LSSGB (Simplilearn, 2014) - Lesson - 3. Measure

Lean Six Sigma Green Belt
Lesson 3—Measure
Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved.

Objectives
After completing ● Explain process definition

this lesson, you will
● Create X-Y diagrams
be able to:
● Describe types of statistics and statistical distributions
● Collect and summarize data
● Perform Measurement System Analysis (MSA)
● Differentiate between precision and accuracy
● Describe bias, linearity, and stability of measurements
● Explain process capability
Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 2

Measure
Topic 1—Process Definition

Introduction to Measure Phase
The key objective of the measure phase is to gather as much

information as possible on the current processes.
The key tasks of the measure phase are:
● creating a detailed process map;
● gathering baseline data;
● summarizing and analyzing the data;
● performing Measurement Systems Analysis; and
● performing process capability studies.

Process Mapping
Process mapping refers to a workflow diagram which gives a clear understanding of the process or a
series of parallel processes.
Features
of process
Gives wider perspective
First step in process mapping
of the problems and
improvement opportunities
Provides a systematic way

of recording
! Process mapping can be done by using flowcharts, written procedures, or detailed work instructions.

X-Y Diagram
The X-Y diagram is a Six Sigma tool that helps in correlating Inputs (X) and Outputs (Y). It can be used
to identify what inputs are more valuable and impactful when there are multiple inputs and outputs
in a project.
Steps to Create X-Y Diagram
1
Capture all the inputs and outputs variables.
2
Insert an impact or correlation factor.
3 Provide the weightage of output (This explains how each of

the input variable impacts what set of output variables).
4
After entering all the data, identify the inputs that are
more valuable or impactful and take actions accordingly.

X-Y Diagram Template
The sample template of X-Y diagram is shown here. 5

Use all the value from (b) for each of the
input variable and multiply individually with
the values given in (a), added value is (c).
4
Capture the
impact value.
3
Insert weight for
each output.
2
List down each
of the output
variables. a
1
List down each b c
of the input
variables.

Measure
Topic 2— Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Types of Statistics
Statistics refers to the science of collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. There
are two major types of statistics—Descriptive statistics and Inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
● Also known as Enumerative statistics ● Also known as Analytical statistics

● Includes organizing, summarizing, and ● Includes predicting and drawing conclusions
presenting the data ● Makes inferences from our data to more
● Describes what's going on in the data general conditions
● Histograms, pie charts, box plots, etc., are ● Hypothesis testing, scattered diagram, etc.,
the tools are the tools

Analytical Statistics
The main objective of statistical inference or analytical statistics is to draw conclusions on population
characteristics based on the information available in the sample. A sample from the population is
collected. An assessment about the population parameter is made from the sample.
Q The management team of a cricket council wants to know if the team’s performance has improved after
recruiting a new coach. Is there a way the improvement can be proven statistically?
A Here, Ya = Efficiency of Coach A and Yb = Efficiency of Coach B

a. Null Hypothesis—Assumption is Coach A and Coach B are both effective.
● Assuming status quo is null hypothesis
H0: Ya = Yb
b. Alternate Hypothesis—Assumption is the efficiencies of the two coaches differ.
● If the null hypothesis is proven wrong, the alternate hypothesis must be right.
H1: Ya ≠ Yb
Central Limit Theorem
Central Limit Theorem (CLT) states that for a sample size greater than 30, the sample mean is very
close to the population mean.
● When sample size is greater than 30, the sample mean approaches normal distribution.
● In such cases, the Standard Error of Mean (SEM) that represents the variability between the
sample means is very less.
Population Standard Deviation

SEM =
Sample Size
! Selecting a sample size also depends on the concept called Power of the Test.

Central Limit Theorem—Graph
The graphical representation of the Central Limit Theorem is given:

Central Limit Theorem—Conclusions
The Central Limit Theorem concludes the following:

● Sampling distributions are also helpful in dealing with non-normal data.
● If the sample data points are taken from a population and the distribution of the means of samples
is plotted, it is called the sampling distribution of means.
● This sampling distribution will approach normality as the sample size increases.
● CLT aids in making inferences from the sample statistics about the population parameters
irrespective of the distribution of the population.
! ● CLT becomes the basis for calculating the confidence interval for a hypothesis test as it allows the
use of a standard normal table.
Measure
Topic 3—Collecting and Summarizing Data

Types of Data
Data is a collection of facts from which conclusions can be drawn. The two types of data are:
Attribute Data (Discrete) Variable Data (Continuous)

● Is countable and only includes integers such as ● Can be measured and includes any real number
2, 40, 1050 such as 2.045, -4.42, or 45.65
● Answers questions such as how many?, how ● Answers questions such as how long?, what
often?, or what type? volume?, or how far?
Examples: Examples:
o Number of defective products o Height
o Percentage of defective products o Weight
o Frequency of machine repair o Time taken to complete a task
o Type of award received

Selecting Data Type
The first step in the measure phase is to determine the type of data required based on the following
considerations:
What variables have been Critical to Quality parameters (CTQs), Key Process Output Variables
identified for the process? (KPOVs), and Key Process Input Variables (KPIVs)
What type of data is

The type of data that fits the metrics for the key variables
selected?
Why should the data type Enables collecting, analyzing, and drawing inferences from the right
be identified? set of data
! It is difficult to convert attribute data to variable data in the absence of assumptions or additional
information, which can include retesting all units.
Simple Random Sampling vs. Stratified Sampling
The differences between simple random sampling and stratified sampling are given here.
Simple Random Sampling Stratified Sampling

● Simple random sampling is easy to carry ● Stratified sampling is time consuming
out. and requires more effort.
● Possibility of erroneous results is high. ● Possibility of errors is minimized.
● This type of sampling cannot indicate ● When done correctly, it is capable of
possible causes of variation. showing assignable causes of variation.

