which bears lateral loads from the vaults supports another element
weight of the rest of the structure.
to the buttresses, which is the vertical element which holds them up. 35
drive: move by using force
❚ Plinths are rectangular blocks of concrete under columns. 36
clay: earth that is made up of small
Nowadays we use reinforced concrete as well as stone. pieces, used to make bricks
❚ Shallow foundations are made of concrete that sit on the ground and are 37
firm: almost solid surface
used to distribute loads. They are usually used for soft ground.
❚ Piles are columns driven35 deep into unstable ground or clay36, so that they
rest in firmer37 soil.

Buttresses Flying buttresses and buttresses

Concrete needs a mould31 until it
gets hard (or sets). This temporary
mould is called formword. 6.5. Load-bearing walls and retaining walls
Apply These are vertical elements that transfer loads to the ground.
37. In the photo, we can ❚ Load-bearing walls bear compression stress and can be built with materials
see the formwork of like stone, bricks and adobe.
the main beams of a Key concepts
❚ Retaining walls bear bending stress because of the force that the earth puts
concrete slab. Find the on them. They must be built with reinforced concrete or with a large amount
Foundations with footings Foundations with piles
Structural elements are
start rebars32 of the of material. classified by the following
pillar, the rebars of the 6.8. Suspenders and tension rods functions:
beams, the temporary
These are linear elements, normally steel cables, whose function is to resist traction ❚ Resisting compression stress:
jack posts33 and the pillars, columns and pilasters.
stress. They are used in suspended constructions and in bracing.
safety net.
❚ Creating a space between
horizontal elements: beams,
joists and lintels.
❚ Filling the space between
two walls or columns with a
curved element: arches and
31
mould: a frame on which something vaults.
is constructed Load-bearing wall Retaining wall
32
start rebar: steel rebar that comes ❚ Holding up the loads of
out of a pillar so that construction can 6.6. Concrete slabs arches and vaults: buttresses
continue and flying buttresses.
33
jack post: a steel post used in These are horizontal elements working in
❚ Transferring loads to the
construction two directions. They transfer the loads that
ground: load-bearing walls
the rest of the structure bears and they The Alamillo Bridge, Seville Bracing on buttresses or retaining walls.
resist bending stress. They are made up of:
❚ Transferring the loads from
❚ Joists: carry the weight of the slabs to Apply slabs: joists, blocks and
the beams. reinforced concrete surfaces.
start rebar
38. In your notebook, draw diagrams of the structures on these pages. ❚ Distributing loads in the
❚ Blocks: fills the space between the joists.
Label the structural elements, the material used in each part of the ground: footings, plinths,
They are hollow elements that help to
structure and identify the types of stress each part bears. shallow foundations and piles.
make the slabs lighter.
What stress do concrete and reinforced concrete elements usually ❚ Resisting traction stress:
❚ Reinforced concrete surface: makes bear? And steel elements? Why do you think that is? suspenders and bracing.
the slabs even. Joists and blocks

18 Structures 19

6.4. Buttresses and flying buttresses and it enables students to see the shape of the different structural
elements.
These elements support the loads of arches and vaults and transfer
them to the foundations. Flying buttresses are curved elements 6.7. F
 ootings, plinths, shallow foundations
that transfer loads from the arch to the buttress. A buttress is a and piles
vertical element which may or may not be attached to a wall. The
main function of a buttress is to reinforce the wall and carry the Essentially, these are the four main types of foundation. The
loads from the vaults to the ground. decision to choose one over another depends on the type of
building and on the characteristics of the ground. All share the
6.5. Load-bearing walls and retaining walls same function of transferring loads from the structure to the
ground underneath.
These are vertical elements that transfer the load to the ground.
The difference between them is that load-bearing walls bear 6.8. Suspenders and tension rods
compression forces while retaining walls resist bending forces.
Stone and brick are used in the first type of wall, while reinforced The most significant feature of these elements is that they are
concrete is used in the second. Currently, concrete is the type of linear and only bear traction forces. They are used mainly in
material most commonly found in both types. suspension structures or cross-bracing.

6.6. Concrete slabs

Answer key
These are horizontal elements that resist bending forces and
transfer the load to the rest of the structure. Slabs are often made Apply
up of joists, blocks and a top layer of reinforced concrete. Each
one has a specific function: the joists carry the weight of the slabs 37. In the photo, we can see the formwork of the main
to the beams, the blocks cover the spaces between the joists and beams of a concrete slab. Find the start rebars of the
the top layer provides a uniform surface and ensures that the pillar, the rebars of the beams, the temporary jack
loads are spread uniformly. The blocks over the spaces are not posts and the safety net.
strong, despite their appearance, and it is therefore important not The reinforcing bars are clearly visible in the middle of the
to put any weight on them when working on site, in case they photo; the reinforcing bars for the beams are around the edge
give way. and in the centre. The net runs around the edge and across
In the margin there is a photo showing the hardened concrete the central space and a jack post is visible below the concrete
mould. This is a fundamental aspect of constructing with concrete, slab.

20
 Structures

Apply
38. In your notebook, draw diagrams of the structures
on these pages. Label the structural elements, the
material used in each part of the structure and identify
the types of stress each part bears.

What stress do concrete and reinforced concrete

elements usually bear? And steel elements? Why do
you think that is?
The elements made of concrete mainly bear compression
forces, those made of reinforced concrete resist bending
forces, and those made of steel support traction forces. This is
because each type of force creates the maximum resistance in
each material.

21
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FOR YOUR INTEREST
(FYI)
The chain and gears on your
bicycle, the gears of an old
clock, a seesaw, the pulley of a
well are all examples of simple
mechanisms and form parts of
many objects.
7. MECHANISMS Pulleys
A pulley is a wheel with a groove that turns on an axis. It is fixed to a solid
Structures bear forces statically, that is, without moving. Mechanisms, on the
other hand, allow objects to move. They transmit and transform force and motion
surface. There is a rope or a chain inside the groove that allows you to lift objects
from a motor to a receptor. They make work easier and more comfortable for
easily by apply a force (F) against a resistance (R).
human beings.
Fixed pulley
7.1. Linear transmission of motion The pulley is balanced when the force we apply F equals the load R.
F=R
Linear transmission mechanisms transmit motion and force through a motor to F
another point. It allows us to lift and lower loads easily and is used in wells, simple cranes and
gym equipment.
Levers
A lever is a rigid bar that turns around a point called a fulcrum. At one end of Movable pulley Fixed pulley

the bar, force (F) is applied to move a resistance or load (R) at the other end This is a set of two pulleys, one fixed and another with linear movement. It is
of the bar. balanced when:

R
We say the lever is in equilibrium when the forces acting on opposite ends of F=
2
a lever are equal, that is: the result of the force (F) multiplied by the distance
(d) from the fulcrum is the same as the result of the load (R) multiplied by the With this system, we only need have the force to lift the same weight as with a
distance (r) from the fulcrum. fixed pulley. F
We can express this mathematically as the Law of the Lever: Compound pulley systems
R
Fxd=Rxr
This is a special combination of fixed and movable pulleys.
Movable pulley
There are three types of levers: Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3. The more pulleys we have, the more complex the mechanism, but the easier it
is to lift the load.

