Glossary: Accuracy

Glossary
ACCURACY
ACCURACY DESCRIBES THE ABILITY TO WRITE OR SPEAK A FOREIGN

LANGUAGE WITHOUT MAKING GRAMMATICAL, VOCABULARY, SPELLING OR
PRONUNCIATION MISTAKES. IT IS OFTEN CONTRASTED WITH FLUENCY.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES ARE SOMETIMES CATEGORISED INTO THOSE THAT
PROMOTE FLUENCY AND THOSE THAT PROMOTE ACCURACY.
EXAMPLE
"SHE MAKES LOTS OF GRAMMAR AND PRONUNCIATION MISTAKES – HER
SPEECH ISN’T VERY ACCURATE; BUT SHE SPEAKS SO FLUENTLY AND
EXPRESSIVELY THAT EVERYONE UNDERSTANDS HER."
ACQUISITION
THE WAY IN WHICH LANGUAGES ARE LEARNT UNCONSCIOUSLY OR ‘PICKED

UP’ BY EXPOSURE TO COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT. IN THIS DEFINITION, THE
TERM ACQUISITION IS USED IN CONTRAST TO LEARNING, WHICH IS SEEN AS
A DELIBERATE AND CONSCIOUS PROCESS OF RULE LEARNING AND SELF-
MONITORING OF LANGUAGE USE. HOWEVER THE
TERMS ACQUISITION AND LEARNING ARE USED INTERCHANGEABLY BY SOME
WRITERS.
EXAMPLE
"SHE LEARNT PORTUGUESE SIMPLY THROUGH ACQUISITION – HEARING AND
READING IT ALL AROUND HER AND CHATTING WITH FRIENDS. SHE NEVER
STUDIED IT."
FURTHER READING
DOUGHTY, C. AND WILLIAMS, J. (1998). FOCUS ON FORM IN CLASSROOM
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
LIGHTBOWN, P. AND SPADA, S. (2006). HOW LANGUAGES ARE LEARNED,
3RD EDITION. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
ELLIS, R. (1985). UNDERSTANDING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. OXFORD:
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
RICHARDS, J. AND RODGERS, T. (2001). APPROACHES AND METHODS IN
LANGUAGE TEACHING, 2ND EDITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
ACRONYM
A SET OF LETTERS CONTAINING THE FIRST LETTERS OF A GROUP OF WORDS
THAT IS A NAME OR PHRASE E.G. ELT (ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING), TBC
(TO BE CONFIRMED), UNESCO (UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC,
AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION). ACRONYMS OFTEN BELONG TO PARTICULAR
CONTEXTS AND MAY NOT BE UNDERSTOOD BY PEOPLE OUTSIDE THAT
CONTEXT E.G. ACRONYMS USED IN ELT, SUCH AS PPP, TBL, TPR, TTT. SOME
DEFINITIONS DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ACRONYMS AND INITIALISMS (WHERE
THE FIRST LETTERS OF A PHRASE ARE PRONOUNCED LETTER BY LETTER
RATHER THAN AS A WORD E.G. SCUBA (SELF-CONTAINED UNDERWATER
BREATHING APPARATUS).
EXAMPLE
"MANY PEOPLE DON’T UNDERSTAND ALL THE ACRONYMS USED IN TEXTESE AS
THERE ARE ALWAYS SO MANY NEW ONES, AND SOME LIKE LOL HAVE MORE
THAN ONE MEANING."
FURTHER READING
CRYSTAL, D. (2008). TXTNG: THE GR8 DB8. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
WWW.NETLINGO.COM/ACRONYMS.PHP
TEACHER ACRONYM SONG
ADVERB; ADVERBIAL PHRASE

AN ADVERB IS A WORD WHICH USUALLY QUALIFIES THE VERB IN A
SENTENCE SHOWING HOW, WHEN, WHERE, TO WHAT DEGREE, HOW OFTEN,
OR WITH WHAT VIEWPOINT ETC THE EVENT, ACTION OR PROCESS IN THE
VERB IS CARRIED OUT. AN ADVERBIAL PHRASE IS A SET OF WORDS
FULFILLING THE SAME PURPOSE.
EXAMPLE
HERE ARE EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL
PHRASES:
OF MANNER: CAREFULLY, IN A NEW WAY
OF TIME: YESTERDAY, THE DAY AFTER TOMORROW
OF PLACE: THERE, OVER THE BACK
OF DEGREE: FULLY, TO A CERTAIN EXTENT
OF FREQUENCY: WEEKLY, EVERY THREE WEEKS
OF ATTITUDE: HONESTLY, IN MY OPINION
FURTHER READING
CARTER, R. AND MCCARTHY, M. (2006). CAMBRIDGE GRAMMAR OF
ENGLISH. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PARROTT, M. (2010). GRAMMAR FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS,
2NDEDITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (2006). AN A-Z OF ELT. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
HTTP://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/ENGLISH-GRAMMAR/ADVER
BIALS/ADVERBS-MANNER
HTTP://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/ENGLISH-GRAMMAR/ADVER
BIALS
HTTP://LEARNENGLISHKIDS.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/GRAMMAR-TESTS/ADV
ERBS
AFFECTIVE FILTER
CERTAIN RESEARCHERS INTO LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, PARTICULARLY
STEPHEN KRASHEN, MAINTAIN THAT LANGUAGE LEARNING IS FACILITATED
OR OBSTRUCTED BY AN ‘AFFECTIVE FILTER’. THE FILTER IS MADE UP OF
ATTITUDES OR FEELINGS WHICH ARE SAID TO CONTROL AND SELECT THE
INPUT LEARNERS ABSORB FROM THEIR ENVIRONMENT. IF THEIR AFFECTIVE
FILTER IS SET LOW, LEARNERS ARE OPEN TO RECEIVING INPUT. IF IT IS SET
HIGH, BECAUSE THEY ARE STRESSED/ ANXIOUS/ POORLY MOTIVATED ETC.,
THEN THEY ARE NOT OPEN TO RECEIVING INPUT.