Descriptive Statistics—Measures of Central Tendency
A measure of central tendency is a single value that indicates the central point in a set of data. The
three most common measures of central tendency are as follows:
Mean Median Mode

● Most common measure ● Also known as positional ● Also known as frequency
of central tendency mean mean
● Given by the sum of ● Number in the middle of ● Value that occurs most
entries in a data set and the data set frequently in a data set
divided by the number of ● Mean of the middle two
entries numbers in an even data
● Also called average or set
arithmetic mean ● Also calculated using:
𝑛+1
Median = 2

Mean, Median, and Mode—Example
For the following data set, the mean, median, and mode are calculated:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8
1+2+3+4+5+5+6+7+8
Mean = = 4.56
9
Median = 5
Mode = 5

Mean, Median, and Mode—Outliers
The dataset is modified to include a new value. The new dataset is given:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 100
The following observations can be made:

● The new mean is 15.11.
● Almost 90% of the values fall to the left of the mean.
● The mean is skewed due to the presence of an extreme data point, 100, called an outlier.
● The median of the dataset is unchanged at 5.
! When the dataset has outliers, median is preferred over mean as a measure of central tendency.

Descriptive Statistics—Measures of Dispersion
Measures of dispersion describe the spread of values. Higher the variation of data points, higher the
spread of the data. The three main measures of dispersions are as follows:
● Range
● Variance
● Standard Deviation

Measures of Dispersion—Range
Range is defined as the difference between the largest and smallest values of data.
For the data set given here,
4, 8, 1, 6, 6, 2, 9, 3, 6, 9
the range is calculated as follows:
Range = Maximum – Minimum

= 9–1
= 8

Measures of Dispersion—Variance
Variance is defined as the average of squared mean differences and shows the variation in a data set.
∑ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥)2
Variance = σ2 =
𝑛 −1
Consider the data set given here:
4, 8, 1, 6, 6, 2, 9, 3, 6, 9
Sample variance can be calculated using the formula = VARS() in an Excel sheet. Population variance
can be calculated using the formula = VARP(). Here,
Sample variance = 8.04
Population variance = 7.24
! Variance is a measure of variation and cannot be considered as the variation in a data set. Population variance
is preferred over sample variance as it is an accurate indicator of variation.

Measures of Dispersion—Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is given by the square root of variation.

Manual Method
1
∑ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥)2 Calculate mean.
Standard Deviation = σ =
𝑛 −1
2
Calculate difference between
For the same data set: each data point and the
mean, square each answer.
4, 8, 1, 6, 6, 2, 9, 3, 6, 9
3
Calculate the sum of the
squares.
Population standard deviation = 2.69
4
(using the formula = STDEVP() in Excel) Divide the sum of the squares
by N or n-1 (to find variance).
Sample standard deviation = 2.83
5
(using the formula = STDEV() in Excel) Find square root of variance.

Descriptive Statistics—Frequency Distribution
Frequency distribution is the grouping of data into mutually exclusive categories showing the number
of observations in each class. To create a frequency distribution table:
1 Divide the results into intervals and count the number

of results in each interval. Number Tally Frequency
2 0 IIII 4
Make a table with separate columns for the interval
numbers, the tallied results, and the frequency of 1 IIII I 6
results in each interval.
2 IIII 5
3
Record the number of observations in each interval
with a tally mark. 3 III 3
4 4 II 2
Add the number of tally marks in each interval and
record them in the Frequency column.

Cumulative Frequency Distribution
A cumulative frequency distribution table is more detailed than a frequency distribution table.
1
To the frequency distribution table, add three more columns for the cumulative frequency,
percentage, and cumulative percentage.
2
In the cumulative frequency column, the cumulative frequency of the previous row(s) is
added to the current row.
3
The percentage is calculated by dividing the frequency by the total number of results and
multiplying by 100.
4
The cumulative percentage is calculated similar to the cumulative frequency.

Cumulative Frequency Distribution (contd.)
For the following dataset, the cumulative frequency distribution table is given:
37, 49, 54, 91, 60, 62, 65, 77, 67, 81
Cumulative Cumulative
Lower Value Upper Value Frequency Percentage
Frequency Percentage
35 44 1 1 10 10
45 54 2 3 20 30
55 64 2 5 20 50
65 74 2 7 20 70
75 84 2 9 20 90
85 94 1 10 10 100

Graphical Methods—Stem and Leaf Plots
A stem and leaf plot is used to present data in a graphical format to enable visualizing the shape of a
distribution. For example, following are the temperatures for the month of May in Fahrenheit.
78, 81, 82, 68, 65, 59, 62, 58, 51, 62, 62, 71, 69, 64, 67, 71, 62, 65, 65, 74, 76, 87, 82, 82, 83, 79, 79, 71, 82, 77, 81
To create the plot, all the tens digits are entered in the Stem column and all the units digits against
each tens digit are entered in the Leaf column.
Stem Leaf
5 189
6 22224555789
7 111467899
8 11222237
Graphical Methods—Box and Whisker Plots
A box and whisker graph, based on medians or quartiles, is used to view the data distribution easily.
Example: The lengths of 13 fish caught in a lake are measured and recorded as follows:
12, 13, 5, 8, 9, 20, 16, 14, 14, 6, 9, 12, 12
Step 1: Rewrite the data in increasing order.

