Writing Skills: Part 4: Study Unit

Study Unit
Writing Skills: Part 4
© PENN FOSTER, INC. 2016

INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
ASSIGNMENT 1: HOW TO PUT YOUR IDEAS IN ORDER 5

Types of Essays 5
Assessing Information 6
Sorting Out 7
Ordering Ideas 9
A Good Order for Ideas 10
Beginning and Ending 11
The Safe Order 13
Other Topics 14
ASSIGNMENT 2: HOW TO WRITE AN OUTLINE 19

Parts of a Division 21
Parallel Construction 22
ASSIGNMENT 3: HOW TO PUT YOUR IDEAS INTO WRITING 26

Outlines Aren’t for Reading 26
Using Descriptive Detail 26
Three Writing Guidelines 27
SUMMARY 32
KEY POINTS 33
WRITING SKILLS:
© PENN FOSTER, INC. 2016 PART 4 PAGE 1
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
NAVIGATING THIS COURSE
Your study materials are designed so that you can take ownership of your educational
goals and schedule and complete your coursework whenever and wherever you can. At
Penn Foster, you won’t study at the same pace as other students in the same program,
but you can reach out to your peers using the Community. Your study materials are bro-
ken down into small chunks that are easy to handle, and each section is tied directly to
the learning outcomes and objectives. Materials include summaries, reviews, self-checks,
and activities to help you master them!
You’ll find it easiest to study if you follow the plan outlined below.
1 Look over the contents page to get a general idea of what you’re going to learn
in this study unit.
2 Quickly read the pages in Assignment 1. This process is called skimming.
3 Return to the beginning of Assignment 1. This time read more closely and pay
careful attention to what you’re reading. Focus on main concepts and definitions.
4 Complete all exercises as you come to them and check your answers with
those provided.
5 When you finish reading Assignment 1, complete any exercises at the end of
the assignment. The exercises aren’t graded; they’re designed to help you test
yourself to make sure you understand what you’ve read.
6 Complete each assignment in this manner; then review the material in

preparation for the examination.
7 When you feel confident that you understand the material, complete the
examination for this study unit.
WRITING SKILLS:
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
COURSE MATERIALS
Your Written Communication course includes the materials listed below.
O This study unit, Writing Skills, Part 4 which includes
All of your assigned readings
Self-checks
and other exercises that allow you to measure how well you
understand your course material
O The study units Writing Skills, Parts 1, 2, 3, and 5 and one graded project
O An introductory video that gives an overview of what you’ll learn in this course
WRITING SKILLS:
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
UNIT OBJECTIVES
What will you get from this study unit?
This study unit is intended to help you make the transition from asking questions and
gathering information to writing a research paper. It begins with a discussion of how to
effectively sort and order ideas obtained from research, which is important to the outlining
process. The unit explains different types of outlines and how to transition your thoughts
from an outline to paragraph form. Finally, this unit will provide you with many of the tools
you’ll need to complete future research projects.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to
1 Outline the process of writing a research paper
WRITING SKILLS:
Introduction
ASSIGNMENT 1
HOW TO PUT YOUR

IDEAS IN ORDER
ASSIGNMENT OBJECTIVES
When you complete Assignment 1, you’ll be able to
1. Order your ideas for writing
As you learned in your last study unit, whether you’re writing an essay for school or a
report for your job, your writing process will be easier and your communication more
effective if you plan before beginning to write. As was introduced in the previous study
unit, planning a writing project is ultimately a five-step process:
1. Choosing a topic
2. Conducting research
3. Taking notes
4. Organizing notes
5. Preparing an outline
In the previous unit, we discussed when and how to conduct research and how to take
notes; in this study unit, we’ll discuss how to organize your notes and prepare an effec-
tive outline. To recap, the term research refers to finding the information that you need to
complete a writing project. Once you choose a topic and then find the information you’re
looking for, you should make notes about it (including where it was found). Then you
arrange those notes in a logical order. Finally, you write down the order of those notes
to create an outline. That’s the entire five-step process for preparing to write. It can work
for you (or any author, for that matter) if you carefully read and adopt the techniques
described.
TYPES OF ESSAYS
As you prepare to organize a paper, it’s a good idea to verify the assignment require-
ments once more. Be sure you know the kind of paper you need to write, who the
audience is, whether you should use first or third person, how long the paper must be,
and any other critical information. Typically, you’ll be writing one of four types of essays.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
DESCRIPTIVE ESSAY
In this type of essay, you’ll simply describe something, often as part of a creative exer-
cise. It’s informal, usually written in the first person, and relies on sensory and feeling
words to communicate your ideas. Planning for a descriptive essay often involves brain-
storming ideas around a topic, then giving them a loose arrangement that will help you
capture your main point and give structure to your writing.
NARRATIVE ESSAY
This type of essay typically asks you to relate a logically ordered story in the first person,
such as for a book report. Or—say as part of a creative writing class—you might write it
in the voice of a character from a short story. The intention with a narrative essay is to
describe something that happened and say something about it that expresses your reac-
tion or your understanding of its importance. As with any story, the essay should have a
point, or thesis, and it should include a clear beginning, middle, and end.
EXPOSITORY ESSAY
This type of essay is used to examine an idea, evaluate and present evidence about it,
and support your presentation with an argument. You’ll typically write it in the third per-
son. The essay should include a strong thesis statement, traditionally near the end of the
first paragraph, while the body of the paper supports this thesis with evidence. Expository
writing provides clear transitions from idea to idea, forming a logical progression toward
your conclusion. This conclusion should expand upon your thesis by referring to the evi-
dence you presented without introducing new evidence. To put it more concisely: State
your evidence in the introduction, back it up in the body, and summarize everything in the
conclusion.
PERSUASIVE ESSAY
Also called an argument essay, this type is similar to the expository essay in that you
investigate a topic and present evidence about it. However, in a persuasive essay, you
take a clear stand for or against the topic. Even though you’ll generally write this type of
essay in the third person, your opinion will become clear by the assertion you make in
your thesis and how you present your evidence and conclusion. Your goal is to make the
reader understand your point of view using facts and argument, even if the reader doesn’t
agree with your opinion.
ASSESSING INFORMATION
In the quest for information on the social media project discussed in Writing Skills, Part
3, you’ve used your own experience and that of others, and you’ve done research in the
library to find more information. You determined that your assignment is to write at least
a 2,000-word persuasive essay. But you still aren’t quite ready to begin writing. You’ll first
need to assess your information, sort out your ideas, and put them in order.
Let’s take a look at the information you’ve accumulated. What ideas and observations do
you now possess on the pros and cons of social media use?
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
Here’s what you have:
1. Exact quotes from the “About Us” and “Privacy” statements of 15 social media sites
that you’ve visited
2. A list of social media sites that offer the best free games
3. Statistics on the numbers of people that use various social media sites
4. Interview material from
a. One friend who dislikes social media because she has been cyberstalked
b. Another friend who pays no attention to social media, but dislikes it