EXAMPLE
"FOR SOME UNKNOWN REASON, HE JUST LOVED SPANISH AND TOOK IN
EVERYTHING HE HEARD – HIS AFFECTIVE FILTER WAS CLEARLY SET LOW."
FURTHER READING
ELLIS, R. (1983).REVIEW OF KRASHEN’S PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE IN
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. ELT JOURNAL 37/3. OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
GASS, S. (1997). INPUT, INTERACTION AND THE SECOND LANGUAGE
LEARNER. MAHWAH NJ: LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES.
HARMER, J. (2007). THE PRACTICE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING.
HARLOW: PEARSON.
KRASHEN, S.D. (1982). PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE IN SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION. OXFORD: PERGAMON.
VANPATTEN, B. AND WILLIAMS, J. (EDS) (2007). THEORIES IN SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: AN INTRODUCTION. MAHWAH NJ: LAWRENCE
ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES.
AFFIXATION
THIS TERM REFERS TO THE ADDITION OF A MORPHEME AT THE BEGINNING
OR END OF A WORD (PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES). THIS ADDITIONAL
MORPHEME CHANGES THE MEANING OF THE WORD. AFFIXES CAN ALSO
CHANGE THE PART OF SPEECH OF A WORD E.G. HAPPY→ HAPPINESS, THEY
CAN MAKE OPPOSITES E.G. HAPPY→ UNHAPPY OR THEY CAN HAVE A
GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION E.G. THE REGULAR PAST TENSE SUFFIX-ED.
EXAMPLE
A GAME I SOMETIMES PLAY WITH MY STUDENTS IN CLASS IS TO GIVE THEM
A WORD E.G. ‘REAL’, SET THEM A TIME LIMIT, AND ASK THEM TO SEE HOW
MANY NEW WORDS THEY CAN MAKE FROM THAT WORD BY ADDING AFFIXES,
BOTH PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.
FURTHER READING
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/AFFIXES
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/NEW-WORDS-ENGLISH
AFFORDANCE/AFFORDANCES
THE LEARNING POTENTIAL OF A TEXT, A CONTEXT OR A SITUATION WHICH
PROVIDES THE LEARNER WITH THE OPPORTUNITY ACQUIRE – OR LEARN –
NEW LANGUAGE. THE TERM OFTEN OCCURS IN ITS PLURAL FORM. THE
CLASSROOM, TOO, CAN PROVIDE THE LEARNER WITH AFFORDANCES FOR
LEARNING E.G. WHEN LEARNERS GRADUALLY PICK UP AND IDENTIFY
MOMENTS FOR USE OF CLASSROOM LANGUAGE SUCH AS ‘I DON’T
UNDERSTAND’, ‘I HAVE A QUESTION’, ‘PLEASE, CAN YOU HELP ME’.
EXAMPLE
"WITH THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE, A LEARNER THESE
DAYS CAN BE PRESENTED WITH MANY AFFORDANCES TO ACQUIRE ENGLISH IN
EVERYDAY LIFE. SIMILARLY, IN THE CLASSROOM, CHILDREN WITH ENGLISH AS
AN L1 CAN PROVIDE THE OTHERS WITH MANY AFFORDANCES FOR LEARNING
ENGLISH IN GROUP WORK AND GENERAL CHIT CHAT."
FURTHER READING
GIBSON, J.J. (1977). IN R. SHAW AND J. BRANSFORD (ED.S). PERCEIVING,
ACTING AND KNOWING, MAHWAH NJ: LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES.
SINGLETON, D. AND ARONIN, L. (2007). MULTIPLE LANGUAGE LEARNING IN
THE LIGHT OF THE THEORY OF AFFORDANCES. INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE
LEARNING AND TEACHING, 1/1.
VAN LIER, L. (2000). FROM INPUT TO AFFORDANCE: SOCIAL-INTERACTIVE
LEARNING FROM AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE. IN SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
AND SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2012/01/01/A-IS-FOR-
AFFORDANCE/
ALLOPHONE
THIS IS A PHONOLOGICAL TERM WHICH REFERS TO A SOUND WHICH CAN
REPLACE ANOTHER SOUND IN A WORD WITHOUT CHANGING ITS MEANING,
FOR EXAMPLE, IN THE WORD ‘BATH’ THE ‘A’ SOUND CAN BE PRONOUNCED
EITHER AS /Æ/ OR AS /ɑː/ WITHOUT THE MEANING BEING CHANGED. SO, IN
THIS WORD, THESE TWO SOUNDS ARE ALLOPHONES. THE PHONEME /ɜː/ IN
/BɜːΘ/ IS NOT AN ALLOPHONE IN THIS INSTANCE AS IT CHANGES THE
MEANING OF THE WORD.
EXAMPLE
WHEN PEOPLE LEARN FOREIGN LANGUAGES THEY SOMETIMES GET
CONFUSED BECAUSE PHONEMES WHICH WOULD NOT BE ALLOPHONES IN
THEIR LANGUAGE ARE ALLOPHONES IN THE TARGET LANGUAGE OR VICE
VERSA, FOR EXAMPLE, /B/ AND /V/ ARE TWO DISTINCT PHONEMES IN
ENGLISH BUT THEY ARE SOMETIMES ALLOPHONES IN SPANISH.