5, 6, 8, 9, 9, 12, 12, 12, 13, 14, 14, 16, 20
Step 2: Find the median for the data set.
5, 6, 8, 9, 9, 12, 12, 12, 13, 14, 14, 16, 20
Median
Step 3: Find the lower and upper quartile.
5, 6, 8, 9, 9, 12, 12, 12, 13, 14, 14, 16, 20
Lower Quartile = 8.5 Median Upper Quartile = 14

Graphical Methods—Box and Whisker Plots (contd.)
The box and whisker graph can now be constructed.

Step 4: Draw a number line extending enough to include all the data points.
Step 5: Locate the main median, 12, using a vertical line. Locate the lower and upper quartiles (8.5 and 14) and
join them with the median by drawing boxes.
Step 6: Extend whiskers from either ends of the boxes to the smallest and largest numbers (5 and 20) in the data set.

Graphical Methods—Box and Whisker Plots Inference
The following inferences can be drawn from the box and

whisker plot:
Range = 20 – 5 = 15
The quartiles split the data into four equal parts:
● Numbers less than 8.5
● Numbers between 8.5 and 12
● Numbers between 12 and 14
● Numbers greater than 14

Scatter Diagrams
A scatter diagram can be used to:

● understand the correlation between two variables;
● examine cause-and-effect relationships; and
● identify the root cause.
The five types of correlation are:
● Perfect positive correlation
● Moderate positive correlation
● No relation
● Moderate negative correlation
● Perfect negative correlation

Scatter Diagrams—Perfect Positive Correlation
In perfect positive correlation, as the value of X increases, the value of Y also increases proportionally.
Example: Correlation between consumption of coffee and consumption of milk
Coffee Consumption in ml (X) Milk Consumption in L (Y)

300 15
350 17.5
400 20
450 22.5
500 25
550 27.5
600 30

Scatter Diagrams—Moderate Positive Correlation
In moderate positive correlation, as the value of X increases, the value of Y also increases, but not in
the same proportion.
Example: Correlation between monthly salary and monthly savings
Salary (in thousands) (X) Savings (in thousands) (Y)
45 6
48 6.2
52 8
55 8.2
57 8.5
58 8.6
60 10
65 12

Scatter Diagrams—No Correlation
When a change in one variable has no impact on the other, there is no correlation between them.
Example: Relation between number of fresh graduates and job openings in a city
Fresh Graduates Job Openings

(in thousands) (X) (in thousands) (Y)
80 15
100 15
90 18
95 20
89 20
90 15
95 15

Scatter Diagrams—Moderate Negative Correlation
In moderate negative correlation, as the value of X increases, the value of Y decreases, but not in the
same proportion.
Example: Correlation between the price of a product and the number of units sold
Unit Price of Product
Units Sold (Y)
(in thousands) (X)
30 1000
32 980
33 970
35 965
38 950
40 920
42 910

Scatter Diagrams—Perfect Negative Correlation
In perfect negative correlation, as X increases, Y decreases proportionally.
Example: Correlation between project time extension and project success
Time Extension Project Success Probability

(in days) (X) (in percentage) (Y)
2 80
5 60
7 40
10 20
13 00

Graphical Methods—Histogram
A histogram is similar to a bar graph, except that the data in a histogram is grouped into intervals. A
histogram is best suited for continuous data.
Example: Number of hours spent by 15 team members on a special project in a week
1.5, 1.5, 2, 3, 3, 3, 25, 3, 5, 4, 4, 4, 4.5, 5, 6, 9.5, 10
The table and histogram for the data are given:

Number of Employees
Hours spent (X)
(Frequency) (Y)
0-2 3
2-4 7
4-6 3
6-8 0
8 - 10 2

Graphical Methods—Normal Probability Plots
Normal probability plots are used to identify if a dataset is normally distributed. A normally
distributed dataset forms a straight line in a normal probability plot.
Example: The following data sample is of diameters from a drilling operation:
.127, .125, .123, .123, .120, .124, .126, .122, .123, .125, .121, .123, .122, .125, .124, .122, .123, .123, .126, .121,
.124, .121, .124, .122, .126, .125, .123
Step 1: Construct a cumulative frequency distribution table and calculate the mean rank probability
estimate using the formula:
Cumulative frequency
Mean rank probability estimate = ∗ 100
(n+1)
Where n = sample size

Graphical Methods—Normal Probability Plots (contd.)
After performing Step 1, mean rank probability estimations are calculated. The table below lists
them:
Cumulative (Cumulative
X Frequency Mean Rank (%)
Frequency Frequency)/(n+1)
0.120 1 1 1/28 4
0.121 3 4 4/28 14
0.122 4 8 8/28 29
0.123 7 15 15/28 54
0.124 4 19 19/28 68
0.125 4 23 23/28 82
0.126 3 26 26/28 93
0.127 1 27 27/28 96
n = 27

Graphical Methods—Normal Probability Plots (contd.)
Step 2: Plot the graph on log paper or using Minitab, a statistical software used in Six Sigma.
Minitab normal probability plot instructions

1. Paste the data in any column
2. Select graph from the menu bar
3. Select probability plot
4. Select the type of the graph – single
5. Click ok
6. Double click the data column
7. Click ok
Conclusion: From this graph, it can be observed that the random sample forms a straight line, and
therefore, the data is taken from a normally distributed population.
Measure
Topic 4—Measurement System Analysis

Measurement System Analysis
The Measurement System’s (MS) output is used throughout the DMAIC process. An error-prone MS
leads to incorrect conclusions. Measurement System Analysis (MSA) is a technique that identifies
measurement error (variation) and its sources to reduce variation.
In MSA, the system’s capability is calculated, analyzed, and interpreted using Gage Repeatability and
Reproducibility (GRR) to determine:
● measurement correlation;
● bias;
● linearity;
● percent agreement; and;
● precision/tolerance (P/T).