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Look at these two compound pulley systems (n is the number of movable
pulleys):
The fulcrum is between the force and The resistance is between the fulcrum The force is between the fulcrum and
the resistance. and the force. the resistance.
d d r
r r d
F R
F
R fulcrum R F
fulcrum fulcrum

The effect of the force applied is
increased or decreased.
The effect of the force applied is always The effect of the force applied is always
increased (d > r). decreased ( d < r). F Understand
F
40. Draw a diagram of a fixed
pulley and a movable
pulley. Name some of the
structures they are used
for.
41. Copy and complete the
following sentence in
your notebook:
A system of more than
R R two pulleys is called a
___ . It is made up of ___
Understand groups of pulleys: ___
R R and ___ . The ___ pulleys
39. In your notebooks, draw the following objects: a wheelbarrow, weighing F= F= we have, the ___ it is to
2·n 2n
scales, ice tongs, a nutcracker, pliers and a broom. Say what kind of lever lift the load although
each one is. Show the location of the force (F), load (R) and the fulcrum. the ___ is more complex.
Movable and compound pulleys can be used for lifts and cranes.

20 Structures 21

7. Mechanisms 7.1. Linear transmission of motion

In this section, students learn about moving parts in technological The aim here is for the students to understand how the lever
objects in their everyday lives. The objective of this section is to works and to be able to define it with the concepts of force,
help students understand what a mechanism is. resistance and fulcrum. They also learn to apply the Law of the
Lever. They learn to classify different types of lever and learn how
Mechanisms are classified as follows:
they are used.
❚ Transmission of motion mechanisms:
To help students understand the different types of lever it is useful
❚ Linear: levers, pulleys (fixed and movable), compound pulleys to use diagram of each type, indicating the fulcrum, force and
❚ Rotary: friction wheels, pulleys with belts, interlocking gears resistance. It is also useful for students to experiment with real
and sprockets with chains objects they use every day.

❚ Transformation of motion mechanisms: Ask students to read the FYI box and the introduction to the
section. The box gives some simple mechanisms within objects.
❚ Rotary to linear motion: wheels, winch and crank, rack and Ask them to think about what is the motor and the receptor in
pinion, nut and bolt each case (don’t worry if they can’t give the correct answer yet).
❚ Reciprocating rotary to linear motion: crank and rod,
Students read the section on levers, where we explain the Law of
crankshaft, cam, eccentric cam
the Lever and give the three different classes. Ask them to work in
❚ Direction control mechanisms: ratchet, freewheel pairs and to identify the force, load and fulcrum in each object in
the three different classes. You could show photos of each object
❚ Speed control mechanisms: brakes and ask students to come to the front of the class and point to
❚ Connection mechanisms: clutch, links each element.
❚ Energy accumulation: springs, shock absorbers and suspension Examples of each class of lever:
To make the change from (fixed) structures to (moving) Class 1: weighing scales, scissors, pliers, tongs, crane, spade
mechanisms, show them a photo of a drawbridge (such as Tower
Bridge in London) and ask them to think about how it works. Class 2: swinging doors, bellows
You could ask them to think about a building (e.g. a shopping Class 3: pen (when writing), pincers, tweezers, pole vault
mall) which has different mechanisms incorporated into it. Ask
them to think of the different moving parts in the building (e.g. For pulleys, you can suggest that students experiment with
sliding or revolving doors, escalators, lifts, etc.). designing new types of pulleys based on the following:

22
 Structures

40. Draw a diagram of a fixed pulley and a movable pulley.

Name some of the structures they are used for.

R F

d/ 2

d
F

Answer key
Understand
39. In your notebooks, draw the following objects: a
wheelbarrow, weighing scales, ice tongs, a nutcracker,
pliers and a broom. Say what kind of lever each one is.
Show the location of the force (F), load (R) and the
fulcrum.
Point out to the students that there are many different types
of weighing scales. To make it clear, show them a balance-
type ‘old fashioned’ weighing scales, in which the item being
weighed is balanced on one side by placing weights in a tray
on the other side, as in the picture below.
R
A fixed pulley is used for lifting and lowering loads more
easily. It is used in wells, simple cranes, weight machines in
gyms, etc.
A movable pulley is also used for lifting and lowering loads.
The force needed to overcome the resistance is half that of
the fixed pulley. It is used in lifts, goods lifts, cranes, etc.
41. Copy and complete the following sentence in your
notebook:
A system of more than two pulleys is called a compound
pulley. It is made up of two groups of pulleys: fixed and
movable. The more pulleys we have, the easier it is to lift
the load although the system is more complex.

fulcrum R
F
F fulcrum
F

R fulcrum
R

fulcrum
fulcrum

F
F
R R

23
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7.2. Rotary transmission 7.3. Transformation of motion

Wheels and belts Some mechanisms transform rotary motion into linear motion or viceversa.
wheel 1 axes These are systems where two or more wheels are in contact, directly or with a Winch and crank mechanism
speed N1
belt.
A crank is a bar that turns an axis. You need less force to turn the winch with F
Friction wheels a crank that to turn the winch directly. The mechanism uses a winch, which is d
a cylinder that turns on an axis, to pull an object. A winch is balanced when: r
Two wheels are in direct conduct: one of the wheels is called the driver, because
as it moves, it drives the other wheel which is called the driven. Each wheel moves F∙d=R∙r
wheel 2
in a different direction. So the load equals:
speed N2
Uses: Friction wheels are very common in industry, for example in making and r
F=R·
transferring sheets of metal and rolls of paper. d
R
Pulleys with belts Uses: Cranes, coffee grinders, etc.

Two wheels are at a certain distance from each other. Their axes are parallel to each Rack and pinion mechanism
wheel 1
speed N1 other and they turn together with a belt. A pinion is a wheel with teeth that interlock
with a rack, which is a bar with teeth. When
D1
They turn in the same direction because the belt, which is fixed to both wheels,
D2 the wheel turns the bar moves in a linear
transfers the turn to the wheels.
direction. This mechanism transfers the
Uses: Industrial machines, washing machines and drills. rotary movement of the wheel into the linear
wheel 2 motion of the bar. The mechanism can also be
speed N2 The relationship between the speeds of the two wheels depends on the relative reversed.
size of the wheels, expressed through the following equation:
Uses: Corkscrews, steering wheels, etc.
D1 N2
=
D2 N1 Crank and rod mechanism

D1 and D2 are the diameters; N1 the speed of the driver; and N2 is the speed of the The crank turns, which moves the rod. The rod is fixed to the crank at one
driven. end, and at the other end to something that makes a reciprocating movement.
As the wheel turns, the crank transforms rotary movement to the rod, which
Interlocking gears moves back and forth.
These are sets of wheels with teeth that match each other so that one wheel moves This system also works the other way around. That is, the linear motion of the
axis 1
another. The teeth must all have the same shape and size. The rotary movement of crank transforms into a rotary movement.
axis 1 transmits to axis 2 through the gears 1 and 2 on the axes. Each gear turns Corkscrew
in a different direction. crank rod guide
axis 2 Uses: Industrial and car engines, home appliances such as drills, electric blenders
and toys.
dientes
Sprockets with chains
helicoidales
These are sets of two wheels with teeth on parallel axes, at a distance from each
other. They turn at the same time with a chain or belt with teeth which is fixed to guide
sprocket 2
the wheels. The chain transmits the rotary motion of sprocket 1 to sprocket 2. They
sprocket 1 both turn in the same direction.
Uses: This mechanism was important when making the first steam engines;
Uses: Industrial machines, engines and motorbikes. nowadays we use it in internal combustion engines, windscreen wipers and
power tools.
The relationship between the speeds depends on the relative size of the wheels,
expressed through this equation:
chain Z1 N2 Internal combustion engine
=
Z2 N1

Z1 and Z2 are the number of teeth, and N1 and N2, are the speeds.