FURTHER READING
JENKINS, J. (2000). THE PHONOLOGY OF ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL
LANGUAGE. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
ROACH, P. (2009). ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY. CAMBRIDGE:
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
UNDERHILL, A. (2005). SOUND FOUNDATIONS. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
ALVEOLAR
THIS IS A PHONOLOGICAL TERM REFERRING TO THE PLACE IN THE MOUTH
WHERE SOME SOUNDS ARE PRODUCED. THE ALVEOLAR RIDGE IS THE RIDGE
BEHIND THE TEETH. THE SOUNDS PRODUCED WHEN THE TONGUE MAKES
CONTACT WITH THE RIDGE ARE CALLED ALVEOLAR. IN ENGLISH THE
ALVEOLAR SOUNDS ARE /T/, /D/, /S/, /Z/, /N/, /L/.
EXAMPLE
I’VE ALWAYS FOUND THAT IT HELPS STUDENTS TO BE AWARE OF WHERE IN
THE MOUTH SOUNDS ARE FORMED. WHEN STUDENTS HAVE PROBLEMS WITH
ANY OF THE ALVEOLAR SOUNDS I SHOW THEM A LABELLED DIAGRAM OF
THE MOUTH THEN GET THEM TO TOUCH THE RIDGE WITH THEIR TONGUE AS
THEY TRY TO SAY THE PROBLEM SOUND. THEN I TELL THEM TO PRACTISE
AT HOME IN FRONT OF THE BATHROOM MIRROR!
FURTHER READING
KENWORTHY, J. (1987). TEACHING ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION. HARLOW:
LONGMAN.
MARKS, J. (2012) THE PRONUNCIATION BOOK. PEASLAKE, SURREY: DELTA
UNDERHILL, A. (2005) SOUND FOUNDATIONS. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLES/PRONUNCIATION
ANALYTIC/HOLISTIC
ANALYTIC AND HOLISTIC ASSESSMENT ARE TWO WAYS OF EVALUATING THE
PERFORMANCE OF LEARNERS IN ORDER TO GIVE GRADES. IN ANALYTIC
ASSESSMENT, SEPARATE GRADES ARE AWARDED TO DIFFERENT TYPICAL
FEATURES OF A PERFORMANCE, WHEREAS IN HOLISTIC ASSESSMENT
MARKERS GIVE A GRADE BASED ON THEIR EVALUATION OF A LEARNER’S
OVERALL PERFORMANCE.
EXAMPLE
WHEN I MARKED MY STUDENTS’ INTERVIEWS, I DID SO ANALYTICALLY,
GIVING THEM A SEPARATE MARK FOR FLUENCY, ACCURACY, DISCOURSE
MANAGEMENT AND PRONUNCIATION. LATER, I DISCOVERED THAT MY
COLLEAGUE MARKED HERS HOLISTICALLY, USING DESCRIPTIONS OF
GENERAL PERFORMANCE AT PARTICULAR LEVELS. I THINK I’LL TRY DOING
THAT NEXT TIME, THEN SEE WHICH SEEMS BETTER FOR ME AND MY
STUDENTS.
FURTHER READING
BACHMAN, L. AND PALMER, A. (1997). LANGUAGE TESTING IN PRACTICE.
OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HAMP-LYONS, L. (ED.) (1991). ASSESSING SECOND -LANGUAGE WRITING IN
ACADEMIC CONTEXTS. NORWOOD, NJ: ABLEX PUBLISHING CORPORATION.
HUGHES, A. (2003).TESTING FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS. CAMBRIDGE:
ANAPHORIC AND CATAPHORIC REFERENCE

THESE ARE TWO TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE WORDS WHICH REFER TO OTHER
WORDS IN A SENTENCE OR TEXT. ANAPHORIC REFERENCE REFERS TO WORDS
THAT HAVE OCCURRED PREVIOUSLY, WHILE CATAPHORIC REFERENCE
REFERS TO WORDS THAT COME LATER. PRONOUNS, DETERMINERS AND
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES OFTEN FULFIL THESE FUNCTIONS, WHICH
CONTRIBUTE TO THE COHESION OF DISCOURSE.
EXAMPLE
TRY TO WORK OUT WHAT EACH REFERENCE WORD REFERS TO IN THIS TEXT.
IS THE REFERENCE ANAPHORIC OR CATAPHORIC?
MICHAEL GAVE ANNE A NEW BOOK FOR HER BIRTHDAY. SHE WAS VERY
PLEASED WITH IT BUT FORGOT TO THANK HIM. THAT UPSET HIM. ‘THIS IS
WHAT I’LL DO’, HE DECIDED: ‘I’LL NEVER GIVE HER A PRESENT AGAIN’.
KEY: GREEN = ANAPHORIC, RED = CATAPHORIC.
FURTHER READING
COOK, G. (1989). DISCOURSE. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (2005). BEYOND THE SENTENCE. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
TOWNSEND HALL, B. (1997). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: ANAPHORA. ELT
JOURNAL 51/4.
APPROACH
AN APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING IS THE SET OF BELIEFS ON WHICH
THAT TEACHING IS BASED. THE BELIEFS COVER WHAT LANGUAGE IS, HOW
IT IS USED AND LEARNT. FROM THESE BELIEFS A SET OF TEACHING
PRACTICES ARE BUILT. THE TERMS METHOD AND APPROACH ARE SOMETIMES
USED INTERCHANGEABLY, WITH APPROACH BEING USED NOWADAYS MORE
COMMONLY THAN METHOD, PERHAPS BECAUSE IT IMPLIES A LESS RIGID SET
OF TEACHING PRACTICES THAN METHOD, E.G. THE LEXICAL APPROACH V
THE DIRECT METHOD.
EXAMPLE
"THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH IS BASED ON A WIDE VIEW OF WHAT
CONSTITUTES LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE USE. WHAT METHODS SHOULD BE
USED TO TEACH THIS LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE USE ARE STILL HOTLY
DEBATED."