Measurement System Analysis—Objectives
The objectives of MSA are as follows:

● Obtain information about the type of measurement variation associated with the measurement
system
● Establish criteria to accept and release new measuring equipment
● Compare one measurement method with another
● Form basis for evaluating a method suspected of being deficient
! Variation in the measurement system has to be resolved to ensure correct baselines for the project
objectives.
Precision and Accuracy
In statistical measurements, the terms Precision and Accuracy are the two important factors to be
considered when taking data measurements.
Precision Accuracy
● The ability to replicate measurements time ● Clustering of data around a known target.
after time, consistent measurements. ● It is also known as unbiased measurement.
● It refers to the tightness of the cluster of ● To have a stable measurement system,
data. focus on the accuracy first by addressing
● Measurement issues related to precision measurement issues, and get accurate
can be addressed through Measurement results.
Systems Analysis.

Precision vs. Accuracy
Good precision and accuracy are equally important for a stable measurement system.
Precision Accuracy
In any measurement system, precision is the In any measurement system, accuracy is the
degree to which repeated measurements degree of conformity of a measured or
under unchanged conditions show the same calculated value to its actual (true) value.
results (repeatability). Example: Accurately hitting the target
Example: Hitting a target means all the hits means you are close to the center of the
are closely spaced, even if they are very far target, even if all of the marks are on
from the center of the target. different sides of the center.

Combinations of Accuracy and Precision
Examples of the four combinations of accuracy and precision are shown here:
These are not accurate,

The darts are
however are precise,
random across the
all the darts are closer
board.
to each other.
a) Low accuracy b) Low accuracy

Low precision High precision
The darts are close

All the darts are on
to the target, but
the target.
are not consistent.
c) High accuracy d) High accuracy

Low precision High precision

Bias, Linearity, and Stability
Bias, Linearity and Stability are the three aspects of measurement system that helps in analyzing how
good the measurements are.
• While performing the MSA, it is important to evaluate these along with precision and accuracy.
• Bias, linearity, and stability help you understand what is causing mismatch, if any, or resulting in
inaccurate data.

Bias
Bias is a measure of the distance between the measured value and the True or Actual value. It could
be either on the positive side or the negative side.
Example: An Analog Bathroom Weighing Scale provides an adjustment screw or a dial to set it to zero
prior to weighing.

Linearity
Linearity is a measure of consistency of bias over the range of measurement from smaller number to
higher number and vice-a-versa.
Example: If a bathroom scale is showing 2 pounds less when measuring a 100 pound person, and 5
pounds less when measuring a 150 pound person, the scale bias is said to be non-linear. The degree
of bias changes between the lower end and high end (Linearity issue).

Stability
Stability refers to the ability of a measurement system to show the same values over time when
measuring the same repeatedly.
Example: Suppose the weighing scale shows one reading in the morning and other in the afternoon
for the same item, the measurement system is said to be instable.

Comparison of Variable and Attribute R and R
Measurement Systems Analysis (MSA) should be done for both Variable and Attribute data.
Variable R and R Attribute R and R
● To analyze measurement systems using Variable ● To analyze measurement systems using

or Continuous data. Attribute or Discrete data.
o Example: Length, Weight, Volume, Time, o Example: Pass/Fail, Yes/No, Count, Color,
Temperature, etc. Defective/Good, etc.
● Measurement system typically involves a ● Measurement system typically utilizes manual
physical gauge and can be measured. or automated counting/monitoring.
o The result of this is quantification of the o The result of this is quantification of the
percentage of variation contributed by the proportion of defective measurements, in
measurement system. DPMO, % Agreement or Sigma Level.

Gage Repeatability vs. Gage Reproducibility
Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility are compared here.
Gage Repeatability Gage Reproducibility
This is the variation in measurements obtained when This is the variation in the average of measurements
one operator uses the same gage for measuring made by different operators using the same gage
identical characteristics of the same part repeatedly. when measuring identical characteristics of
the same part.

Components of GRR Study
The diagram shows repeatability and

reproducibility for six different parts (1–6)
for two trial readings by three operators.
● Difference in readings between the
operators is indicated by green and
represents reproducibility error (part 1).
● Difference in readings between trials by
the same operator is indicated by red and
represents repeatability error (part 4).

Guidelines for GRR Studies
The following should be considered while conducting GRR studies:

● GRR studies should be performed over the range of expected observations.
● Actual equipment should be used.
● Written procedures or approved practices should be followed.
● Measurement variability should be presented as is.
● After GRR, measurement variability should be separated into causal components, prioritized, and
targeted for action.

Other GRR Concepts
The following are also considered in GRR studies:
Bias Linearity Precision
● Distance between the sample ● Consistency of bias over the ● Degree of repeatability or
mean value and the sample range of the gage closeness of data
true value ● Smaller dispersion results in
● Also called accuracy better precision
Bias = Mean – Reference Value

Process Variation = 6 (std. Linearity = |slope| ∗ Process
σ2gage = σ 2repeatability + σ 2reproducibility
deviation) Variation
Bias
Bias % = Process Variation

Measurement Resolution
Measurement resolution is the smallest detectable increment that an instrument will measure or
display. The number of increments in the measurement system should extend over the full range for a
given parameter.
Examples of wrong gages being used:

● A truck scale used for measuring the weight of a tea pack.
● A caliper capable of measuring differences of 0.1 mm was used to show compliance with tolerance
of ±0.07 mm.
! The gage must have an acceptable resolution as a pre-requisite to GRR.