22 Structures 23

7.2. Rotary transmission We also touch on systems of sprockets and chains (description,
how they work and uses). Chains are made up of links which can
This section covers rotary transmission systems: friction wheels,
be rollers (for example on bicycles) or silent chains. Belts with
pulleys with belts, interlocking gears and sprockets and chains.
teeth are also used, where the teeth fit into the gear or wheels.
One of the most common is the friction wheel. Students will read
You can also look at how the transmission mechanisms we have
a description, how it works and its uses. Remember that many
studied up to now allow us to change the speed from one axis or
different types of wheels are used: cylindrical, conical and round
shaft to another by varying the size (diameter or number of teeth)
which transmit rotary movement to parallel, crossing or
of the wheels attached to the axis or shaft.
intersecting axes. Normally more than one wheel is used.
Belts are usually used between parallel axes. This transmission 7.3. Transformation of motion
requires more complex systems of pulleys and belts, which leads Students look at winch and crank, rack and pinion and crank and
to loss of speed, more friction and greater risk of the belt coming rod mechanism. We explain how they are built, how they work
off the pulley. To prevent this, the belt should be tightened, which and their most common uses. You can ask your students to
is often done using an idler pulley. complete a table like this one, stressing the importance of
Belts are classified by the shape of their cross-section: flat, round reversibility and the transformation of reciprocating rotary-linear
or V-shaped (the most common). We introduce the relation of or oscillating (backward-and-forward) motion.
speed to diameter. You should stress that this relation is
dimensionless and valid for all types of rotary transmission. In winch rack crank
gears and sprockets, we substitute the diameter for the number and crank and pinion and rod
of teeth. Reversibility Yes* Yes Yes
In the section about gears, we explain how motion is transmitted Transformation of No No Yes
through a system of gears, which are classified according to: reciprocating rotary-linear
❚ The position of the teeth, on the outside or the inside. *The winch and crank is only partially reversible: if we let the load freefall,
❚ The shape of the teeth, straight or spiral. the cranks turns, but if we hoist or raise it, the rope loosens and the crack
won’t turn.
❚ The shape of the gears, which can be cylindrical, conical or in
the form of a screw or rack.

24

TYPE STUDY
In this study we will decide which structure has
been used in a particular construction and what
elements we can recognise in it. Now look at the
structures in these photos:
a) In the first picture, we can see two different
structures that have been used to go across a valley
or over a hill.
❚ At the bottom of the photo there is an old
bridge, made of bricks and stone. Apart from
the semicircular arch, this is a solid structure. To
build these structures they use bricks and stone
walls on the outside and they are filled with other
material on the inside. Here, the arch is to allow
water to pass through.
❚ At the top of the photo there is a modern viaduct
built with prefabricated concrete columns and
metal triangular beams. The triangular beams
make the structure lighter and save them from
building wider spans. This reduces the number of
columns and supports needed. They are common
in very high bridges and using a lot of columns
makes the project more expensive.
Type study a)
24
Analysis of structures
Type study
This section provides an analysis of the type of structure used in
building a bridge, a building and in making a parasol. It is followed
by an explanation of the elements used in each one.
a) The case study of the bridge involves a modern viaduct or
bridge built over an old one. We begin with a breakdown of
each part and an analysis of their structural type. This will help
students to clearly identify each type and analyse the elements
they are made up of.
Taking the old bridge first, this is a solid structure built of an
accumulation of materials, specifically stone and brick. It has a
central arch which allows water to run through.
The viaduct situated at the top of the photo is made of the
following: the prefabricated concrete columns and the metal
triangular beams. Triangular beams make it possible to span
greater distances using less material, making for a lighter
structure
b) The second case study shows two types of structures:
In the foreground there is a suspended structure showing vertical
metal supports that resist compression. These have a stretched
canvas as a cover and two tension cables which resist tension stress.
In the background there is a laminate structure. The eight laminates
are able to support their own weight because of their parabolic
curves. These bear compression stress.
Function study
This section explains how a structure works, and the different
elements according to the loads that they have to bear. We look
Structures
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ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
www
FUNCTION STUDY
b) This study is of the photo below. Again, we can see Now we are going to study how a structure works and the different
two types of structures. elements according to the loads they have to bear.
❚ In the foreground, there is a suspended structure First, we have to imagine how the loads are transferred from the
where we can see vertical metal structures, two point where they apply to the ground and what stresses they bear
tension rods and a stretched canvas as a cover. inside each structural element. Bridge elevation
The tension cables and canvas resist traction
stress and the columns resist compression stress,
just like in suspension bridges.
❚ In the background, we can see a laminated
structure, made of eight curved laminates in the
shape of a parabola. This type of curve makes
the laminates stronger so that they can support
their own weight, even though they are very thin.
These structures bear compression stress.
1
2
3
5
5
7
8 4
48. Could any other materials be used to make the
6 deck and the arch?
Type study b) 49. How would you join the beam, the tension rods
and the deck? Design a joint for each one.
Apply
50. Copy and complete the table.
Analyse
42. Look at the photo.
43. What do you think this bridge is used for? What Element Shape Material Function Stress
do you think is below it? Is it a foot bridge or Arch Parabola
Hold up the
Compression
can vehicles cross over it? bridge
Suspenders
44. Write the names of the numbered elements in
Stretched
the picture and say what material they are Deck panels rectangular
made of. prisms
45. Copy the side elevation of the bridge in your Column Steel
notebook. Show how it would deform under To reduce the
Brace
the effect of the loads of its own weight and span
the weight of people walking on it. Plinths
Rectangular
a) What types of structures can you see? prism
46. Explain the types of stress that act on each
b) Why do you think they used such different types of Lower beam
element under the effect of these loads.
structure in the same construction? Prevent
c) What elements can you see in each one? 47. Draw arrows to show the direction of the loads deformation on
Bracing Steel
going to the ground inside each of the elements the sides of the
d) What is the name of the pieces that make the arch?
arch
And the name of the piece in the centre? of the bridge.
Structures 25
at how the loads of a structure affect each of their elements,
and how they would become deformed if they didn’t have
sufficient resistance. This will help identify the forces acting on
each of the elements.
Answer key
Apply
42. Look at the photo.
a) What two types of structure are visible?
 A dome structure and a triangular beam.
b) Why do you think they used such different types
of structures in the same construction?
 The domes and the arches provide the structure with
stability but not much span. Being lighter and having
more spaces between supports, the triangular beam is a
better option if traffic needs to pass underneath.
c) What elements can you see in each one?
 The domes have two main arches, and buttresses on
the ends. The beam has a double system of opposing
triangular beams, making them appear diamond-shaped.
d) What is the name of the pieces that make the arch?
And the name of the piece in the centre?
 They are called arch stones, and the main one is the
keystone.
25
 Structures