FURTHER READING
HEDGE, H. (2000) TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM,
LARSEN FREEMAN, D. (2000). TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICE IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING, OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MEDDINGS, L. AND THORNBURY, S. (2009) TEACHING UNPLUGGED.
PEASLAKE: DELTA.
SPRATT, M., PULVERNESS, A., WILLIAMS, M. (2011). THE TKT COURSE
MODULES 1, 2 AND 3. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PRESS.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/TAG/HUMANISTIC-APPROACHES/
APPROPRIACY
THIS REFERS TO THE DEGREE OF FIT OR SUITABILITY THAT THERE IS
BETWEEN A PIECE OF LANGUAGE AND THE SOCIAL CONTEXT IN WHICH IT IS
USED. WHEN THE PIECE OF LANGUAGE MATCHES THE SOCIAL CONTEXT IT IS
SAID TO BE APPROPRIATE. WHEN IT DOESN’T MATCH IT IS SAID TO BE
INAPPROPRIATE. TO MATCH, IT NEEDS TO BE OF THE EQUIVALENT DEGREE
OF FORMALITY. APPROPRIACY CAN BE SEEN IN PRONUNCIATION,
VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR OR DISCOURSE. THE
TERMS APPROPRIACY AND APPROPRIATENESS ARE OFTEN USED
INTERCHANGEABLY IN THIS MEANING.
EXAMPLE
"I LEARNT MY ENGLISH BY CHATTING INFORMALLY WITH FRIENDS. WHEN I
STARTED WORKING IN AN OFFICE I HAD TO MAKE A DEFINITE EFFORT TO GET
THE APPROPRIACY OF MY LANGUAGE RIGHT."
FURTHER READING
CARTER, R. AND NUNAN, D. (2001). TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF

OTHER LANGUAGES. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HARLOW: PEARSON.
MCDONOUGH, J. AND SHAW, C. (1993). MATERIALS AND METHODS IN ELT.
MALDEN, MA, USA: BLACKWELL.
UR, P. (1999). A COURSE IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/APPROPRI
ACY
ARTICLE
THIS IS A GRAMMATICAL TERM THAT REFERS TO A TYPE OF DETERMINER.
ARTICLES, IN ENGLISH, ARE USED BEFORE A NOUN OR NOUN GROUP TO
INDICATE WHETHER THE NOUN IS SPECIFIC/ DEFINITE OR GENERAL/
INDEFINITE IN ITS REFERENCE. IN ENGLISH, THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IS THE,
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE IS A/AN, AND WE SOMETIMES SEE MENTION OF A
‘ZERO ARTICLE’. THIS REFERS TO PLURAL NOUNS OR UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
THAT ARE INDEFINITE IN REFERENCE AND HAVE NO ARTICLE BEFORE THEM.
EXAMPLE
CAN YOU PASS ME AN APPLE? (INDEFINITE ARTICLE REFERRING TO AN
UNSPECIFIED APPLE).
THE APPLE YOU GAVE ME YESTERDAY WAS QUITE DELICIOUS. (DEFINITE
ARTICLE REFERRING TO A SPECIFIC APPLE).
APPLES ARE MEANT TO BE GOOD FOR YOUR HEALTH. (ZERO ARTICLE
REFERRING TO APPLES IN GENERAL).
FURTHER READING
PARROTT, M. (2010). GRAMMAR FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS, SECOND
EDITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTPS://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/ENGLISH-GRAMMAR/DETE
RMINERS-AND-QUANTIFIERS/DEFINITE-ARTICLE
HTTP://WWW.BBC.CO.UK/WORLDSERVICE/LEARNINGENGLISH/RADIO/SPECIAL
S/1456_GRAMCHALLENGE24/
ARTICULATORS (SPEECH ORGANS)

THIS IS A TERM FROM PHONOLOGY WHICH REFERS TO ‘A PART OF THE
MOUTH, NOSE OR THROAT WHICH IS USED IN PRODUCING SPEECH E.G. THE
TONGUE, LIPS, ALVEOLAR RIDGE ETC’ (LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF
TEACHING AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS, P.33). ARTICULATORS ARE ALSO
KNOWN AS SPEECH ORGANS. THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF SPEECH ORGAN:
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.
EXAMPLE
WHEN WE LEARN TO SPEAK A FOREIGN LANGUAGE WE SOMETIMES NEED TO
LEARN TO USE SOME ARTICULATORS IN DIFFERENT WAYS, FOR EXAMPLE, TO
PRONOUNCE THE /Θ/ PHONEME IN ENGLISH, MANY LEARNERS HAVE TO
PLACE THE TONGUE IN A WAY TO WHICH THEY ARE NOT ACCUSTOMED.
FURTHER READING
RICHARDS, J. AND SCHMIDT, R. ( 2010). LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF TEACHING
AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS.HARLOW: PEARSON.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/PHONETIC
S
HTTP://TEACHINGENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG.CN/ARTICLE/PHONEMIC-
CHART
ASPECT
ASPECT IS A GRAMMATICAL TERM REFERRING TO HOW A VERB EXPRESSES
THE SPEAKER’S OR WRITER’S VIEW OF CERTAIN FEATURES OF TIME IN AN
EVENT I.E. WHETHER IT IS COMPLETED OR STILL IN PROGRESS, WHETHER IT
IS ONE-OFF OR REPEATING AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THE PRESENT. IN
ENGLISH, THERE ARE TWO ASPECTS: PROGRESSIVE (OR CONTINUOUS) AND
PERFECT. ASPECT IS SHOWN IN AUXILIARY VERBS + PAST PARTICIPLES, AND
THE TWO ASPECTS SOMETIMES COMBINE.
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLES OF THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT ARE: HE IS COOKING, THEY WERE
COOKING.
EXAMPLES OF THE PERFECT ASPECT ARE: THEY HAVE COOKED, THEY HAD
COOKED.