Repeatability and Reproducibility
Repeatability or Equipment Variation (EV) occurs when the same operator repeatedly measures the
same part or process, under identical conditions, with the same measurement system.
Example: A 36 km/hr pace mechanism is timed by a single operator over a distance of 100 meters on
a stop watch. Three readings are taken:
● Trial 1 = 9 seconds
Assuming there is no operator error, the variation in the three readings is known as Repeatability or
Equipment Variation (EV).

Repeatability and Reproducibility (contd.)
Reproducibility or Appraiser Variation (AV) occurs when different operators measure the same part or
process, under identical conditions, with the same measurement system.
Example: A 36 km/hour pace mechanism is timed by two operators over a distance of 100 meters on a
stop watch. Three readings are taken by each:
Trial Operator 1 Reading Operator 2 Reading
1 9s 12s
2 10s 13s
3 11s 14s
The variation between the readings is known as Reproducibility or Appraiser Variation.
! It is important to resolve EV before resolving AV, as the other way round is counter-productive.

Data Collection in GRR
Important considerations while collecting data are as follows:

● The number of operators are usually 3.
● The number of units to measure is usually 10.
● General sampling techniques are used to represent the population.
● The number of trials for each operator is 2 to 3.
● The gage is checked for calibration and resolution.
● The units are measured by the first operator in random order, and the same order is followed by
the other operators.
● Each trial is repeated.

ANOVA Method of Analyzing GRR Studies
ANOVA is considered the best method for analyzing GRR studies due to the following reasons:
● ANOVA separates equipment and operator variation, and also provides insight on the combined
effect of the two.
● ANOVA uses standard deviation instead of range as a measure of variation and therefore gives a
better estimate of the measurement system variation.
The primary concerns in using ANOVA are those of time, resources required, and cost.

Interpretation of Measurement System Analysis
The result of an MSA could have the following interpretations:

Operators are not adequately
trained in using the gage
Calibrations on the gage dial are

not clear
Reproducibility Error > Repeatability Error
MSA Result Gage needs maintenance

Repeatability Error > Reproducibility Error
Gage needs redesign to be more
rigid
Gaging location needs

improvement
Ambiguity is present in SOPs

Gage RR Template
A sample template for Gage RR is given:

Gage RR Results Summary
The results page of the data entered in the template is displayed here:

Gage RR Interpretation
The interpretation for the GRR results summary is as follows:
1
Check the value of %GRR. If %GRR < 30, Gage Variation is acceptable, and thus the gage is
acceptable. If %GRR > 30, the gage is not acceptable.
2
Check EV first. If EV = 0, the MS is reliable and the variation in the gage is contributed by
different operators. If AV = 0, the MS is precise.
3
If EV = 0, resolve AV by providing operators with training.
The interaction between operators and parts can also be studied under GRR using Part Variation. The trueness and
! precision cannot be determined in a GRR if only one gage or measurement method is evaluated as it may have an
inherent bias.
Measure
Topic 5—Process Capability

Process Capability Analysis
Process Capability is how well the process can potentially run, if the
sources of variation are controlled and the process runs on target.
• The Business judges its process by looking at the Process Capability,
which is a metric that reflects only the common cause variation,
assuming special causes are controlled.
• There are two types of limits, Natural Process Limits and
Specification Limits. The USL and LSL will be as provided by the user.
LSL USL

Natural Process Limits vs. Specification Limits
The comparison between natural process limits and specification limits is presented here:
Natural Process Limits Specification Limits
● Indicators of process variation ● Targets set for the process

● Voice of the process ● Voice of customer
● Based on past performance ● Based on customer requirements
● Real-time values ● Intended result
● Derived from data ● Defined by the customer
● Consist of Upper Control Limit (UCL) and ● Consist of Upper Specification Limit (USL)
Lower Control Limit (LCL) and Lower Specification Limit (LSL)
! If the limits lie within the specification limits, the process is under control. Conversely, if the specification
limits lie within the control limits, the process will not meet customer requirements.

Process Capability
Process Capability (CP) is defined as the inherent variability of a characteristic of a process or a

product. It is an indicator of the capability of a process.
Upper specification limit − Lower specification limit

Process capability (CP) =
6σ
OR
USL − LSL
Process capability CP =
6σ
! The difference between USL and LSL is also called the Specification width or Tolerance.

Process Capability Indices
Process capability indices (Cpk) was developed to objectively measure the degree to which a process
meets or does not meet customer requirements.
To calculate Cpk, the first step is to determine if the process mean is closer to the LSL or the USL.
● If the process mean is closer to LSL, Cpkl is determined.
X – LSL
Cpkl = , where X is Process Average and Sigma represents the Standard Deviation.
3∗Sigma
● If the process mean is closer to USL, CpkU is determined.

USL – X
CpkU = , where X is Process Average and Sigma represents the Standard Deviation.
3∗Sigma
If the process mean is equidistant, either specification limit can be chosen. Cpk takes up the value of CpkU and
! Cpkl, depending on whichever is the lower value.