anyway
c. An aunt who is grateful for social media because it helps her keep track of
her family
d. A cousin who knows of a family that received disaster help when an article
about them went viral on social media
5. Evidence that certain social media is helpful in gathering information in real time
6. The observation that people who constantly check their social media accounts are
irritating
7. The facts that social media
a. Sites don’t always offer protection against cyberbullying
b. Makes it possible for people to keep in touch over long distances
c. Introduces people to new ideas
d. Has become a valuable part of our economic system
8. A statement that social media can change lives
Altogether, this looks like an excellent collection of ideas on social media. You’ll need to
sort out the ideas and see what you get.
SORTING OUT
First of all, find those ideas that don’t belong. Look at each item on the list and see
whether or not it fits your topic. There are two that clearly don’t fit: 2 and 4(b). Number
2 is a statistic on sites with free games. Number 4(b) is an opinion from someone who
doesn’t pay attention to social media. Cross 2 and 4(b) out.
Now sort the ideas you have left. To do this, go through your list and look for items that
belong together. Some of your ideas are only different ways of saying the same thing.
Some are big ideas for which other smaller ideas are only examples or illustrations.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
To sort out your ideas, you need one main idea for each group; the others, if there are
any left over, will function as your examples, illustrations, or details.
Here’s one outline that might work:
I. Some social media sites are disliked.
A. There are quite a few social media sites that you dislike.
B. Pop-up ads that constantly interrupt use of a site are annoying.
II. Some social media sites are liked.
A. There are a few social media sites that you like.
B. Free sites that connect friends and family members over long distances
are useful.
III. Social media sites sometimes encourage poor judgment and bad behavior.
A. People checking their social media accounts constantly is annoying.
B. Some sites offer little protection against cyberbullies.
IV. You studied general facts.
A. Social media introduces people to new ideas.
B. Social media is a valuable part of our economic system.
C. Social media is helpful for finding information in real time.
V. Social media has value.
A. It brings people together.
B. It can change lives.
C. It can help people.
VI. Social media contains abuses.
A. It allows privacy violations.
B. It doesn’t do enough to halt cyberbullying or cyberstalking.
VII. Social media can be compared with other forms of socializing.
A. It can be compared with face-to-face socializing.
B. It can be compared with socializing by letter or telephone.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
Take a look at how your ideas have been sorted. You now have seven groups instead of
14 single ideas. These seven groups, indicated by Roman numerals, are subdivided into
smaller units. These subdivisions, known as subtopics, are indented and have capital
letters rather than figures in front. Note that each subtopic in the outline is a complete
sentence. This type of outline is called a sentence outline. A second type of outline, using
words and phrases instead of sentences, will be discussed later.
ORDERING IDEAS
Now that your ideas are sorted out, you can put them in order. This is the most important
part of your writing project. It’s the putting-in-order that will help you mentally form what
you’re going to write and develop your thesis statement. It’s the putting-in-order that
makes people laugh at a joke, cry at a movie, or cheer after a speech.
Your seven groups of ideas on the pros and cons of social media aren’t in order. If you
followed that list in your writing, your readers would never understand what you were
driving at. They need your help. They’ll never get where you want them to go unless you
lead them there step by step.
There are no foolproof rules for putting your ideas in order. There are hundreds of differ-
ent ways to prepare a meal, and all of them will work if you’re a gifted cook. But there are
traditional ways and widely known recipes that are safe even for inexperienced cooks
(Figure 1). As you continue reading, you’ll learn a safe method for putting your ideas in
order.
FIGURE 1—Creating a composition

