TEST EQUIPMENT

MODULE 3 - Insulation Resistance Testing and the Equipment used

A. What types of Materials do we test?

Three Types of Material
• Conductor
We all know that conductor is a material that easily lets electrical energy to flow.
Metals are an example of this material. It is because they have loosed electrons
that are not firmly held by the nucleus which can move freely through the lattice
of positive metal ions.

• Semiconductor
On this material we know that both of the characteristics of a conductor and
insulator is combined. It also easily lets electrical energy to flow as long as
certain conditions are met, but if not; it will act like an insulator and will not easily
let electrons to flow. Examples of this material are germanium and silicon, both
of which will at a given temperature have more free electrons and a higher
conductivity. The condition that played the role to let the electrons easily pass
through is the increasing of temperature. That is why both of these two are used
in electronics, but silicon is by far the more widely used in this field due to its
ability to be used in a higher temperature than germanium.

• Insulator
On this type of material, we already knew that this does not easily let electrical
energy to flow. An example of this material is rubber. It has a tightly bound
electron held by the nucleus in which little current may flow through it under the
influence of an electric field.
B. Electrical Insulation

Our insulation is intended to prevent formation of an electrical contact

between parts of electrical-engineering equipment that are at differing potentials.
Electrical insulation can be described in terms of electric strength, volume and
surface resistance, dielectric loss, corona resistance, resistance to heat and cold,
and mechanical strength.
The choice of dielectrics for electrical insulation depends on the operating
conditions. For example, heat resistance is of decisive importance for the
insulation of electric machines (generators and motors); in this case the
insulation usually consists of mica. For the insulation of overhead power
transmission lines, resistance to moisture and mechanical strength are of
paramount importance; therefore, porcelain and glass are most suitable. In radio
engineering equipment, electrical insulation usually consists of materials with
minimum dielectric loss and maximum volume and surface resistance.

Combination electrical insulation, which consists of mineral oil and of oil-

Impregnated cellulose (paper, cardboard, or pressboard), is used for

transformers, electric capacitors, and cables.

The dimensions of insulation components are determined by the operating
voltage of the installation and by the long-term strength of the electrical
insulation for a specified period of service. If over voltages (short-duration rises
of voltage) can occur in an installation, the design and dimensions of the electrical
insulation are also determined by the magnitude of possible over-voltages and
by the short-term electrical strength.
C. Dielectric materials

Materials which are electrical insulators or in which an electric field can

be sustained with a minimal dissipation of power. Dielectrics are employed as
insulation for wires, cables, and electrical equipment, as polarizable media for
capacitors, in apparatus used for the propagation or reflection of electromagnetic
waves, and for a variety of artifacts, such as rectifiers and semiconductor devices,
piezoelectric transducers, dielectric amplifiers, and memory elements. The term
dielectric, though it may be used for all phases of matter, is usually applied to
solids and liquids.

The ideal dielectric material does not exhibit electrical conductivity when
an electric field is applied. In practice, all dielectrics do have some conductivity,
which generally increases with increase in temperature and applied field. If the
applied field is increased to some critical magnitude, the material abruptly
becomes conducting, a large-current flow (often accompanied by a visible spark),
and local destruction occurs to an extent dependent upon the amount of energy
which the source supplies to the low-conductivity path. This critical field depends
on the geometry of the specimen, the shape and material of the electrodes, the
nature of the medium surrounding the dielectric, the time variation of the applied
field, and other factors. Temperature instability can occur because of the heat
generated through conductivity or dielectric losses, causing thermal breakdown.
Breakdown can be brought about by a variety of different causes, sometimes by
a number of them acting simultaneously. Nevertheless, under carefully specified
and controlled experimental conditions, it is possible to measure a critical field
which is dependent only on the inherent insulating properties of the material itself
in those conditions. This field is called the intrinsic electric strength of the
dielectric.
D. Electrical insulation requirements