Analyse 48. Could any other materials be used for the deck and
the arch?
43. What do you think this bridge is used for? What do Steel and wood are both capable of resisting traction and
you think is below it? Is it a foot bridge or can vehicles compression. However, steel is better able to resist the stresses
cross over it? exerted on this bridge, as a wooden bridge would need a
The bridge crosses an area of wetland in a depression. lot of individual parts. Wood is a better choice for a walking
Underneath the bridge there would be a stream or small surface. Therefore, the two materials are not interchangeable .
watercourse. It is for pedestrian use.
49. How would you join the
44. Write the names of the numbered elements in the beam, the cable suspenders
picture and say what material they are made of. and the deck? Design a joint
1 steel arch 2 cable suspenders 3 deck 4 steel column 5 steel for each one.
brace 6 concrete footing 7 lower steel beams 8 steel cross- The cables are joined to the beam
bracing. using tension members, as in the
photo. The deck panels are then
45. Copy the side elevation of the bridge in your notebook. screwed on at four points to the
Show how it would deform under the effect of the sides of the beam’s cross-section.
loads of its own weight and the weight of the people
walking on it. 50. Copy and complete the following table.
Students’ own drawings
Element Form Material Function Force
46. Explain the types of stress that act on each element of Hold up the
Arch Parabola Steel Compression
the bridge under the effect of these loads. bridge

Cable Strengthen the

Element Force
Linear Steel resistance of the Compression
Arch Compression suspenders arch
Cable suspenders Traction Deck Stretched Form the
rectangular Wood walking Bending
Deck panels Bending panels prisms platform
Column Compression
Transfer the
Brace Compression loads from the
Column Linear Steel Compression
upper part to
Footing Compression
the foundation
Lower beam Bending
Reduce the span
Brace Linear Steel Compression
Cross-bracing Traction or compression of the beam
Transfer the
Rectangular Reinforced
47. Draw arrows to show the direction of the loads going Footing
prisms concrete
loads of to the Compression
to the ground inside each element on the bridge. ground
Transfer the
Lower loads from the
Linear Steel Bending
beam panel to the
columns
Prevent
Cross- deformation on
Linear Steel Compression
bracing the sides of the
arch

26

Virtual testing of your design
Working with a simulator lets you virtually test how
structures behave so that you can improve the design
before you build them. In this case, we are going to use
a simulator to test and improve the design of our bridge
before we build it.
It’s a free online simulator called WPBD (West Point Bridge
Designer). You can download it free from the webpage
www.bridgecontest.org.
The simulator lets you design a new bridge or adapt a
design and improve on it. In either case, the aim is to
make the best possible structure – a design that meets the
conditions at the lowest cost.
Let’s begin the simulation
❚ Phase 1: choose conditions and features
Screen 1. You can choose to create a new design for your
bridge or use a sample design. Try Create a New Bridge
Design.
Screen 1
Screen 2. Then describe the features of the land and the
bridge. Read and click on Next.
Screen 2
26
Structure simulator
Virtual testing of your design
Students have the opportunity to test the design and check how
resistant it is, using a free online virtual simulator. The simulator is
West Point Bridge Designer, a programme that is free to download.
This programme offers two options. Students can create a new
bridge or work on pre-designed models. It is recommended that
students use the structure that they designed for the bridge.
This will give them an opportunity to correct any errors before
constructing the model.
At the end of the simulation, students will have achieved the best
possible structure in each case. The structure will not only meet
the necessary conditions but will be the most economical solution.
The simulation has eight steps or screens. In each one, the
student will need to choose certain options in order to complete
Structures
+
STRUCTURE SIMULATOR
www
Screen 3. The simulator allows you to take part in a Screen 5. Choose the material for the deck of the bridge Screen 8. The simulator explains the process that you
competition. Choose No and continue. and type of load. Choose the default settings. need to follow:
1. Press Finish to go to the drawing screen.
Screen 3 Screen 5
2. Draw the nodes or joints in the structure (Tool/Joints).
3. Draw the bars between the joints (Tool/Members).
4. Carry out a test to check if your design is stable and
resistant (Test/Load test).
5. Add or reinforce elements that failed in the test.
6. Improve the result by changing the position of the bars
to reduce costs.
Screen 8
Screen 4. Now you can choose the height of the bridge Screen 6. You can choose a truss design that you
over the river. Remember that the higher your bridge is, know or invent your own (none), which will be more
the longer the span will be, which will make your bridge interesting.
more expensive.
Screen 6 ❚ Phase 2
In the same way, with a higher deck your excavation costs
will be lower because you won’t have to dig or excavate When you have pressed Finish 1., you will see a screen
the sides where the bridge will rest. where you can draw the nodes (the joints between the
In this case, your bridge will stand at 20 m, with flat beams bars) and the bars that your bridge will have. With these,
(Standard abutments), without supports in the middle (No you can make an initial design 2. and 3.
pier) and no bracing (No Cable Anchorage).
Screen 4
Screen 7. Here you can give your project a name and
number if you want.
Screen 7
Structures 27
the design. However, the final screen is the most significant, as
it is where the design is drawn. As the structure is a bridge, the
student will need to take into account how the structure and each
of its elements will work when supporting a load.
The design then needs to be optimised in order to maintain
its resistance and other qualities, at the most economical cost.
Further guidance on this is provided.
It is possible to check the costs at any time, so that the student
knows whether the budget will increase or decrease according to
the choices they make.
Weblink 5: BRIDGE CONTEST
Website in English with a free program or simulator that
allows students to experiment with different types of triangular
structures.
27
 Structures
As you draw the elements of your bridge, you will see a table
with numbered rows with the following aspects: material
type, cross section, size, length and slenderness (thickness).
When you draw a bar, the program assigns a default size.
When you have finished the bridge, test it (Test/Load
test) 4.
The program warns you if the design is not stable and if
you need to add more triangles.
In this case, add more bars to make complete triangles 5.
Once you have corrected the design errors, the program
detects any stability problems and shows an animation
after checking the design of the structure (Test/Load
test) 4.
First, you can see how the bridge holds up under its own
weight and, then, under the weight of a passing truck.
During the animation, if the stress in any element of the
bridge is more than the resistance of the material, you can
see that it deforms or collapses.
28
Structure simulator
This section has the following objectives:
❚ To make simple structures using different materials.
❚ To reinforce the joints of the structures being made.
❚ To analyse the stages involved in assembling the structure.
Three procedures are given for improving structures. Students
perform these using simple materials which show high resistance
under repeated use: paper, cardboard and a piece of string.
+
STRUCTURE SIMULATOR
www
For example, in this picture you can see that a bar has ❚ For each new bar that you add to the design, the price the tool bar. As you get closer to the definitive design
completely bent in the virtual load test. In this case the bar of the project will go up, so you should always try to use of your structure, you will see that the colours are more
bearing compression stress was too long. similar types of bars. Each bar should be the same as the intense.
one on the other side. Every time you make a change,
carry out a new load test of your bridge to see how the
stress of the bars is affected.
You can correct the fault by changing the design using
shorter bars (putting in joints between them) or by
reinforcing the bars.
After making some changes test your design again 4.
Once you have a stable design, go to the next phase.
As for the budget, you can see how it varies at any time by
clicking on this icon in the tool bar.
This simulator also allows you to test default beam models
like the Pratt or the Warren. You can also test a model of
❚ Phase 3: optimise the design of the structure a suspension bridge:
Look at the table with the data for each bar. In the
calculation of the stress each one has to bear, they include
the traction, the compression and any possible buckling of
each element. In this example, you can see the bars that have failed the
Elements bearing compression appear in red and elements load test because they are too thin. To change them, use
bearing traction appear in blue.
The colours will be more intense the closer they are to the
tension of the breaking point.
Ideas for improving your design
❚ You can reduce the traction stress in bars by using
thinner solid bars.
❚ Compressed bars will behave better if you use hollow
bars. But they are more expensive so it is best to use
them only for thinner bars (slenderness) that might be
more prone to buckling.
Structures 29
❚ Paper: how to make resistant bars by rolling sheets of paper, how
to join the bars together and how to reinforce these joints.
❚ Cardboard: identifying the characteristics of cardboard and
the correct means of use with particular emphasis on internal
reinforcement.
❚ String: a material that plays an important role in different types of
joints.
It is also important to follow a logical and coherent order when
assembling the bridge structure. Doing this systematically will help
students to improve the outcome.
28
 Structures CONSOLIDATION
Structures