can be like cooking a meal. It re-
quires preparation.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
A GOOD ORDER FOR IDEAS
First of all, be sure of your point of view. You can’t cover everything you know about your
topic. It would take too much time and would make your writing cumbersome and dull.
Rather, choose a point of view—the position from which you’ll look at your subject. This is
another aspect of point of view, in addition to knowing whether you’ll write in first or third
person. Once you’ve found an appropriate point of view, you’ll know which parts of your
subject to discuss, as well as which to skip, and you’ll see a natural order emerge for
what you want to say (Figure 2).
FIGURE 2—A subject is like a crystal,

with many facets seen from different
points of view. Choose one point of
view and stick with it.
In this example, let’s say your chosen point of view is against social media. You can skip
everything except a discussion of whether using social media is good or bad, and you
can divide what you write into two main parts: arguments for social media and arguments
against it. You may ask yourself, “Why show the other side?” To present an effective
argument, a writer must not only defend one side, but refute the other (show why it’s
wrong), while recognizing that the other side does have a case (even if it’s wrong in the
long run).
When you’ve chosen your point of view, you should start to prepare your thesis state-
ment. The thesis statement is perhaps the most important element of any written work;
the sooner you begin to narrow your topic to a specific statement, the easier it will
become to order your ideas. Remember, a thesis declares the main idea of the entire
paper. It should be concise, summarizing your point in one clear sentence.
At this point, you may not have refined your statement, but you should be able to commu-
nicate the main idea in a sentence. In this example, your thesis might begin as, “Social
media does more harm than good.” This won’t be your final statement because it doesn’t
yet have enough information to support the point of view. However, it can serve as a
foundation to order your ideas around.
Next, you’ll decide the order you want to follow. You might present the case for social
media first and the case against it (the side you’re on) afterward. Or you might start off
with your own side, then show what the arguments are on the other side, and wind up by
showing why your arguments are stronger than those of the opposition.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
Naturally, you could write about social media from many other points of view, too. You
could write about its history. You could discuss the opportunities it offers for someone
who’s looking for a job. Or you could write about how it helps some people and how it
hurts others. In each case, your point of view would lead you to a different side of the
subject and to a different order in writing about it.
Once you’ve determined the best order for the structure of your paper, look at your list of
groups of ideas and see how they fit into that order. In the social media example, you’ll
find that you can create a section against social media using Group I (disliked some
sites), Group VI (social media abuses), and Group III (Social media sites sometimes
encourage poor judgment and bad behavior.). The second section, for social media, will
consist of Group II (liked some sites) and Group V (value of social media).
Now you know the two main sections of what you’re going to write. You’ve planned the
largest part of your piece of writing, and you know what will go into it and in what order.
What’s next?
Remember that you can’t expect your readers to know as much as you do about the sub-
ject. You’ve thought it out, and you’ve just spent some time digging up information about
it; you have advantages that your audience does not. Therefore, before you discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of social media, you should give your readers something
that will help them understand what will follow—the general idea, the background, and
the definition of what you’re talking about. You’ll need to define and describe social media
so that your audience understands what you’re talking about. This is where you can use
Group IV of your outline (social media facts) and Group VII (social media use versus
other forms of socializing).
If your subject was different, your introduction to the subject would be different, of course.
When your subject is a person, you can tell about his or her background and youth. When
you write about a problem, you might explain how it came about. When you describe an
event, you can discuss what happened in general. This introductory material is necessary
before you go into details.
BEGINNING AND ENDING