A nonconducting material that provides electric isolation of two parts at

different voltages. To accomplish this, an insulator must meet two primary
requirements: it must have an electrical resistivity and a dielectric strength
sufficiently high for the given application. The secondary requirements relate to
thermal and mechanical properties. Occasionally, tertiary requirements relating
to dielectric loss and dielectric constant must also be observed. A complementary
requirement is that the required properties not deteriorate in a given environment
and desired lifetime.
Electric insulation is generally a vital factor in both the technical and
economic feasibility of complex power and electronic systems. The generation
and transmission of electric power depend critically upon the performance of
electric insulation, and now plays an even more crucial role because of the energy
shortage.
The important requirements for good insulation are as follows.
The basic difference between a conductor and a dielectric is that free
charge has high mobility on and in a conductor, whereas free charge has little or
no mobility on or in a dielectric. Dielectric strength is a measure of the electric
stress required to abruptly move substantial charge on or through a dielectric. It

deteriorates with the ingress of water and with elevated temperature. For high-
voltage (on the order of kilovolts) applications, dielectric strength is the most

important single property of the insulation.

Resistivity is a measure of how much current will be drained away from
the conductor through the bulk or along the surface of the dielectric. An insulator
with resistivity equal to or greater than 1013 ohm-cm may be considered good.
When a dielectric is subjected to an alternating field, a time-varying
polarization of the atoms and molecules in the dielectric is produced. The
alternation of both the permanent and induced polarization in the dielectric
results in power dissipation within the dielectric of which the power factor is a
measure. This dielectric power loss is proportional to the product of the dielectric
constant and the square of the electric field in the dielectric. Although it may be a
loss that is small relative to other losses in most ambient-temperature
applications, and even though it generally decreases at low temperatures, it is a
relatively important loss for dielectrics to be used at cryogenic temperatures.

The dielectric constant, also known as the relative permittivity or specific

inductive capacity, is a measure of the ability of the dielectric to become polarized,
taken as the ratio of the charge required to bring the system to the same voltage
level relative to the charge required if the dielectric were vacuum. It is thus a pure
number, but is in fact not a constant, and may vary with temperature, frequency,
and electric-field intensity.

E. Properties
All insulators may be classified as either solid or fluid. Solid insulation is further
divided into flexible and rigid types.
Solid insulation
Flexible hydrocarbon insulation is generally either thermoplastic or
thermosetting. Thermosets are initially soft, and can be extruded by using only
pressure. Following heat treatment, when they return to ambient temperature,
they are tougher and harder. After thermosetting, nonrubber thermosets are
harder, stronger, and have more dimensional stability than the thermoplastics.
Thermoplastics are softened by heating, and when cool become hard again. They
are heat-extruded.
Cellulose paper insulation is neither thermoplastic nor thermosetting. It is
widely used in cables and rotating machinery in multilayers and impregnated
with oil. It has a relatively high dielectric loss that hardly decreases with
decreasing temperature, which rules it out for cryogenic applications. Because
of its high dielectric strength, the high loss has not been a deterrent to its use
in conventional ambient-temperature applications. However, the high dielectric
strength deteriorates quickly if moisture permeates the paper.
Rigid insulation includes glass, mica, epoxies, ceramoplastics, porcelain,
alumina, and other ceramics. Rather than being used to insulate wires and
cables, except for mica, these materials are used in equipment terminations
(potheads) and as support insulators (in tension or compression) for overhead
lines whose primary dielectric is air. These rigid structures must be shock-resistant, be
relatively water-impervious, and be able to endure corona
discharges over their surfaces.