Process Capability Indices—Example
Q A batch process produces high fructose corn syrup with a specification for the Dextrose Equivalent (DE) to
be between 6.00 and 6.15. The DEs are normally distributed, and a control chart shows the process is
stable. The standard deviation of the process is 0.035. The DEs from a random sample of 30 batches have a
sample mean of 6.05. Determine Cp and Cpk.
A Process capability (Cp) =

Upper specification limit − Lower specification limit 6.15 − 6.00
= = 0.71
6σ 6 0.035
6.15 –6.05 6.05 –6.00
CpkU =(USL – X)/(3∗Sigma)= = 0.95; CpkL = = 0.48
3∗0.035 3∗0.035
Cpk = Min (CpkU, CpkL) = Min (0.95, 0.48) = 0.48

Capability Analysis - Cpk and Cp Interpretations
The following interpretations need to be remembered:

● A Cp value of less than 1 indicates the process is not capable. Even if Cp > 1, to ascertain if the
process really is not capable, check the Cpk value.
● A Cpk value of less than 1 indicates that the process is definitely not capable but might be if Cp > 1,
and the process mean is at or near the mid-point of the tolerance range.
● The Cpk value will always be less than Cp, especially as long as the process mean is not at the center
of the process tolerance range.
● Non-centering can happen when the process has not understood customer expectations clearly or
the process is complete as soon as the output reaches a specific limit.

Process Capability Studies
Process capability is the actual variation in the process specification. The steps in a process capability
study are:
1 2 3
Plot and analyze the
Plan for data collection Collect data results
Getting the appropriate sampling plan for the process capability studies depends on the purpose and
whether there are customer or standards requirements for the study.
For new processes, a pilot run may be used to estimate process capability.

Objective of Process Capability Studies
The objective of a process capability study is to establish a state of control over a manufacturing
process and then to maintain control over a time period.
Process limits fall within

No action required
specification limits
Compare natural process Adjust the process

Process spread and specification
limits with specification centering to bring the batch
spread are approximately the same
limits within specification limits
Process limits fall outside Reduce variability by

specification limits partitioning and targeting
the largest offender

Process Capability Studies—Identifying Characteristics
To select a characteristic for a process capability study, it should meet the following requirements:
● The characteristic should indicate a key factor in the quality of the product or process.
● It should be possible to influence the value of the characteristic through process adjustments.
● The operating conditions that affect the characteristic should be defined and controlled.
The characteristic to be measured may also be determined by customer requirements or industry

standards.

Process Capability for Attribute or Discrete Data
For attribute or discrete data, process capability is determined by the mean rate of non-conformity
and DPMO is the measure used. For this, the mean and standard deviation have to be defined.
Defectives Defects
● 𝑝 is used for checking process capability ● 𝑐 is used when the sample size is
for constant and variable sample sizes. constant.
● 𝑢 is used when the sample size is
variable.
𝑝 (1 − 𝑝) 𝑛 𝑢
; 𝑐
𝑎
! 𝑝, 𝑐, and 𝑢 are the equivalent of the standard deviation for continuous data.

Process Stability Studies
The activities carried out in the measure phase are MSA, collection of data, statistical calculations,
and checking for accuracy and validity.
This is followed by a test for stability as changes cannot be made to an unstable process.
Q Why does a process become unstable?
A A process becomes unstable due to special causes of variation. Multiple special causes of variation lead to
instability. A single special cause leads to an out-of-control condition.

Process Stability Studies—Causes of Variation
Variations can be due to two types of causes:
Common Causes of Variation (CCV) Special Causes of Variation (SCV)
● Include the many sources of variation within a ● Include factors external to and not always acting
process on the process
● Have a stable and repeatable distribution over a ● Sporadic in nature
period ● Contribute to instability to a process output
● Contribute to a state of statistical control where ● May result in defects and have to be eliminated
the output is predictable ● If indicated by Run charts, point to the need for
root cause analysis

Process Stability Studies—Run Charts in Minitab
The steps to plot a Run chart in Run Chart of Data

70
Minitab are as follows: 60
First, enter the sample collected data. 50

40
Data
Stat -> Quality Tools -> Run Charts 30
20
10
If p-values for any of the last 4 values 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
provided in the chart is less than 0.05, Sample
Number of runs about median: 4 Number of runs or down: 3
Expected number of runs: 4.0 Expected number of runs: 3.7
the process has special causes of Longest run about median: 2 Longest run up or down: 3
Approx P-Value for Clustering: 0.500 Approx P-Value for Trends: 0.220
Approx P-Value for Mixtures: 0.500 Approx P-Value for Oscillation: 0.780
variation, and the chances of the
process going unstable is high.

Verifying Process Stability and Normality
The causes of variation existing in a process are used to verify its normality or stability.
● If special causes of variation are present in a process, process distribution changes and the output
are not stable. The process is not said to be in control.
● If only common causes of variation are present in a process, the output is stable and the process is
in control.
For a stable process, the control chart data can be used to calculate the process capability indices.

Monitoring Techniques
Monitoring techniques refers to how well we can monitor the process capabilities. Some of the
monitoring techniques are as follows:
● Statistical Process Control techniques;
● Control Charts for monitoring both process capability and stability; and
● Appropriate charts are used depending on the data type (attribute/discrete and
variable/continuous).

Quiz

QUIZ
KPOV stands for:
1
a. Key Process Outline Variables

b. Key Process Output Variables
c. Key Performance Output Variance
d. Key Performance Outline Variables

QUIZ
KPOV stands for:
1
a. Key Process Outline Variables

b. Key Process Output Variables
c. Key Performance Output Variance
d. Key Performance Outline Variables
Answer: b.
Explanation: KPOV stands for Key Process Output Variables.