Now you’ve planned the main part (the body) and the section that leads up to it. There
are two more missing elements that must be planned: the beginning and the ending.
These are also known as the introduction and the conclusion.
The beginning (introduction) leads the reader into the subject; therefore, it should be
carefully planned. It should arouse the reader’s curiosity and interest. The beginning
needs a hook—an interesting idea that will make the reader take notice and want to
read on.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
What would be a good beginning for your argument against social media? How about a
convincing comparison that everyone can understand?
Imagine that you’re having a party at your house. Everybody is having a won-
derful time. However, every 10 minutes or so, the party completely stops for
two minutes while guests check their social media accounts on their phones or
laptops. Before long, there won’t be any party, because no one will be paying
attention to anything but his or her device.
This opening might work for a persuasive essay as a somewhat exaggerated scenario
of what happens multiple times every day, when people ignore who they’re with to check
their virtual connections.
You can also begin your writing with an anecdote, a startling incident, or a striking detail.
For example, a vivid description of a particular event influenced or caused by social
media, such as a cyberstalking incident, can serve as a startling beginning. Since you’ll
want this type of beginning to ring a bell in readers’ minds, you’ll want to use an occur-
rence that they’re likely to recognize, one that almost everybody has heard of or seen.
Since you’ll also want this to be an example of harmful use of social media—making your
main point right at the start—use one that’s particularly frightening. Look over your notes
and pick the one that fits best. That’s your most effective start.
Next you’ll want to provide basic information, such as a definition or statistics about the
prevalence of social media use. You’re moving toward your main point—your thesis—in
which you’ll express your opinion based on the evidence you’ve gathered. Your thesis
now might become:
Social media use is harmful because (a) people use it to avoid face-to-face
interaction and (b) sites don’t provide enough privacy protection; this lack of pro-
tection may lead to cyberbullying or cyberstalking incidents, with little help offered
to victims of online attacks.
The ending (conclusion) is equally important. It determines what will stay in readers’
minds after they’ve finished reading your work. Therefore, the ending should serve as a
strong summary of your ideas. In it, your overall message should stand out.
There are several ways to write an ending. Two common ways include
1. Simply stating your overall message, including an expansion on your thesis.
Although social media can serve some useful purposes, it must be used vigi-
lantly. If people fail to interact with one another face-to-face, they will eventually
damage their ability to connect with one another, which could lead to problems
with social anxiety and other mental health issues. If social media sites fail to
implement stronger privacy restrictions and controls that address issues of
cyberbullying and cyberstalking, these sites may face lawsuits that will hold them
responsible for tragic events.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
2. Referring to an idea mentioned in the beginning or middle of your writing. (Tie
this idea in with your overall message—again, including an expansion upon your
thesis.)
Social media can serve some useful purposes. However, people should use it
cautiously; social media shouldn’t replace their face-to-face relationships. Like
the guests who ruined the party by constantly checking their devices, an excess
use of social media can ruin our societal interaction.
THE SAFE ORDER

When you put your plan together, the sections of your writing will fall into this order:
1. A hook to catch readers’ interest
2. The general idea, introduction, or background of your subject, including your thesis
statement
3. The main body of your piece of writing, divided into two or three sections (depend-
ing on your point of view)
4. The ending or conclusion (a brief summary that expands upon your thesis)
This order can be used for any topic, but the outline in Figure 3 shows in detail how this
plan would work out for the piece on social media. Notice that the topic ideas are written
in phrases rather than in complete sentences. This type of outline is called a topic outline.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
The Case Against Social Media Use:
I. Vivid description of an infamous cyberstalking case that ended in homicide
II. Explanation of social media
A. Definition
B. Statistics on social media use
III. Thesis: The harmfulness of social media
A. People avoid interacting face to face
B. Not enough privacy protection
C. Lack of protection: cyberbullying or cyberstalking
IV. Points for social media
A. Brings people together over long distances
B. Lets people access information in real time
C. Helps people (family after fire)
V. Points against social media
A. Changes how people interact face to face
B. Lack of privacy restrictions/controls
C. Lack of help for victims of cyberbullying/cyberstalking
VI. Summary of case against social media; referral to cyberstalking homicide
FIGURE 3—This is a topic outline.
OTHER TOPICS
You can use this safe order for almost anything you write.
Let’s look at another example.
Suppose you want to write an expository essay about skiing. You might put your ideas in
this order:
1. Vivid description of your last time on skis (Catch the reader’s attention.)
2. How skiing became an American sport (Fill in the background.)
3. The pleasures of skiing (Make the first part of your main argument or the beginning
of your thesis.)
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
4. The dangers of skiing (Present the other side of the main argument or the second
point of your thesis.)
5. Why skiing is a favorite sport for many (Repeat your point of view.)
Practically every subject can be written in this safe order. Keep in mind that once you’ve
put your ideas in order, writing becomes easier.
Just remember the following checklist of points:
1. When you’ve collected your ideas, make a list of them.
2. Sort your ideas into groups. Leave out any ideas that don’t belong.
3. Create a basic thesis that will serve as a placeholder for your main idea.
4. Put your ideas in order. A good order is this:
O A hook for your reader
O Information about your subject in general
O Main point or thesis
O Main body of your piece of writing, divided according to your point of view
O Summary of your main idea, including an expansion on your thesis
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
ASSIGNMENT 1
SELF-CHECK
At the end of each section of Writing Skills, Part 4, you’ll be asked to pause
and check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Self-
Check” exercise. Answering these questions will help you review what you’ve
studied so far. Please complete Assignment Self-Check 1 now.
Answer the following questions.
1. Name the five steps of the process that is commonly used for planning a
writing project.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. Explain the difference between a topic outline and a sentence outline.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. Every essay should begin with a hook to catch the reader’s attention. Name
three different ways you can begin your introduction in order to hook the reader.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What is the safe order for writing an essay?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Click here to check your answers.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
ASSIGNMENT 1
VOCABULARY EXERCISE
Throughout this study unit, you’ll encounter different vocabulary exercises.
Add these words to your vocabulary notebook (or even a document on your
computer) that you started while completing the Writing Skills, Part 2 study
unit. You may use a dictionary when completing these exercises.
1–10: Match each of the adjectives on the left with its definition on the right.
You may use a dictionary.
�� 1. redundant a. brought together to form a unit or a coherent whole
�� 2. authentic b. closely united
c. logical and well-organized; easy to understand