+
CONSOLIDATION
www

51. List five loads that can act on your body. Say which
are fixed and which are variable.
52. Name the most common types of stress. Explain
when each thing happens and give an example.
53. Listen to the following statements.
Are they true or false? Give reasons for your
answers.
1 _____ 2 _____ 3 _____ 4 _____
54. Analyse what types of stress act on these natural
structures: a bird’s nest, an elephant’s foot, the
wings of a bat while flying and a termite’s nest.
Draw some of them and indicate the stress with
arrows.
55. Draw the following structures and describe the
stresses acting on each of their parts:
a) A bar used for exercises in gymnastics
b) A swing
c) A chair
d) A ceiling fan
56. When we lean back in our chair, it is more likely to
break. Why is that? Give reasons for your answer.
57. When we hang clothes on a washing line, what
stress does the line bear?
Think about your answer and keep in mind what
washing lines are made of.
58. Listen and write the structural elements you
hear.
a) Put them in the order that they were used in history.
b) Look at the photo. Which elements appear?
c) What type are they?
59. What materials (wood, cement, stone or steel) are 66. Look at the bridge in the photo. It is made of two
used to make these structural elements: a beam, very different structures. Identify them, name the
suspenders, a plinth and a buttress? parts and say what type of stress each one bears.
Keep in mind that there might be other reasons to Do you think the two parts of the bridge work the
use these elements, not just structural reasons. same? Why?
60. List the advantages of reinforced concrete over
stone.
61. Answer the questions. Write a sentence in each STUDY TECHNIQUES
case.
a) What is the difference between a beam and column? ❚ Draw a mind map of the concepts in the unit. Use the following structure to get started:
b) What is each one for?
c) What are the foundations of a building for? Structures
d) When do you use shallow foundations and piles instead Distinctions
of plinths? Why? They bear Made up of
Functions
62. Search the Internet for these famous bridges and
stress structural elements natural man-made
aqueducts. ...
Explain what type of structure each one is and
what materials they are made of:
❚ The Aqueduct in Segovia ❚ Write a summary using the key concept boxes in the unit. Include everything that you think is important.
❚ The Roman Bridge in Cordoba
❚ The Rande Bridge in Vigo
❚ The Barqueta Bridge in Seville
❚ The Viaduct in Madrid FINISHING THE FINAL TASK + www
❚ The San Pablo Bridge in Cuenca
63. Read the following statements. Are they true or Building a bridge
false?
Give reasons for your answers.
As a final task in this unit, after you have finished building your bridge, write a report on a computer with the
a) Triangular bar structures can be made of stone.
following sections to go with your video:
b) Steel is used in solid structures.
c) Suspenders are only used to make structures more 1. A general description of your bridge (the structure).
stable. 2. The specifications (length, width, weight, height).
d) Piles are thin columns used is small constructions. 3. The parts.
64. Cut out three rectangles of card 10 x 30 cm.
Fold them lengthwise and make three sections:
Make a video of the bridge and test the resistance by adding
circular, triangular and square.
weight until it collapses.
a) If we put the same load on top of each section, for
example a pencil case, what type of stress are they This video will go with your written report.
bearing? Does it have the same intensity in each
case?
b) Despite being made of the same amount of material,
which one do you think will resist the stress better?
Why?
65. Choose a piece of street furniture which is familiar
to you (a bench, a street light, a bin, etc.).
Analyse its form and structure.
Present your assignment with photos and
illustrations.

32 Structures 33

Answer key c) The human skeleton bears mainly compression stress.


True. This affects mainly the spine and the bones in the feet.
51. List five loads that can act on your body. Say which
ones are fixed and which are variable. d) A plastic cup hasn’t got any kind of structure.
Student’s own answer. My own weight: fixed; a shopping bag: 
False. The glass is a structure in its entirety.
variable; a rucksack: variable; the wind: variable; a child pulling
you by the hand: variable. 54. Analyse what types of stresses act on the following
natural structures: a bird’s nest, an elephant’s foot,
52. Name the most common types of stress. Explain when the wings of a bat while flying and a termite’s nest.
each thing happens and give an example. ❚ Bird’s nest: traction
Traction: when forces try to pull the body; a catapult. ❚ Bat’s wings: bending
Compression: when forces try to compress / squash the body; ❚ Termite’s nest: compression
the foot of a standard lamp. ❚ Elephant’s foot: compression
Bending: when forces try to bend the body; a bookshelf
55. Draw the following structures and describe the
containing a lot of books.
stresses acting on each of their parts:
Torsion: when forces try to twist a body: an axis at the start of
a) A bar used for exercises in gymnastics.
its turn.
b) A swing.
Cutting: when forces try to cut a body: a pair of scissors.
c) A chair.
53. Listen to the following statements. Are they true d) A ceiling fan.
or false? Give reasons for your answers.
bending bending
a) 
Shear stress only appears when we are cutting
something.
compression

False. The same force is exerted whether the paper is cut or
not. bending
traction compression
b) Traction is a stress that tends to stretch an object.