Fluid insulation
Liquids, gases, and vacuum fall in the category of fluid insulation. For all of
these, the electrical structure must be such as to contain the fluid in the regions
of high electric stress.
The main types of insulating liquids are the mineral oils, silicones,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, and the fluorocarbons with dielectric strengths on
the order of megavolts per centimeter. Many other liquids also have good
dielectric strength, such as carbon tetrachloride, toluene, hexane, benzene,
chlorobenzene, alcohol, and even deionized water. Most gases have a dielectric
constant of about 1, and low dielectric loss. Air is used as a dielectric in a wide
variety of applications, ranging from electronics to high-voltage (765-kV) and
high-power (2000-MW) electric transmission lines. Dry air is a reasonably good
insulator. However, its dielectric strength decreases with increasing gap.
Vacuum (that is, pressures of less than 10-5 torr or 10-3 pascal) has one
of the highest dielectric strengths in the gap ranging 0.1 to 1 mm. However, as
the gap increases, its dielectric strength decreases rapidly. A perfect vacuum
might be expected to be a perfect insulator, since there would be no charge
carriers present to contribute to electrical conductance. That this is not so in
practice arises because of the effects of a high electric field or high voltage at
the surface of electrodes in vacuum, rather than because a perfect vacuum is
far from being realized in the laboratory. The dielectric properties of vacuum
can degenerate rapidly because vacuum offers no resistance to the motion of
charge carriers, once they are introduced into the vacuum region.

Good Insulation
Every electric wire in your plant – whether it’s in a motor, generator,
cable, switch, transformer, etc. – is carefully covered with some form of electrical
insulation. The wire itself is usually copper or aluminum, which is known to be a
good conductor of the electric current that powers your equipment. The insulation
must be just the opposite from a conductor: it should resist current and keep the
current in its path along the conductor.
To understand insulation testing you really don’t need to go into the
mathematics of electricity, but one simple equation – Ohm’s law – can be very
helpful in appreciating many aspects. Even if you’ve been exposed to this law
before, it may be a good idea to review it in the light of insulation testing.
The purpose of insulation around a conductor is much like that of a pipe
carrying water, and Ohm’s law of electricity can be more easily understood by a
comparison with water flow. In Fig. 1 we show this comparison. Pressure on water
from a pump causes flow along the pipe (Fig. 1a). If the pipe were to spring a leak,
you’d waste water and lose some water pressure.
With electricity, voltage is like the pump pressure, causing electricity to flow
along the copper wire (Fig. 1b). As in a water pipe, there is some resistance to flow,
but it is much less along the wire than it is through the insulation.
Common sense tells us that the more voltage we have, the more current
there’ll be. Also, the lower the resistance of the wire, the more current it has for
the same voltage.
Actually, this is Ohm’s law, which is expressed this way in equation form:
E=IxR
where, E = voltage in volts
I = current in amperes
R = resistance in ohms
Note, however, that no insulation is perfect (that is, has infinite resistance)
so some electricity does flow along the insulation or through it to ground. Such a
current may only be a millionth of an ampere (one microampere) but it is the basis
of insulation testing equipment. Note also that a higher voltage tends to cause more
current through the insulation. This small amount of current would not, of course,
harm good insulation but would be a problem if the insulation has deteriorated.
Now, to sum up our answer to the question “what is ‘good’ insulation?” We
have seen that, essentially, “good” means a relatively high resistance to current.
Used to describe an insulation material, “good” would also mean “the ability to keep
a high resistance.” So, a suitable way of measuring resistance can tell you how
“good” the insulation is. Also, if you take measurements at regular periods, you can
check trends toward its deterioration.

Bad Insulation
When your plant electrical system and equipment are new, the electrical
insulation should be in top notch shape. Furthermore, manufacturers of wire,
cable, motors, and so on have continually improved their insulations for services
in industry. Nevertheless, even today, insulation is subject to many effects which
can cause it to fail – mechanical damage, vibration, excessive heat or cold, dirt, oil,
corrosive vapors, moisture from processes, or just the humidity on a muggy day.
In various degrees, these enemies of insulation are at work as time goes on
– combined with the electrical stresses that exist. As pin holes or cracks develop,
moisture and foreign matter penetrate the surfaces of the insulation, providing a
low resistance path for leakage current.
Once started, the different enemies tend to aid each other, permitting
excessive current through the insulation.