�� 3. coherent
d. causing someone to feel hurt, angry, or upset; rude
�� 4. unified
e. something repeated and unnecessary; specifically
�� 5. awkward using more words than necessary
�� 6. cohesive f. g
iven to wordiness; using more words than are
needed
�� 7. verbose
g. able to be believed; reasonable to trust or believe
�� 8. chronological h. real or genuine; not copied or false
�� 9. offensive i. arranged in the order of time or the order that things
happened
�� 10. credible
j. lacking grace, skill, or dexterity
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
ASSIGNMENT 1
WRITING ACTIVITY
Based on what you know about writing an introduction, offer an introductory para-
graph for one of the following topic sentences:
O Russia is the greatest threat to the United States and its allies.
O My dream job would be in the field of medicine, specifically as a pediatrician.
O Dissent in the Middle East is a contributing factor to global unrest.
O The healthcare industry has a high number of job openings for a variety of
positions.
O The most fascinating career path for me begins with a degree in education.
O The American economy remains unstable.
Or if you’ve chosen a topic for your research paper based on the information pre-
sented at the end of Writing Skills, Part 3, take this time to create an introduction for
that topic.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 1
ASSIGNMENT 2
HOW TO WRITE AN
OUTLINE
2. Create an outline
During the planning process of “The Case Against Social Media Use,” you looked at two
different kinds of outlines. In the sentence outline, each entry is written in sentence form.
In the topic outline, each entry is in the form of a phrase or a single word instead of a
sentence. Regardless of which type of outline you use, you’ll arrange and rearrange your
ideas in the same way.
The sentence outline has one disadvantage: it forces you to think out each entry with
great care before it can even be written down. This can be time-consuming and can
cause the final outline to be rather lengthy. Many people prefer the more compact topic
outline.
Following is an example of a topic outline in which most topics are composed of phrases.
A topic outline may have all single words, all phrases, or a mixture of words and phrases.
As you read through the outline, pay attention to both the content and the form. Notice,
for example, that the subtopics under a main topic are indented (moved to the right).
Subdivisions of these subtopics are indented even farther.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 2
Should We Buy a House? (Statement of Subject)
I. Reasons for desiring a place of our own (Main Topic)
A. Freedom (Subtopic)
1. To move about as we please, day or night (Subdivision)
2. To alter or decorate as we like
B. Place for a garden and a garage
C. Regulation of heat and hot water
II. Advantages of owning
A. Becomes a financial asset
B. Sense of accomplishment
III. Advantages of renting
A. Less work and responsibility
B. Small initial outlay
IV. Conclusion
Notice that the first step in the outline is the statement of subject. Your idea of your sub-
ject should be so clear in your mind that you can express it in one phrase or sentence. If
you can’t, perhaps you haven’t narrowed your subject enough or you haven’t thought it
through carefully enough.
For example, suppose you decide to write about your favorite sport, and that sport is ice
hockey. You may find so much material that you don’t know where to begin. However,
if you think about one aspect of ice hockey that interests you (for example, the brutal-
ity associated with it), you’ll start to narrow the subject. Perhaps you can think about it
some more and narrow the subject further to “What can be done about the brutality in ice
hockey?” With a little more thought, you can make a specific statement of your subject
(Figure 4).
FIGURE 4—If you choose to write

about a favorite topic, such as ice
hockey, focus on one aspect of the
topic.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 2
After the statement of subject, a topic outline follows this format:
O Roman numerals (I., II., III.) label main topics or headings.
O Capital letters (A, B, C) designate each subtopic or subheading.
O Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) indicate subdivisions under the subtopics
The first word of each outline division, whether it’s a main topic, a subtopic, or a subdivi-
sion, begins with a capital letter. Other words in each division begin with lowercase letters
unless they’re words that would normally be capitalized (proper nouns). Headings that
are on the same level—I., II., III.; A, B, C; or 1, 2, 3—are called coordinate headings.
PARTS OF A DIVISION
When creating subheadings and subdivisions, it’s important to do it the right way. When
anything is divided, it contains at least two parts. Thus, when a main division is divided, it
must be divided into at least two subdivisions. It can’t contain only one part. Every main
heading should have at least two subheadings or none at all.
When a subheading is divided, it also should have at least two subdivisions, as in Section
III. A in Figure 5. Notice the correct and incorrect methods of division in the example.
Correct Incorrect
I. I.
II. II.
A. A.
B. III.
III. A.
A. 1.
1.
2.
B.
FIGURE 5—When a main division is divided, it must be divided into at least two subdivi-
sions. When a subdivision is divided, it also should have at least two subdivisions.
Often, a writer may forget the correct method of division and include only one item in a
subheading or subdivision. Remember: You can’t have an A without a B, and you can’t
have a 1 without a 2.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 2
PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION
Another common mistake made when writing outlines involves like headings (coordinate
headings). Like headings are easier to understand when written in parallel grammatical
construction. Parallel construction means that the grammatical construction (when the
verb tense agrees) used in one heading should be used in all other similar headings
throughout the outline. Correct and incorrect constructions are shown in Figure 6.
Correct Incorrect
I. How to analyze market I. How to analyze market
II. How to develop market II. Developing market
A Promoting sales A. Promoting sales
B.Choosing retail accounts B. Hold pointers’ meeting
FIGURE 6— Parallel construction means that the grammatical construction used in one
heading should be used in all other similar headings throughout the outline.
Notice that the like headings in the correct outline have the same type of grammatical
construction. The headings “How to analyze market” and “How to develop market” both
start with “How to.” All the subheadings start with the “-ing” verb form.
The like headings in the incorrect example, on the other hand, don’t have similar con-
struction. Heading I. starts with a “How to” and Heading II. starts with an “-ing” verb. The
subheadings show two different kinds of construction. Comparing the two outlines, can
you see why grammatical constructions that aren’t similar can lead to confusion for a
reader?
Parallel construction is important not only in outlines, but in all writing—especially in