True. Traction occurs in a body when the forces acting on it
travel in the same direction or opposite directions. compression

29
 CONSOLIDATION
Structures Structures

compression 60. List the advantages of reinforced concrete over stone.

bending

traction Reinforced concrete has resistance to traction, which explains

traction bending why it supports bending forces. It can take any form in a
mould and is cheap.
torsion

bending
61. Answer the questions.
traction a) 
What is the difference between a beam and a
cutting
bending and
and bending column?
compression
b) What is each one for?
56. When we lean back in our chair, it is more likely to c) What are the foundations of a building for?
break. Why is that? Give reasons for your answer. d) When do you use shallow foundations and piles
When leaning back, we are moving the forces that act on the instead of plinths? Why?
chair in relation to the vertical force in the legs. This means A beam is horizontal and a column is vertical; a beam supports
that both a bending and a compression force are acting on the bending and a pillar bears compression; a beam spans spaces
leg, creating much more stress than with compression alone. and a column receives loads from the beam.
By leaning back, we put a strain on the bend. The dimensions
of a chair’s legs won’t support the combined stress. The foundations of a building spread the loads of the structure
over a large area of ground, to prevent them from sinking into
57. When we hang clothes on a washing line, what force the ground. Shallow foundations or piles are used in very soft
does the line bear? Think about your answer and bear ground where a larger surface is required, such as in shallow
in mind what the washing lines are made of. foundations or where it is necessary to reach a greater depth
to find firm soil.
A washing line bears traction. However, it takes on a curved
or polygon form at those points along the line where clothes 62. Search the Internet for these famous bridges and
pegs transfer the weight of the clothes. This makes it similar to aqueducts. Explain what type of structure each one is
objects acted on by bending. As a cable, it deforms in order to and what materials they are made of.
bear traction and support the loads exerted on it.
❚ The Aqueduct in Segovia
58. Listen and write the structural elements you hear. ❚ The Roman bridge in Cordoba
a) Put them in the order they were used in history. ❚ The Rande Bridge in Vigo
b) Look at the photo. Which elements appear? ❚ The Barqueta Bridge in Sevilla
c) What type are they? ❚ The Madrid Viaduct
Beam, arch, shallow foundation, vault, lintel, triangulation, ❚ The San Pablo bridge in Cuenca
cable suspender, footing, pile.
Bridge / aqueduct Type Material
In chronological order: column, lintel, beam, footing, cable
suspender, arch, vault, triangulation, shallow foundation, pile. The Aqueduct in Segovia Arch Stone
The elements in the photo are: cable suspenders, which are The Roman bridge in Cordoba Arch Stone
acted on by traction. This is a suspended structure.
The Rande Bridge in Vigo Suspension Steel
59. What materials (wood, cement, stone or steel) are used
The Barqueta Bridge in Sevilla Suspension Steel
to make these structural elements: beam, suspenders,
a plinth, and a buttress? Keep in mind that there The Madrid Viaduct Arch Concrete
may be other reasons to use these elements, not just
The San Pablo bridge in Cuenca Triangular Iron
structural ones.
A beam can be made of steel, reinforced concrete and wood. 63. Read the following statements. Are they true or false?
It requires a material that supports bending. Give reasons for your answers.
A cable suspender: of the materials listed, this can only be a) Triangular bar structures can be made of stone.
made of steel. Steel resists bending effectively and can take

False. Stone does not support traction forces very effectively.
the form of wire or cable.
It does not behave well in thin pieces and they are difficult
A plinth: made of concrete, footing acts as an intermediary to join together.
layer between the ground and the structure. It is not necessary
b) S teel is used in solid structures.
to have high-resistance material as a large surface area will be
required so that the ground can bear the forces. Steel would 
False. Steel is too heavy and expensive to be used in mass
be expensive and less effective. structures. It is used in light structures such as triangular or
suspended ones.
Wood would rot once in contact with the ground. It could be
made of stone, but this is not a material that is currently used c) S uspenders are only used to make structures more
in footing. stable.
A buttress: needs to be made of a material that carries weight 
False. Cable suspenders can be used to give stability and
to the structure in order to counteract the pressures of the rigidity, or as independent structural elements in suspended
arches and domes. Stone or concrete would be suitable. structures.

30
 Structures CONSOLIDATION
Structures

d) P
 iles are thin columns used in small contructions. 66. Look at the bridge in this photo. It is made up of two

False. Piles are foundation systems that consist of very different structures. Identify them, name all the
underground bars that make it possible to reach firmer parts and say what type of stress each one bears. Do
ground or anchor the structure in the ground. you think the two parts of the bridge work the same?
Why?
64. Cut out three cardboard rectangles 10 x 30 cm. Fold This is a suspension bridge on the right, where there are
them lengthwise and make three sections: circular, cable suspenders which hold the deck to both sides of the
triangular and square. pillar. However, on the left part, the bridge is formed of two
a) If we put the same load on top of each section, for corbelled beams from the pillar that supports them. The key
example a pencil case, what type of stresses are they factor is the edge of the beam where it is not suspended. This
bearing? Does it have the same intensity in each shows that the beam works independently of the other part
case? of the bridge. An Internet search for the Dubrovnik Bridge will
show photos of its construction. These reveal how the two

Compression force. The intensity of the force will be the
parts were built independently before being put together.
same, since all of the sections have the same amount of
material. However, each will behave more effectively in
the direction in which they have most inertia. The circular EXTRA RESOURCES
section is even and has the same inertia in all directions –
AUDIO
and therefore the same resistance at the fold.
TALKING BOOK
b) Despite being made of the same amount of material, PDF
which do you think will bear the stress better? Why? CONCEPT MAP
COMPETENCE TEST

The sections that will offer best resistance are the square
EXTENSION WORKSHEET
and the triangle. These have weaker inertia in some
PRESENTATION
directions.
UNIT TESTS
65. Choose a piece of street furniture which is familiar INTERACTIVE ACTIVITIES
to you (a bench, a street light, a waste bin). Analyse
its form and structure. Present your assignment with
photos and illustrations.
Student’s own answer; follow the guidelines in the section
Analysis of structures.

31
 FINISHING THE FINAL TASK
Structures Structures

Building a bridge Below is a list of the key aspects of the task that will be part of the
assessment. The assessment itself will vary according to the type
The project will be more motivating if it is carried out in a workshop of students you have or your specific objectives.
and the information is distributed more widely. Students will put
more into it if the reports, videos or photos of their models are One possible template for assessing this project could be as
going to be displayed, for example on posters, in a blog, or on the follows:
Internet. Likewise, if it is possible, bring in people from outside the 0: Not achieved
class to look at the videos.
1: Achieved at a basic level
These people could be other students, teachers or people in the
industry. 2: A very good effort
3: Excellent

0 1 2 3
REPORT

Well-structured and with a clear index listing of the contents of the report.

Includes a description of the bridge which specifies the structural type.

Lists and explains the technical qualities of the bridge (length, width, weight, height, etc.).

Includes an explanation of the structural elements and their function.

Uses appropriate and clear terminology.

The language, writing style and organisation of the text are appropriate.

VIDEO

Contains an introduction to the project.

Includes an explanation of how the student carried out the project, the difficulties encountered and the way
these were resolved.