EXAMPLES OF THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE ASPECT ARE: THEY HAVE BEEN
COOKING, THEY HAD BEEN COOKING.
FURTHER READING
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/ASPECT
ASSESSMENT AND TESTING
THESE TERMS ARE SOMETIMES USED INTERCHANGEABLY TO REFER TO THE
COLLECTION OF DATA ABOUT AND AWARDING OF MARKS TO LEARNER
PERFORMANCE. SOMETIMES, HOWEVER, TESTING IS USED JUST TO REFER TO
EVALUATION INVOLVING TESTS, WHEREAS ASSESSMENT ENCOMPASSES NOT
ONLY TESTS BUT ALSO OTHER MEANS OF ASSESSMENT SUCH AS
OBSERVATION, PORTFOLIOS, CASE STUDIES, INTERVIEWS ETC.
EXAMPLE
SOME PEOPLE ARGUE THAT YOU GET A FAIRER AND MORE ACCURATE
PICTURE OF LEARNER PERFORMANCE USING THE WIDE RANGE OF
TECHNIQUES AVAILABLE THROUGH ASSESSMENT. THEY THINK THAT THE
RESULTS OBTAINED FROM TESTS PROVIDE A LESS COMPREHENSIVE PICTURE
OF WHAT THE LEARNER CAN DO.
FURTHER READING
BACHMAN, L. AND PALMER, A. (1997). LANGUAGE TESTING IN PRACTICE.
CUMMINS, J. AND DAVISON, C. (2007). INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING.NEW YORK, USA, :SPRINGER.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/TESTING-ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
THESE ARE LEVELS OR QUALITIES OF PERFORMANCE THAT MARKERS USE
CONSCIOUSLY OR UNCONSCIOUSLY TO GRADE LEARNERS’ PERFORMANCE.
TO PREVENT ASSESSMENT CRITERIA BEING USED RANDOMLY OR
UNRELIABLY AND TO GUIDE MARKERS, ASSESSMENT CRITERIA ARE VERY
OFTEN WRITTEN OUT IN THE FORM OF ANALYTIC OR HOLISTIC (SEE
ANALYTIC/HOLISTIC) BAND DESCRIPTORS OR CHECKLISTS.
EXAMPLE
IF YOU LOOK
AT HTTPS://TAKEIELTS.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/IELTS_T
ASK_1_WRITING_BAND_DESCRIPTORS.PDF YOU WILL SEE EXAMPLES OF
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA FOR WRITING (TASK RESPONSE, COHERENCE AND
COHESION, LEXICAL RESOURCE, GRAMMATICAL RANGE AND ACCURACY).
THESE HAVE BEEN FLESHED OUT TO PROVIDE BAND DESCRIPTORS FOR NINE
LEVELS OF LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY FOR IELTS WRITING.
FURTHER READING
DICTIONARY OF LANGUAGE TESTING (1999). STUDIES IN LANGUAGE TESTING
7.CAMBRIDGE: UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATIONS
SYNDICATE.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/CRITERION
-REFERENCED-TEST
ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING

THIS KIND OF ASSESSMENT IS OFTEN CONTRASTED WITH
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING. IT AIMS AT PROMOTING AND ENCOURAGING
LEARNING RATHER THAN JUST EVALUATING OR ASSESSING IT, SEEING
ASSESSMENT AS A MEANS OF IDENTIFYING WHAT LEARNING NEEDS TO BE
FOCUSSED ON NEXT. IT OFTEN TAKES THE FORM OF FORMATIVE
ASSESSMENT DURING LESSONS AND ENCOURAGES LEARNER AUTONOMY AS
A WAY OF ACHIEVING ITS PURPOSES.
EXAMPLE
"SOMETIMES I VIDEO STUDENTS DOING GROUP WORK, THEN WE EVALUATE
THEIR PERFORMANCE USING A CHECKLIST. THEN TOGETHER WE DECIDE WHAT
WE NEED TO FOCUS ON IN THE NEXT LESSONS TO HELP THEM MOVE FORWARD.
THIS IS ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING – THEY LIKE IT AND SO DO I."
FURTHER READING
STOYNOFF, S. (2012). LOOKING BACKWARD AND FORWARD AT CLASSROOM-
BASED LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT. ELT JOURNAL 66/4.
CFBT ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING: EFFECTS AND
IMPACT HTTPS://FILES.ERIC.ED.GOV/FULLTEXT/ED546817.PDF
BLACK, P. & WILLIAM, D. (2001). INSIDE THE BLACK BOX: RAISING
STANDARDS THROUGH CLASSROOM
ASSESSMENT HTTPS://WWW.RDC.UDEL.EDU/WP-CONTENT/UPLOADS/2015/04/I
NSIDEBLACKBOX.PDF
BLACK, P., HARRISON, C., LEE, C., MARSHALL, B & WILLIAM, D.

(2004). WORKING INSIDE THE BLACK BOX: ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING IN
THE
CLASSROOM HTTPS://JAYMCTIGHE.COM/WP-CONTENT/UPLOADS/2011/04/WOR
KING-INSIDE-THE-BLACK-BOX.PDF
ASSIMILATION
THIS IS A TERM FROM PHONETICS. IT REFERS TO A PROCESS THAT OCCURS
IN CONNECTED SPEECH TO ENABLE THE SOUNDS IN SPEECH TO FLOW MORE
SMOOTHLY. IN ASSIMILATION ONE SOUND IS INFLUENCED BY A NEARBY
SOUND AND BECOMES LIKE IT IN SOME WAY.
EXAMPLE
FUN BIRTHDAY - FʌM BƏːΘDEɪ (THE /N/ IN ‘FUN’ IS ASSIMILATED TOWARDS
THE /B/ IN ‘BIRTHDAY’)
SANDWICH - /SAMWIDƷ/ (THE /N/ IS ASSIMILATED TOWARDS THE /D/)
FURTHER READING
LONGMAN.