more formal writing. Therefore, you should make a point to be aware of it; however, you
shouldn’t let it control your organizing process. In the early stages of your planning, it’s
better to be “nonparallel” than to be unable to express an idea.
The completed outline includes a statement of your subject, as well as the main topics
and subtopics to be discussed in your writing. The relationships of the topics to each
other are indicated by numbers and indentation. You should use the outline as a prelim-
inary sketch, but you shouldn’t hesitate to revise the order of your outline or to add or
subtract from it. Remember that the outline is a working guide and should be used as
such. You aren’t obligated to blindly follow an outline that isn’t working out.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 2
ASSIGNMENT 2
SELF-CHECK
Answer each of the following questions.
1. What is the disadvantage to using a sentence outline?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What is the first part of any outline?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What is parallel grammatical construction? Why is it important?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Match each of the following terms with its role in an outline.
�� 4. Roman numerals a. subdivisions
�� 5. Capital letters b. main headings
�� 6. Arabic numerals c. coordinate headings
�� 7. Headings on the same level d. subheadings

WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 2
ASSIGNMENT 2
VOCABULARY EXERCISE
1–5: Match each of the adjectives on the left with its definition on the right.
Indicate your choices in the spaces provided. You may use a dictionary.
�� 1. parenthetical a. proven by written evidence
�� 2. reliable b. free from mistakes or errors
c. explaining or qualifying something, possibly as

�� 3. documented
an aside
�� 4. standardized d. changed to conform to rules about what is
proper and acceptable
�� 5. accurate
e. able to be trusted
6–10: Match each of the nouns on the left with its definition on the right.
�� 6. sequence f. the situation in which something happens; the

group of conditions that exist where and when
�� 7. clarity something happens
�� 8. repetition g. the order in which things happen or should

happen; a group of things that come one after
�� 9. context the other
�� 10. disposition h. something that is done or said again and again
i. the quality of being easily expressed, remem-

bered, or understood
j. a tendency to act or think in a particular way
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 2
ASSIGNMENT 2
WRITING ACTIVITY
Using an Outline
1. Arrange the following points to construct a topic outline:
Statement of subject: Certain skills are required for success in college.

Will help earn good grades
Study skills
Using time wisely
Conclusion
Dedication to various subjects
Ability to communicate in writing
Time management skills
Interpersonal skills
Willingness to learn
Making friends
Skills required in college
Allowing time to study and time to socialize
Ability to follow directions
Skills required in college
Study partners
Writing skills
2. Now turn your topic outline into a sentence outline.

WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 2
ASSIGNMENT 3
HOW TO PUT YOUR

IDEAS INTO WRITING
3. Put your ideas into writing
With your ideas in an acceptable order and written in a proper outline, you’ve reached the
point at which you can begin writing. If it’s a simple piece of writing, you should note that
you’ve done everything up to this point in your mind: You’ve planned what you’re going to
say, you’ve thought of ideas to use, and you’ve decided in what order to use those ideas.
If it’s a longer piece of writing—like the example about social media—you’ve gathered
ideas from a number of sources, made notes about those ideas, and drawn up a list of
them. From that list of ideas, you’ve prepared an organized outline from which you can
continue to work.
Now it’s time for the writing to start. You’ll take the ideas you’ve outlined in your mind, or
the outline and the notes you have on paper, and begin writing.
OUTLINES AREN’T FOR READING

The most important difference between your outline or notes and something that’s fit to
read is simple: Your outline and your notes tell the story in too much of a hurry. You need
to say enough about each of your ideas to make them all stick in the minds of your read-
ers. The bare statement will never be enough; you must paint word pictures with facts
and details that your readers will remember. Take your time. Your outline is something
like a timetable—a plan for a trip. Now you’ll take the trip—do the actual writing. Tell the
readers enough about each stop along the way to make them feel as if they had gone on
the trip with you.
USING DESCRIPTIVE DETAIL