QUIZ The degree of conformity of a measured or calculated value to its actual (true) value is
2 known as:
a. Accuracy
b. Precision
c. Linearity
d. Stability

QUIZ The degree of conformity of a measured or calculated value to its actual (true) value is
2 known as:
a. Accuracy
b. Precision
c. Linearity
d. Stability
Answer: a.
Explanation: Accuracy demonstrates the degree of conformity of measured value to its true
value.

QUIZ The degree to which the repeated measurements under unchanged conditions show
3 the same results is called?
a. Accuracy
b. Precision
c. Linearity
d. Stability

QUIZ The degree to which the repeated measurements under unchanged conditions show
3 the same results is called?
a. Accuracy
b. Precision
c. Linearity
d. Stability
Answer: b.
Explanation: The degree to which the repeated measurements under unchanged conditions
show the same results is called Precision.

QUIZ When the data measured is consistently higher or lower than expected value with the
4 same magnitude, it is called:
a. Bias
b. Precision
c. Linearity
d. Stability

QUIZ When the data measured is consistently higher or lower than expected value with the
4 same magnitude, it is called:
a. Bias
b. Precision
c. Linearity
d. Stability
Answer: a.
Explanation: It is the Measurement Bias that is consistently higher or lower than the
expected value with the same magnitude.

QUIZ
What does Linearity in Measurement Systems signify?
5
a. Measurement errors
b. Linear Scale
c. Positive bias
d. Consistency of bias

QUIZ
What does Linearity in Measurement Systems signify?
5
a. Measurement errors
b. Linear Scale
c. Positive bias
d. Consistency of bias
Answer: d.
Explanation: Measurements performed at smaller levels and measurements at higher levels
have consistent bias over the range of measurements.

QUIZ The sum of the squared deviations of a group of measurements from their mean,
6 divided by the number of measurements is ________.
a. variance
b. standard deviation
c. one
d. mean deviation

QUIZ The sum of the squared deviations of a group of measurements from their mean,
6 divided by the number of measurements is ________.
a. variance
b. standard deviation
c. one
d. mean deviation
Answer: a.
Explanation: Variance, denoted by σ2, is given by 𝑥 − 𝜇 2 𝑛, that is, the sum of the
squared deviations of a group of measurements from their mean, divided by the number of
measurements.

QUIZ The repeatability of an RR study can be determined by examining the variation
7 between:
a. individual inspectors and their measurement readings.

b. the average of the individual inspectors for all parts.
c. part means averaged among inspectors.
d. the individual inspectors and comparing it to the part averages.

QUIZ The repeatability of an RR study can be determined by examining the variation
7 between:
a. individual inspectors and their measurement readings.

b. the average of the individual inspectors for all parts.
c. part means averaged among inspectors.
d. the individual inspectors and comparing it to the part averages.
Answer: a.
Explanation: Repeatability is determined by examining the variation between individual
inspectors and their measurement readings.

QUIZ
For attribute data, process capability:
8
a. cannot be determined.
b. is determined by the control limits on the applicable attribute chart.
c. is defined as the average proportion of nonconforming product.
d. is measured by counting the average nonconforming units in 25 or more
samples.

QUIZ
For attribute data, process capability:
8
a. cannot be determined.
b. is determined by the control limits on the applicable attribute chart.
c. is defined as the average proportion of nonconforming product.
d. is measured by counting the average nonconforming units in 25 or more
samples.
Answer: c.
Explanation: The average proportion may be reported on a defects or defectives per million
scale by multiplying the average (𝑝, 𝑐, 𝑢) by 1,000,000.

QUIZ
Perfect correlation is:
9
a. 1/1
b. 1+1
c. 1:1
d. 0

QUIZ
Perfect correlation is:
9
a. 1/1
b. 1+1
c. 1:1
d. 0
Answer: c.
Explanation: Perfect correlation, either positive or negative, is when a dependent variable
changes equally with a change in the independent variable, and is represented by 1:1.

QUIZ The variation in measurement average between operators for the same part with the
10 same gage is called ______________.
a. Gage Repeatability
b. Gage Reproducibility
c. Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility
d. Gage Variation

QUIZ The variation in measurement average between operators for the same part with the
10 same gage is called ______________.
a. Gage Repeatability
b. Gage Reproducibility
c. Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility
d. Gage Variation
Answer: b.
Explanation: Gage reproducibility is the variation in measurement when different operators
use the same gage to measure identical characteristics of the same part.

QUIZ
Repeatability is also called _____________.
11
a. Equipment Variation
b. Appraiser Variation
c. Process Variation
d. Product Variation

QUIZ
Repeatability is also called _____________.
11
a. Equipment Variation
b. Appraiser Variation
c. Process Variation
d. Product Variation
Answer: a.
Explanation: Repeatability or Equipment Variation or EV occurs when the same operator
repeatedly measures the same part or same process, under the same conditions, with the
same measurement system.

QUIZ
Which of the following is not true for natural process limits?
12
a. They are indicators of process variation.

b. They are based on past performance.
c. They are defined by the customer.
d. They are also called control limits.

QUIZ
Which of the following is not true for natural process limits?
12
a. They are indicators of process variation.

b. They are based on past performance.
c. They are defined by the customer.
d. They are also called control limits.
Answer: c.
Explanation: Natural process limits are derived from real-time values. Specification limits
are defined by the customer.

QUIZ In process capability studies, if the process limits fall within the specification limits,
13 what should be done next?
a. Center the process.

b. Reduce variability by addressing the largest contributor of variation.
c. No action is required.
d. Stop the process.