ROACH, P. ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY.
GLOSSARY: HTTPS://WWW.PETERROACH.NET/GLOSSARY.HTML

HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/ASSIMILAT
ION
ATTESTED LANGUAGE
ATTESTED LANGUAGES ARE LANGUAGES WHICH CAN BE PROVED TO EXIST
OR TO HAVE EXISTED BECAUSE OF DOCUMENTS SHOWING THEM IN USE OR
BECAUSE THEY ARE STILL SPOKEN. THEY CONTRAST WITH UNATTESTED
LANGUAGES. UNATTESTED LANGUAGES ARE SUPPOSED TO HAVE EXISTED
AND EXPERTS HAVE SOMETIMES HYPOTHESISED WHAT SOME OF THEIR
FORMS AND LEXIS MUST HAVE BEEN, BUT THERE IS NO PROOF OF THEIR
EXISTENCE.
EXAMPLE
SANSKRIT FROM WHICH MANY INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES DERIVE IS AN
ATTESTED LANGUAGE WITH MANY MANUSCRIPTS ATTESTING TO ITS
EXISTENCE AS FAR BACK AS 1700 BCE. MANY GERMANIC LANGUAGES ARE
THOUGHT TO COME FROM PROTO-GERMAN, AN UNATTESTED LANGUAGE AS
IN FACT NO DOCUMENTS HAVE EVER BEEN FOUND IN WHICH PROTO-GERMAN
IS USED.
FURTHER READING
FISIAK, J. (1997). LINGUISTIC RECONSTRUCTION AND TYPOLOGY. BERLIN:
WALTER DE GRUYTER:
FOX, A. (1995) LINGUISTIC RECONSTRUCTION: AN INTRODUCTION TO THEORY
AND METHOD. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/ATTESTED_LANGUAGES
AUDIO-LINGUAL
THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD FOCUSSED ON DRILLING KEY LANGUAGE
STRUCTURES ORALLY. IT WAS POPULAR IN THE 1950S AND 1960S, AND
DERIVED FROM THE BEHAVIOURIST BELIEF THAT REPETITION HELPED FORM
HABITS. ALTHOUGH IT HAS SINCE BEEN SHOWN THAT REPETITION IS NOT
KEY TO LEARNING LANGUAGE, THE METHOD CONTINUES TO BE USED BY
SOME TEACHERS, OFTEN AS A PART OF PPP (PRESENTATION, PRACTICE,
PRODUCTION).
EXAMPLE
"WE USED TO SPEND LESSON AFTER LESSON REPEATING LINES IN DIALOGUES,
AS A CLASS AND INDIVIDUALLY. IT PROBABLY HELPED OUR MEMORIES, BUT WE
NEVER USED THE LANGUAGE FREELY, AND IT COULD GET BORING."
FURTHER READING
HOWATT, A.P.R. WITH WIDDOWSON H.G. (2004). A HISTORY OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TEACHING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
RICHARDS, J. AND SCHMIDT, R. (2010) LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF LANGUAGE
AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS. HARLOW: PEARSON.
THORNBURY, S. (2006) AN A-Z OF ELT. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
AUTHENTIC TASK
AN AUTHENTIC TASK IS A TASK CARRIED OUT IN THE CLASSROOM THAT HAS
ALL THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A REAL-LIFE TASK CARRIED OUT OUTSIDE
THE CLASSROOM I.E. IT IS DONE FOR A PURPOSE UNRELATED TO LANGUAGE
LEARNING, AND LANGUAGE IS USED PURELY IN ORDER TO GET THE TASK
DONE. SOME PEOPLE ARE STRONG ADVOCATES OF USING ONLY AUTHENTIC
TASKS IN THE CLASSROOM, WHILE SOME BELIEVE AUTHENTIC TASKS NEED
TO BE BALANCED WITH TASKS THAT FOCUS ON LANGUAGE. OTHERS THINK
IT IS DIFFICULT TO ACHIEVE A TRULY AUTHENTIC TASK IN THE CLASSROOM
AS THE TASKS WILL HAVE BEEN CONTRIVED IN SOME WAY BY THE
TEACHER. EXAMPLES OF AUTHENTIC TASKS ARE PROJECT WORK, CARRYING
OUT SURVEYS, GROUP PRESENTATIONS.
EXAMPLE
"AUTHENTIC TASKS WORK VERY WELL WITH SOME LEARNERS. OTHERS PREFER
MORE STRUCTURED ACTIVITIES. IT DEPENDS A LOT ON THEIR LEARNING
STYLE."
FURTHER READING
BACHMAN, L. (1990). FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LANGUAGE TESTING.
GILMORE, A. (2004). A COMPARISON OF TEXTBOOK AND AUTHENTIC
INTERACTIONS. ELT JOURNAL 58/4. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
NUNAN, D. (2004). TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING. CAMBRIDGE:
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
AUTHENTIC TEXT
AN AUTHENTIC TEXT IS A WRITTEN OR SPOKEN TEXT PRODUCED TO BE
READ/HEARD BY PROFICIENT LANGUAGE USERS AND NOT ALTERED IN ANY
WAY TO AID LANGUAGE LEARNING. AN AUTHENTIC TEXT IS UNCHANGED
FOR LEARNING, PRESERVING ITS FEATURES OF GENRE, STYLE, LAYOUT,
DISCOURSE. IN THE 1980S AND 1990’S IT WAS CONSIDERED VERY
IMPORTANT IN THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH TO ONLY USE AUTHENTIC
TEXTS AS THEY REPRESENTED WHAT LEARNERS NEEDED TO COPE WITH IN
REAL LIFE AND PROVIDED THEM WITH EXPOSURE TO GENUINE LANGUAGE
FEATURES.