Suppose you’ve recently moved to another town and are writing a letter to one of your old
friends back home. Naturally, you’ll want to write about the trip, the new town, the new
place where you work, and the new house in which you live.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 3
You have to make your friend see the house; you have to lead him or her through it in
your letter and show the details of each room. Here’s an example of what you might write:
Our house is a typical colonial, white with green shutters. It sits back a little from
the road and has a nice front yard with two big, old maple trees.
When you come in the front door, you step into a small hall where you’ll see the
stairs leading to the second floor right in front of you. There are glass doors to
the right and left, and you get glimpses of the living room to your right and the
dining room to your left. The living room is shaped like an “L,” and it hugs the
front porch. The dining room has hardwood floors and leads to the kitchen. The
kitchen has newer countertops and appliances; it’s located in the back of the
house.
Describing something is relatively simple. Think of all the things to see, and present
them in the natural order in which you would look at them. Be sure you give the readers
enough details to form a picture in their minds. Also, be sure you arrange the details in
some order that can be easily followed.
The sort of disorganization seen in the following paragraph will quickly confuse a reader:
Our house is fine, except for the kitchen, which is much too small for our family.
It’s only 10 minutes from Main Street. The living room is shaped like an “L,” and
there are two big, old maple trees in the front yard.
Last night we sat under those trees and scanned the sky for falling stars.
For the sake of clarity, stick to things the reader can sense. Try not to get sidetracked.
Your friend will be puzzled if you get off the subject, and the message you’re trying to
convey will be lost.
THREE WRITING GUIDELINES

From the preceding section, we can extract three main guidelines for writing:
1. Use enough details.
2. Follow a natural order.
3. Stick to your subject.
These guidelines apply not only to descriptions, but to every kind of writing. If you want
to tell a story, you’ll need to tell the reader exactly what happened, from beginning to
end, and nothing else. Following these three guidelines isn’t always easy, particularly if
you want to give your reader directions. Giving directions for a particular task means you
have to tell your reader how something happens in such a way that he or she can make it
happen.
Take, for example, a simple process like tying a bow tie. How would you go about
explaining it?
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 3
Try something like this:
To tie a bow tie, knot the ends of the tie in a bow and pull them nice and even.
You can see that this won’t do. Try again.
Take the right end and loop it over the left end. Before you do this, make sure the
right end is an inch or two longer than the left end. Naturally, you should do this in
front of a mirror.
This description is better, but the order is still all wrong.
Begin at the beginning:
Stand before a mirror. Put the bow tie under your collar. Pull the right end so that
it’s an inch or two longer than the left end. Up to this point, the process is the
same as for tying any other tie. But after this, a bow tie is more difficult to tie than
an ordinary necktie.
This is a good start, but you’re getting off your subject. Try again, remembering the three
simple guidelines. You still may not find it easy to give good directions, but you can do it
if you go through the whole process step by step in your own mind before writing. Then
write it exactly as you would do it yourself, one step after the other, like this:
Stand before a mirror. Put the bow tie under your collar. Pull the right end so
that it’s an inch or two longer than the left end. Now take the right end with your
right hand and loop it over the left end. Pull it up inside and then cross it, so that
it hangs again on the right side. Pull tight. Now both ends should be about the
same length.
Next, with your right hand, make the wide part of the right end into a loop, holding
the two narrow parts between your thumb and your index finger. Take the left end
with your left hand, put it over the right end, and push the wide part through the
loop between your right hand and your neck. Pull tight. Then adjust the loops and
ends to the same length.
Now you’ve listed the steps in the correct order, and you’ve stuck to the subject of bow
tying. Most importantly, you’ve explained the process so that your reader can follow your
directions.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 3
Other common techniques that you can use to
follow a natural order include spatial order, chrono-
logical order, order of importance, and order of
comparison and contrast.
Spatial order. Use to describe how items are arranged in
location to one another or in relationship to one another,
such as landmarks on a map or furniture in a room.
Chronological order. Use to demonstrate the order of
events in a story or the order of steps when describing how
to perform a task.
Order of importance. Use to show importance from most
to least important when relaying information quickly, such
as in a newspaper article. Start with the least important and
progress to the most important information when building a
persuasive argument or creating a sense of drama.
Order of comparison and contrast. Use to highlight simi-
larities and differences among items. You can group all the
important points about one item together in a paragraph fol-
lowed by all the important points of the other item in its own
separate paragraph. Alternatively, you can introduce one
point about the first item and contrast it with a point about
the second item in the same paragraph, then start another
paragraph that follows the same pattern to address the
remaining points. Remember to use points that make sense
or “go together” when you’re comparing and contrasting them.
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 3
ASSIGNMENT 3
SELF-CHECK
1. What are the three main guidelines for writing?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What is the purpose of an outline?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. As an author, how should you best use description so that it benefits your
readers?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 3
ASSIGNMENT 3
VOCABULARY EXERCISE
1–10: Match each of the verbs on the left with its definition on the right.
�� 1. manifest a. to say something that someone else has said or

written using different words
�� 2. coordinate
b. to make something evident or certain by showing or
�� 3. assert displaying it
�� 4. refute c. to do, say, or offer something (such as a guess or

an opinion) even though you are not absolutely sure
�� 5. venture about it
�� 6. ascertain d. to argue or state something in a strong and definite

way
�� 7. paraphrase
e. to state something in a strong and definite way
_____ � 8. establish
f. to begin or create something; to cause (someone or
�� 9. intend something) to be widely known and accepted
�� 10. contend g. to say in reply; to answer (as an argument) by a