Includes a test of the bridge’s resistance at all points when adding weight until it collapses.

Students describe the conclusions of the project and carry out a self-assessment based on the objectives they
were set.

32
Structures OXFORD PROJECTS
Structures

Objectives, contents and methodologies of Oxford Projects

OBJECTIVES, CONTENTS AND METHODOLOGIES OF OXFORD PROJECTS

● Interactive activities. Creating and checking theories.

❍ Searching information online.

 Watching video.

❏ Image analysis.

■ Text analysis (newspaper and academic articles)

SECTIONS OBJECTIVES AND CONTENTS METHODOLOGIES

Structures Identify different structural elements: lintel, vault, flying buttresses, buttresses, pillar, arch
● ❍
and beam.

Concepts: lintel, vault, flying buttress, buttress, pillar, arch and beam

Types of stress Analyse the type of stress acting on a body. ● ❏

Analyse different types of stress. ●

Concepts: deformation, stress, types of stress: compression, traction, bending, cutting, torsion

Stress in bridges Analyse the types of stress acting on bridges. ●

Analyse the influence of certain factors on the stability of a bridge (existence of pillars,
●
length of bridge).

Concepts: analysis of stresses on bridges

Solutions in bridges Identify different types of bridges. ● 

Analyse the stability of a bridge according to its structural elements arch, suspenders,
triangulations, brace.
● 
Concepts: arch, suspenders, triangulations, brace suspension bridge

Project guide Identify the structural elements of a bridge. Find out logical order in which they must be
●
placed in position.

Analyse the stresses acting on a bridge. ●

33

Learning Outcomes
1.1. Distinguishes between
natural and man-made
structures.
1.2 Recognises the resistant
structure within buildings,
objects and everyday bodies.
1.3 Describes the typical
characteristics of the different
types of structures, their
advantages and disadvantages.
1.4 Recognises the main
structural typologies in
common objects and buildings.
2.1 Identifies the main
structural elements that are
present in buildings and
structures..
2.2 Knows the function of each
element within the whole of a
specific structure.
34
2.3 Imagines the characteristic
effort under which each
element of a structure is,
considering the action of
certain loads.
2.4 Associates the most
appropriate materials to
build the different structural
elements according to the
efforts under which they are
going to be.
3.1 Knows the relationship
between forces, loads, efforts
and deformation in the
structures.
3.2 Understands the difference
between the different types of
effort.
Excellent
Assessment Tools
3 2
3, 2 Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, providing
quite a few valid examples.
1, 4 Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, identifying
all the main elements and its
relations.
5 Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, identifying
all the main elements and its
relations.
14, 15, 22 Explains the concept in a clear
FT: 13 manner, proving quite a few
valid examples.
16, 34, 35, 37 Solves all the activities
FT: 8 correctly.
19, 33, 36 Explain the concepts in an
FT: 11, 12, 16, 17 appropriate way, identifying
all the main elements and its
relations.
13, 17, 18, 20, 21 Explain the concepts in an
FT: 15 appropriate way, identifying
all the main elements and its
relations.
23, 24, 38 Solves all the activities
FT: 9, 10, 14 correctly.
6, 7, Explain the concepts in an
FT: 1, appropriate way, identifying
all the main elements and its
relations.
8 Explain the concepts in an
FT:3, 4 appropriate way, identifying
all the main elements and its
relations.
Satisfactory
Explains the concept in an
incomplete way, providing
quite a few valid examples.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements and its relations.
Explains the concept in an
incomplete way, providing a
few valid examples.
Solves most of the activities
correctly, with mistakes in some
of them.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements and its relations.
Solves most of the activities
correctly, with mistakes in some
of them.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements and its relations.
In process
1 0
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, providing limited or
non-existent examples.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, providing limited or
non-existent examples.
Solves the activities but makes
mistakes in quite a few of
them.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements and its relations.
Solves the activities but makes
mistakes in quite a few of
them.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements and its relations.
Not achieved
Score
Answers in an erroneous
Structures
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
LEARNING
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
OUTCOMES RUBRIC
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Structures

Learning Outcomes
3.3 Associates the different
types of effort to the forces
they provoke and the
deformations they produce.
3.4 Recognises and provides
examples of everyday objects
which are under different types
of efforts.
3.5 Describes the transmission
of loads through the elements
of a structure.
4.1 Knows the conditions
which a structure must meet.
4.2 Defines the concepts of
stability, resistance and rigidity.
4.3 Recognises if a structure is
stable, resistant and rigid.
35
4.4 Dominates the resources
to get a structure to be stable,
rigid and resistant.
5.1 Experiments with everyday
materials to solve simple
structural problems.
5.2 Designs appropriate
structures to solve problems
with the assigned materials.
5.3 Builds structures which
solve simple problems.
Excellent
Assessment Tools
3 2
9, 10 Solves all the activities
FT: 6, 7 correctly.
11 Explain the concepts in an
FT: 2 appropriate way, providing
quite a few valid examples.
12 Explains the process in a clear
FT: 5 manner, identifying all the main
elements.
30 Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, identifying all
the main elements.
31 Solves all the activities
correctly.
25, 26, 27 Solves all the activities
correctly.
28, 29, 32 Explains the process in a clear
manner, identifying all the main
elements.
Project Understands the problem and
makes use of the appropriate
strategies to solve it correctly.
Project Understands the problem and
makes use of the appropriate
strategies to solve it correctly.
Project Understands the problem and
makes use of the appropriate
strategies to solve it correctly.
Satisfactory
Solves most of the activities
correctly, with mistakes in some
of them.
Explains the concept in an
incomplete way, providing
quite a few valid examples.
Explains the process in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements.
Solves most of the activities
correctly, with mistakes in some
of them.
Solves most of the activities
correctly, with mistakes in some
of them.
Explains the process in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements.
Understands the problem in an
incomplete though valid way
and uses strategies, most of
them appropriate, some other
not, to solve it.
Understands the problem in an
incomplete though valid way
and uses strategies, most of
them appropriate, some other
not, to solve it.
Understands the problem in an
incomplete though valid way
and uses strategies, most of
them appropriate, some other
not, to solve it.
In process
1 0
Solves the activities but makes
mistakes in quite a few of
them.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, providing limited or
non-existent examples.
Explains the process with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements.
Explains the concepts with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements.
Solves the activities but makes
mistakes in quite a few of
them.
Solves the activities but makes
mistakes in quite a few of
them.
Explains the process with
mistakes, identifying few of the
main elements.
Has difficulties to understand
the problem and does not
choose adequately the majority
of the strategies to solve it.
Has difficulties to understand
the problem and does not
choose adequately the majority
of the strategies to solve it.
Has difficulties to understand
the problem and does not
choose adequately the majority
of the strategies to solve it.
Not achieved
Score
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Answers in an erroneous
way or does not answer.
Structures
LEARNING OUTCOMES RUBRIC
 Excellent Satisfactory In process Not achieved
Learning Outcomes Assessment Tools Score
3 2 1 0
5.4 Analyses and verifies the Project Explains the process in a clear Explains the process in a valid Explains the process with Answers in an erroneous
Structures

behaviour of the structures they manner, identifying all the main but incomplete way, identifying mistakes, identifying few of the way or does not answer.
build. elements. quite a few of the main main elements.
elements.
LEARNING

5.5 Describes the
characteristics of the structure
and how they work.
Project Explain the concepts in an
appropriate way, identifying
all the main elements and its
relations.
Explains the concepts in a valid
but incomplete way, identifying
quite a few of the main
elements and its relations.
Explains the concepts with Answers in an erroneous
mistakes, identifying few of the way or does not answer.
main elements and its relations.
OUTCOMES RUBRIC

36
 UNITStructures
TEST A

1. Define the following stresses. Put the direction and 5. Draw the following elements: horseshoe arch, lintel,
path of the forces in the box and give an example. flying buttress and pilaster.