Sometimes the drop in insulation resistance is sudden, as when equipment is

flooded. Usually, however, it drops gradually, giving plenty of warning, if checked
periodically. Such checks permit planned reconditioning before service failure. If
there are no checks, a motor with poor insulation, for example, may not only be
dangerous to touch when voltage is applied, but also be subject to burn out. What
was good insulation has become a partial conductor.
How Insulation Resistance is Measured
You have seen that good insulation has high resistance; poor insulation,
relatively low resistance. The actual resistance values can be higher or lower,
depending upon such factors as the temperature or moisture content of the

insulation (resistance decreases in temperature or moisture). With a little record-

keeping and common sense, however, you can get a good picture of the insulation

condition from values that are only relative.

The insulation tester is a small, portable instrument that gives you a direct
reading of insulation resistance in ohms or megohms. For good insulation, the
resistance usually reads in the megohm range. There are some analogue insulation
testers in the market but nowadays, mostly are digital. But in this module we will
discuss more on the analogue type.
The insulation tester is essentially a high-range resistance meter (ohmmeter)
with a built-in direct-current generator. This meter is of special construction with
both current and voltage coils, enabling true ohms to be read directly, independent
of the actual voltage applied. This method is nondestructive; that is, it does not
cause deterioration of the insulation.

How to Interpret Resistance Readings

As previously mentioned, insulation resistance readings should be

considered relative. They can be quite different for one motor or machine tested
three days in a row, yet not mean bad insulation. What really matters are the trend
in readings over a time period, showing lessening resistance and warning of
coming problems. Periodic testing is, therefore, your best approach to preventive
maintenance of electrical equipment, using record cards.
Whether you test monthly, twice a year, or once a year depends upon the type,
location, and importance of the equipment. For example, a small pump motor or a
short control cable may be vital to a process in your plant. Experience is the best
teacher in setting up the scheduled periods for your equipment.
You should make these periodic tests in the same way each time. That is, with
the same test connections and with the same test voltage applied for the same
length of time. Also you should make tests at about the same temperature, or
correct them to the same temperature. A record of the relative humidity near the
equipment at the time of the test is also helpful in evaluating the reading and trend.
Later sections cover temperature correction and humidity effects.
In summary, here are some general observations about how you can interpret
periodic insulation resistance tests, and what you should do with the result:
Safety Precautions
Observe all rules for safety when taking equipment out of service. Block
out disconnect switches. Test for foreign or induced voltages. Apply workmen’s
grounds which also known as personal protective ground.
Remember that when working around high voltage equipment there is always
a possibility of voltages being induced in apparatus under test or lines to which it
is connected, because of proximity to energized high voltage equipment. Therefore,
rather than removing a workmen’s ground in order to make a test, it is more
advisable to disconnect the apparatus, such as a transformer or circuit breaker,
from the exposed bus or line, leaving the latter grounded. Use rubber gloves when
connecting the test leads to the apparatus and while operating the instrument.
Apparatus Under Test Must Not Be Live!
If neutral or other ground connections have to be disconnected, make sure
they are not carrying current at the time, and that when disconnected no other
equipment will lack necessary protection. Pay particular attention to conductors
that lead away from the circuit being tested and make sure they have been properly
disconnected from any source of voltage.

Shock Hazard from Test Voltage

Observe the voltage rating of the instrument and regard it with appropriate
caution. Large electrical equipment and cables usually have sufficient capacitance
to store up a dangerous amount of energy from the test current. Make sure this
capacitance is discharged after the test and before handling the test leads.
Explosion and Fire Hazard
So far as is known, there is no fire hazard in the normal use of a insulation
tester. There is, however, a hazard when testing equipment located in inflammable
or explosive atmospheres.
Slight sparking may be encountered:
(1) When attaching the test leads to equipment in which the capacitance has
not been completely discharged
(2) During a test, arcing through or over faulty insulation
(3) Following a test when capacitance is discharged

CAUTION: Do not use the instrument in an explosive atmosphere.

Suggestions:
For (1) and (3): Arrange permanently installed grounding facilities and test
leads to a point where instrument connections can be made in a safe atmosphere.
For (2): Use low-voltage testing instruments, or a series resistance.
For (3): Do not disconnect the test leads for at least 30 to 60 seconds following
a test, allowing time for capacitance discharge.