counter argument
�� 11. constitute
h. to prove something wrong by argument or evidence
�� 12. retort
i. to make up or form something
j. to find out or learn something with certainty
k. to cause (two or more things) to be the same or to

go together well; to prevent (two or more things)
from contradicting one another
l. to plan or want to do something; to have a particular

thing in your mind as a purpose or goal
WRITING SKILLS:
Assignment 3
WRITING SKILLS: PART 4
SUMMARY
You’ve just completed a thorough overview of the process involved in writing a research
paper. By now, you should know how to gather, sort, and order your ideas. You should
be able to use those ideas to develop a thesis and to form a coherent and well-structured
outline. You should be able to carry your ideas over from an outline into an essay, includ-
ing both personal opinion and research.
After reviewing the material in this study unit, complete the multiple-choice examination.
WRITING SKILLS:
Summary
WRITING SKILLS PART 4
KEY POINTS
O Planninga writing project is a five-step process: (1) choosing a topic (2) conducting
research, (3) taking notes, (4) organizing notes, and (5) preparing an outline.
O When each topic in an outline is a phrase rather than a complete sentence, it’s
referred to as a topic outline. When each topic in an outline is a complete sentence,
it’s referred to as a sentence outline.
O There’s a safe order that can be used for any essay topic: (1) hook the reader, (2)
list the general idea or background, (3) present your thesis (4) write the main body,
divide into two or three sections, and (5) end with a summary.
O A completed outline includes a statement of subject, main topics, and subtopics; the
relationships of the topics to one another are indicated by numbers and indentation.
O The outline is a working guide and can be changed at any time.
O An outline isn’t meant to be read; it’s a guide to assist you in writing your paper.
O Thereare three main guidelines for writing: (1) use enough details, (2) follow a
natural order, and (3) stick to your subject.
WRITING SKILLS:
Key Points

Writing Skills: Part 4: Study Unit

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Study Unit

Writing Skills: Part 4

© PENN FOSTER, INC. 2016

ASSIGNMENT 1: HOW TO PUT YOUR IDEAS IN ORDER 5

ASSIGNMENT 2: HOW TO WRITE AN OUTLINE 19

ASSIGNMENT 3: HOW TO PUT YOUR IDEAS INTO WRITING 26

NAVIGATING THIS COURSE

2 Quickly read the pages in Assignment 1. This process is called skimming.

6 Complete each assignment in this manner; then review the material in

Your Written Communication course includes the materials listed below.

O This study unit, Writing Skills, Part 4 which includes

 All of your assigned readings

What will you get from this study unit?

When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to

1 Outline the process of writing a research paper

HOW TO PUT YOUR

1. Order your ideas for writing

4. Interview material from

b. Another friend who pays no attention to social media, but dislikes it

7. The facts that social media

a. Sites don’t always offer protection against cyberbullying

b. Makes it possible for people to keep in touch over long distances

c. Introduces people to new ideas

d. Has become a valuable part of our economic system

8. A statement that social media can change lives

Here’s one outline that might work:

I. Some social media sites are disliked.

B. Pop-up ads that constantly interrupt use of a site are annoying.

II. Some social media sites are liked.

A. There are a few social media sites that you like.

A. People checking their social media accounts constantly is annoying.

B. Some sites offer little protection against cyberbullies.

IV. You studied general facts.

A. Social media introduces people to new ideas.

B. Social media is a valuable part of our economic system.

C. Social media is helpful for finding information in real time.

V. Social media has value.

A. It brings people together.

B. It can change lives.

C. It can help people.

VI. Social media contains abuses.

A. It allows privacy violations.

B. It doesn’t do enough to halt cyberbullying or cyberstalking.

VII. Social media can be compared with other forms of socializing.

A. It can be compared with face-to-face socializing.

B. It can be compared with socializing by letter or telephone.

FIGURE 1—Creating a composition

FIGURE 2—A subject is like a crystal,

BEGINNING AND ENDING

1. Simply stating your overall message, including an expansion on your thesis.

THE SAFE ORDER

1. A hook to catch readers’ interest

I. Vivid description of an infamous cyberstalking case that ended in homicide

II. Explanation of social media

B. Statistics on social media use

III. Thesis: The harmfulness of social media

A. People avoid interacting face to face

B. Not enough privacy protection

C. Lack of protection: cyberbullying or cyberstalking

IV. Points for social media

A. Brings people together over long distances

B. Lets people access information in real time

C. Helps people (family after fire)

All of your assigned readings

b. Another friend who pays no attention to social media, but dislikes it

�� 1. redundant a. brought together to form a unit or a coherent whole

�� 2. authentic b. closely united

�� 4. Roman numerals a. subdivisions

�� 5. Capital letters b. main headings

�� 6. Arabic numerals c. coordinate headings

�� 7. Headings on the same level d. subheadings

�� 1. parenthetical a. proven by written evidence

�� 2. reliable b. free from mistakes or errors

c. explaining or qualifying something, possibly as

�� 6. sequence f. the situation in which something happens; the

�� 8. repetition g. the order in which things happen or should

i. the quality of being easily expressed, remem-