Stress Forces horseshoe arch lintel

Traction

Compression

Bending

Traction: a stress that appears when forces try to stretch the

body that they act on. Example: the rubber band of a catapult
flying buttress pilaster
Compression: a stress created by of two opposing forces that are
trying to crush the body. Example: a chair leg.
Bending: a stress that appears when two forces try to bend
the body that they act on. Example: a bed spring.
2. Complete the following table on structural elements
and their stresses (in the first row, the incorrect option
is crossed out).
Element Position Stress that it bears
Vertical / Traction /
Beam Horizontal / Bending / 6. Give five examples of loads that can act on the building
Slanting Compression you are in now. Say whether they are fixed or variable.
Pillar Vertical Compression
Load Type
Cable suspender Vertical / Slanting Traction
Buildings’ own weight and the weight of the
Plinth Horizontal Compression Fixed
walls.
Weight of the people who are inside the building
3. Complete the following sentences with the correct Variable
at a given time.
words.
Force of the wind on the external walls and roof. Variable
a) Structures that are not likely to move are called stable. Weight of the bathroom fittings and tiles. Fixed
b) We say that a structure is rigid when it doesn’t deform. Weight of the books and shelves in each
Variable
c) In order for a structure to be resistant, it must bear the classroom.
tension acting on it without breaking
7. Add bars to these structures to give them complete
d) Arches are made of pieces called arch stones; the central rigidity.
part is the keystone, and the side parts are the lateral arch
stones. The pieces of the arch are subject to compression
stress.
e) The foundations are the intermediate level between the
building and the ground.
f) The open space between the supports of a beam is called
span.
4. Write on the illustration the name of each element and
say what stress they can support
compression
bending

traction

8. Think about a soft drink can, a wooden boat and a

plane. What part of these objects make up its structure?
What loads do they have to bear?
bending
Soft drinks can: the entirety of the can is its structure. The
traction loads it bears are: the pressure of the liquid inside, the force
bending and of the hand that is holding it and the weight of other cans
compression stacked on top of it.

37
UNIT TEST A
Structures

Wooden boat: the structure is the frame of the boat. The

loads it bears are the force of the wind and the waves, the
weight of the rest of the boat and crew, and the weight of
the boat.
Plane: the structure is the fuselage. The loads that it bears
are the weight of its contents, the force of the wind and
the plane’s air speed, the weight of the wings and the
structure itself.
9. Design a structure of paper rods measuring 35 cm in
height which could hold 2 kg of weight at the top.
Draw it at a scale of 1:5.
Student’s own answer. Below is one possible design:

38
 UNITStructures
TEST B

1. Define in your own words the following structural 4. Name the different elements of this bridge, and say
elements. Draw a picture where necessary. what stress is acting on each.
Element Definition b
Domed element of the slabs which
Block reduces the weight of the slab by filling in
the spaces between joists.
Linear element normally made of steel,
Cable suspender a
and which bears traction forces. c
Underground pillar or column which can
Pile be driven to a sufficient depth so that it
d
rests on firmer soil.
Element that gives rigidity by using
Cross-bracing a. deck: bending
triangular structures.
Horizontal element that spans a door or b. cable suspenders: traction
Lintel
window space. It bears bending forces. c. pillar: compression
d. plinth: compression
2. Indicate whether the following statements are true or
false, and why. 5. Explain the differences between stability, resistance and
rigidity.
a) Cable suspenders use compression because that way
they never break. Stability is the property of bodies that are difficult to move;
resistance is associated with the capacity to bear stresses
False. Cable suspenders only offer resistance to traction.
 without breaking apart; rigidity is the capacity of the body to
This is their only way of working.. not lose its original shape under the action of these stresses.
b) A pile is a big-sized pillar. 6. Name the parts of a framed structure and explain the
False. A pile is a foundation system that involves driving
 shape and function of each.
underground pillars (of the necessary size) in order to rest
on firmer soil. Concrete slab: this is made of joists and blocks. It is on the
surface that separates each floor of a building. It is rigid and
c) Massive structures are made of metal. continuous, and transfers loads to the beams.
False. Solid structures are made of stone; metals are used in
 Beams: the concrete slab rests on these. They are horizontal
the form of bars to construct light structures. elements made of metal or concrete that bear bending forces,
d) Triangular structures can be made out of many and sit directly on pillars.
materials.
Pillars: these are vertical elements that transfer the loads to
True. They can be made of wood, steel or aluminium.
 the ground from floor to floor. They rest on the foundations.
e) Materials are much more important than the shape Foundations: these form an intermediary level between
when it comes to the resistance of structures. the pillars and the ground, and increase the surface of the
False. Both are equally important, as a good design saves
 building’s support base.
on materials. 7. Specify what type of structure the following buildings
3. Draw an arch, label its parts and explain why it was a are, and number them in order of their age.
structural advance.
Order
Arches represented a great structural advance. They made it Building Structural type
of age
possible to span spaces by bearing compression forces, and led
Structure with
to an increase in the size of the distances covered. Compression 4 The Eiffel Tower
triangular metal bars
forces are the ones most suited to stone – a material that has
been used since antiquity in building. The Segovia
2 Structure with arches
Aqueduct
key 5 your school Framed structure
1 The Keops Pyramid Solid structure
dovelas
3 Burgos Cathedral Domed structure

8. Draw arrows on the bars to show the various forces that

can affect them. Give an example of each.
kidneys

Torsion: Axle of a car when it is starting up; the shaft of a

screwdriver when it is tightening a screw

39
UNIT TEST B
Structures

9. Indicate which loads the following bodies are subjected

to, and say which part of them forms the structure: a
plastic cup, a construction crane and a table.
Traction: rubber band of a catapult
Object Structure Loads
The pressure of the liquid inside it
Plastic The whole of
and the force of the hand that is
cup the cup
holding it
Compression: table leg The weight of the crane that rises
Triangular above the counterweight and the
Crane
structure weight of the structure itself;
the force of the wind on the crane
Its own weight, the weight of the
The legs of
Table people it is supporting and the
the table
weight of the things placed upon it

10. Design a structure of paper rods which could hold 2 kg

of weight at the centre when placed between two
Bending: book shelf tables 40 cm apart. Draw it at a scale of 1:5.
45 cm

10 cm
40 cm

Cutting : scissors cutting paper

40