QUIZ In process capability studies, if the process limits fall within the specification limits,
13 what should be done next?
a. Center the process.

b. Reduce variability by addressing the largest contributor of variation.
c. No action is required.
d. Stop the process.
Answer: c.
Explanation: If the process limits are within the specification limits, it means the process is
in control, and no action is required.

QUIZ Which of the following refers to the ability of a measurement system to show the same
14 values over time when measuring the same repeatedly?
a. Stability
b. Bias
c. Linearity
d. Process capability

QUIZ Which of the following refers to the ability of a measurement system to show the same
14 values over time when measuring the same repeatedly?
a. Stability
b. Bias
c. Linearity
d. Process capability
Answer: a.
Explanation: Stability refers to the ability of a measurement system to show the same
values over time when measuring the same repeatedly.

QUIZ
Which of the following limits will be as provided by the user?
15
a. Central Limit
b. USL and LSL
c. Natural Specification Limit
d. Specification Limits

QUIZ
Which of the following limits will be as provided by the user?
15
a. Central Limit
b. USL and LSL
c. Natural Specification Limit
d. Specification Limits
Answer: b.
Explanation: The USL and LSL will be as provided by the user.

QUIZ Which of the following implies that as the value of X increases, the value of Y also
16 increases, but not in the same proportion?
a. Moderate positive correlation

b. Moderate negative correlation
c. Perfect positive correlation
d. Perfect negative correlation

QUIZ Which of the following implies that as the value of X increases, the value of Y also
16 increases, but not in the same proportion?
a. Moderate positive correlation

b. Moderate negative correlation
c. Perfect positive correlation
d. Perfect negative correlation
Answer: a.
Explanation: In moderate positive correlation, as the value of X increases, the value of Y also
increases, but not in the same proportion.

QUIZ Which of the following refers to the grouping of data into mutually exclusive categories
17 showing the number of observations in each class?
a. Standard distribution
b. Frequency distribution
c. Cumulative frequency distribution
d. Normal distribution

QUIZ Which of the following refers to the grouping of data into mutually exclusive categories
17 showing the number of observations in each class?
a. Standard distribution
b. Frequency distribution
c. Cumulative frequency distribution
d. Normal distribution
Answer: b.
Explanation: Frequency distribution is the grouping of data into mutually exclusive
categories showing the number of observations in each class.

QUIZ
What is the key objective of the measure phase?
18
a. To analyze the process

b. To improve the process
c. To measure the processes
d. To gather information on the current processes

QUIZ
What is the key objective of the measure phase?
18
a. To analyze the process

b. To improve the process
c. To measure the processes
d. To gather information on the current processes
Answer: d.
Explanation: The key objective of the measure phase is to gather as much information as
possible on the current processes.

Summary
Here is a quick ● Process definition helps in defining the process and capture inputs and
recap of what we
outputs in the X-Y diagram.
have learned in this
lesson: ● Statistics refers to the science of collection, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of data. The major types are Descriptive Statistics and
Inferential Statistics.
● Precision refers to getting repeatable measurements and accuracy refers to
getting measurements closer to the actual measurement.
● Process Capability is how well the process can potentially run, if the sources
of variation are controlled and process runs on target.

Summary (contd.)
Here is a quick ● Measures of central tendency, dispersion, and graphical methods are used
recap of what we
to analyze sample data.
have learned in this
lesson: ● MSA is used to calculate, analyze, and interpret a measurement system's
capability using Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility.
● Variation in a process can be because of common causes and special causes
which determine the bias, linearity, stability, capability, distribution and
defects of a process.

THANK YOU

LSSGB (Simplilearn, 2014) - Lesson - 3. Measure

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

LSSGB (Simplilearn, 2014) - Lesson - 3. Measure

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lean Six Sigma Green Belt

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved.

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved.

After completing ● Explain process definition

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 2

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved.

The key objective of the measure phase is to gather as much

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 4

Provides a systematic way

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 5

3 Provide the weightage of output (This explains how each of

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 6

The sample template of X-Y diagram is shown here. 5

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 7

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved.

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

● Also known as Enumerative statistics ● Also known as Analytical statistics

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 9

A Here, Ya = Efficiency of Coach A and Yb = Efficiency of Coach B

Population Standard Deviation

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 11

The graphical representation of the Central Limit Theorem is given:

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 12

The Central Limit Theorem concludes the following:

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved.

Attribute Data (Discrete) Variable Data (Continuous)

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 15

What type of data is

Simple Random Sampling Stratified Sampling

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 17

Mean Median Mode

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 18

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 19

The following observations can be made:

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 20

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 21

the range is calculated as follows:

Range = Maximum – Minimum

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 22

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 23

Standard deviation is given by the square root of variation.

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 24

1 Divide the results into intervals and count the number

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 25

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 26

37, 49, 54, 91, 60, 62, 65, 77, 67, 81

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 27

12, 13, 5, 8, 9, 20, 16, 14, 14, 6, 9, 12, 12

Step 1: Rewrite the data in increasing order.

5, 6, 8, 9, 9, 12, 12, 12, 13, 14, 14, 16, 20

Lower Quartile = 8.5 Median Upper Quartile = 14

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 29

The box and whisker graph can now be constructed.

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 30

The following inferences can be drawn from the box and

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 31

A scatter diagram can be used to:

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 32

Example: Correlation between consumption of coffee and consumption of milk

Coffee Consumption in ml (X) Milk Consumption in L (Y)

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 33

Copyright 2014, Simplilearn, All rights reserved. 34

Fresh Graduates Job Openings