EXAMPLE
"I GENERALLY PREFER USING AUTHENTIC TEXTS WITH MY LEARNERS AS THEY
THINK THEY ARE REAL AND INTERESTING. BUT SOMETIMES THE TEXTS ARE
QUITE DIFFICULT AS THEY AREN’T ADAPTED AT ALL FOR LANGUAGE
LEARNING."
FURTHER READING
JOLLY, D., & BOLITHO, R. (1998). A FRAMEWORK FOR MATERIALS WRITING.
IN B. TOMLINSON (ED.), MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT FOR LANGUAGE
TEACHING (PP. 90-115). CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
GUARIENTO, W. AND MORLEY, J. (2001). TEXT AND TASK AUTHENTICITY IN
THE EFL CLASSROOM. ELT JOURNAL 55/4. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PORTER D & ROBERTS, J (1980) AUTHENTIC LISTENING ACTIVITIES. ELT
JOURNAL 36/1. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/FORUM-TOPIC/AUTHENTIC-TEXTS
AUXILIARY VERB
AN AUXILIARY VERB IS A VERB THAT HELPS ANOTHER VERB. IT HELPS IT TO
FORM E.G. PROGRESSIVE ASPECT, THE PASSIVE VOICE, A PAST PARTICIPLE,
NEGATIVE, INTERROGATIVE OR EMPHATIC FORMS. IN ENGLISH THE
AUXILIARY VERBS ARE DO, BE, AND HAVE.
EXAMPLE
‘HAVE’ AS AN AUXILIARY
HAVING FINISHED HIS WORK, HE WENT OUT FOR LUNCH
HAS SHE WRITTEN THAT EMAIL?
HE HAD NEVER UNDERSTOOD
‘BE’ AS AN AUXILIARY
IT’S BEEN COOKED SOMEWHERE ELSE
IT WAS MADE YESTERDAY
SHE IS WAITING
‘DO’ AS AN AUXILIARY
I DO BELIEVE YOU, HONESTLY
HOW DO YOU DO?
WHEN DID HE GET HERE?
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/AUXILIAR
Y-VERB
HTTPS://WWW.FACEBOOK.COM/TEACHINGENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL/POSTS/5
18704661475552
AWARENESS-RAISING
A TECHNIQUE USED BY TEACHERS TO MAKE STUDENTS AWARE OF FEATURES
OF LANGUAGE OR OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES. BECOMING AWARE
OF SOMETHING IS PART OF NOTICING IT.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN OUR TEACHER TAUGHT US NEW VOCABULARY SHE USED TO ASK
QUESTIONS LIKE: WHAT WAS THE VOWEL SOUND IN THAT WORD? WHERE IS
THE WORD STRESS? THE QUESTIONS HELPED TO RAISE OUR AWARENESS OF
THINGS WE MIGHT NOT HAVE NOTICED OTHERWISE."
FURTHER READING
CARTER, R. (2003). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: LANGUAGE AWARENESS. ELT
OXFORD, R. (1990). LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES: WHAT EVERY TEACHER
SHOULD KNOW. NEW YORK: NEWBURY HOUSE PUBLISHER
SCHMIDT, R. (1993). AWARENESS AND SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION. ANNUAL REVIEW OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS 13. CAMBRIDGE:
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/AWARENES
S-RAISING
BTOP
BACKWASH
SEE WASHBACK
BEHAVIOURISM
A SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY VERY POPULAR IN THE WESTERN WORLD IN THE
MIDDLE OF THE 20TH CENTURY. IT CLAIMS THAT LEARNING OCCURS
THROUGH THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FIXED RESPONSES TO GIVEN EXTERNAL
STIMULI, AND THAT TO ESTABLISH THESE RESPONSES OR BEHAVIOURS,
THEY NEED TO BE CONSTANTLY REPEATED AND REINFORCED.
BEHAVIOURISM HAD A STRONG INFLUENCE ON LANGUAGE TEACHING IN THE
AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD. IT LOST CREDIBILITY WHEN IT WAS UNDERSTOOD
THAT LANGUAGE WAS TOO VARIED TO BE LEARNT SIMPLY BY
REINFORCEMENT AND REPETITION, AND THAT REPETITION WAS NOT
ENOUGH TO ENSURE ALL LEARNING.
EXAMPLE
DRILLING, THE AVOIDANCE OF MISTAKES AND OF USING THE L1 IN CLASS
ARE INFLUENCES FROM BEHAVIOURISM THAT CAN STILL BE SEEN IN
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING.
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
WILLIAMS, M. AND BURDEN, R. (1997) PSYCHOLOGY FOR LANGUAGE
TEACHERS: A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
BILABIAL
THIS TERM FROM PHONOLOGY REFERS TO THE PLACE, I.E. THE TWO LIPS,
WHERE CERTAIN SOUNDS ARE PRODUCED. IN ENGLISH THE BILABIAL
SOUNDS ARE /P/, /B/, /M/, /W/.
EXAMPLE
BILABIAL SOUNDS, SUCH AS /M/ AND /B/ ARE USUALLY AMONG THE SPEECH
SOUNDS THAT BABIES FIRST PRODUCE.
FURTHER READING
KELLY, G. (2000). HOW TO TEACH PRONUNCIATION. HARLOW: LONGMAN.
LADEFOGED, P., MADDIESON, I.(1996).THE SOUNDS OF THE WORLD'S
LANGUAGES. OXFORD: BLACKWELL.
MARKS, J. (2012). DELTA TEACHER DEVELOPMENT: PRONUNCIATION BOOK.
PEASLAKE, SURREY: DELTA.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/LABIAL
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY
THIS IS A CLASSIFICATION OF AFFECTIVE AND COGNITIVE SKILLS THAT IS
USED TO PROVIDE LEARNING OBJECTIVES. IT WAS PUBLISHED BY A
COMMITTEE OF EDUCATORS IN THE USA IN 1956. BENJAMIN BLOOM WAS THE
CHAIR OF THIS COMMITTEE. THE TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE SKILLS IN
PARTICULAR HAS BEEN VERY INFLUENTIAL IN CURRICULUM AND
EXAMINATION DESIGN. IT WAS REVISED IN 2000.
EXAMPLE
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY IDENTIFIES COGNITIVE SKILLS AND DIVIDES THEM
INTO TWO CATEGORIES, AS FOLLOWS:
HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (HOTS): CREATING, EVALUATING,
ANALYSING
LOWER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS): APPLYING, UNDERSTANDING,
REMEMBERING
FURTHER READING
AIRASIAN, P. W.; CRUIKSHANK, K. A.; MAYER, R. E.; PINTRICH, P. R.; RATHS,
J.; WITTROCK, M. C. (2000) IN ANDERSON, LORIN W.;KRATHWOHL, D. R.,
EDS. A TAXONOMY FOR LEARNING, TEACHING, AND ASSESSING: A REVISION OF
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES. COLUMBUS, OHIO: ALLYN
AND BACON.
BLOOM, B. S. ET AL. (1956) ‘TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES’, HANDBOOK I: COGNITIVE DOMAIN, NEW YORK: LONGMAN.
COYLE, D., HOOD P., MARSH, D. (2010). CLIL CONTENT AND LANGUAGE
INTEGRATED LEARNING. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
UNRAU, N. J. (1997). THOUGHTFUL TEACHERS, THOUGHTFUL LEARNERS.
SCARBOROUGH, ONTARIO, PIPPIN PUBLISHING.
HTTP://WWW.CAMBRIDGE.ORG/ELT/BLOG/2014/04/TEACHING-CRITICAL-
THINKING-USING-BLOOMS-TAXONOMY/
HTTP://OUPELTGLOBALBLOG.COM/2010/09/27/APPLYING-BLOOMS-TAXONOMY-
IN-THE-CLASSROOM/
BOTTOM-UP
SEE TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP
CTOP
CAN-DO STATEMENTS
SEE CEFR
CCQ/ICQ
THESE ARE TWO KINDS OF QUESTIONS THE TEACHER ASKS IN THE
CLASSROOM. CCQS REFER TO CONCEPT CHECKING QUESTIONS AND ARE
USED BY A TEACHER TO CHECK THAT STUDENTS HAVE UNDERSTOOD THE
MEANING OF NEW LANGUAGE (WORD, GRAMMAR, FUNCTION ETC) OR THE
FORM. CCQS NEED NOT NECESSARILY IN FACT BE QUESTIONS; THEY MIGHT,
FOR EXAMPLE, BE GESTURES, SENTENCES FOR COMPLETION OR PICTURES
BUT THEIR PURPOSE IS TO CHECK UNDERSTANDING. THEY ALSO AIM AT
GETTING THE STUDENT TO THINK ABOUT NEW LANGUAGE AND DRAW
CONCLUSIONS ABOUT IT, THUS ENCOURAGING INDUCTIVE LEARNING. IS IT
TALKING ABOUT THE PAST OR NOW? IS AN EXAMPLE OF A CCQ THAT A
TEACHER MIGHT ASK WHEN INTRODUCING THE PAST TENSE TO LEARNERS.
ICQS ARE INSTRUCTION CHECKING QUESTIONS. THESE ARE USED AFTER A
TEACHER HAS GIVEN INSTRUCTIONS TO MAKE SURE STUDENTS HAVE
UNDERSTOOD WHAT THEY NEED TO DO. THEY MIGHT REFER TO THE
LANGUAGE TO BE USED IN THE ACTIVITY OR TO THE PROCEDURE TO USE.
THEY AIM TO ENSURE THAT STUDENTS ARE ON TRACK BEFORE THEY BEGIN
AN ACTIVITY SO AS NOT TO WASTE TIME OR BE CONFUSED. LIKE CCQS, ICQS
ARE OFTEN PHRASED AS BINARY CHOICES E.G. MUST YOU WRITE OR TALK
FIRST? SHOULD YOU TICK OR UNDERLINE THE NEW WORDS?
EXAMPLE
I TRY TO USE DIFFERENT WAYS OF CHECKING CONCEPTS E.G. ASKING
STUDENTS TO MIME, ASKING THEM TO EXPLAIN THE MEANING IN THEIR
OWN WORDS, ELICITING EXAMPLES – IN THIS WAY THE CCQS DON’T BECOME
ROUTINE OR MEANINGLESS. WITH ICQS I ONLY ASK THEM WHEN THE TASK
IS A BIT COMPLICATED AND COULD BE MISUNDERSTOOD. OTHERWISE
STUDENTS CAN FEEL THEY’RE BEING PATRONISED.
FURTHER READING
HARMER, J. (2012). ESSENTIAL TEACHER KNOWLEDGE. HARLOW: PEARSON.
THORNBURY, S. AND WATKINS, P. (2007) THE CELTA COURSE. CAMBRIDGE:
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/CONCEPT-
CHECKING
CEFR
THIS STANDS FOR THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAME OF REFERENCE. IT WAS
COMPILED BY THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE AND CONTAINS A SERIES OF
DESCRIPTORS OF LEARNERS’ LANGUAGE PERFORMANCE AT SIX DIFFERENT
LEVELS OF PROFICIENCY, A1-C2, ACROSS THE DIFFERENT LANGUAGE
SKILLS. THE DESCRIPTORS ARE EXPRESSED AS ‘CAN-DO’ STATEMENTS. THEY
CAN BE USED TO SET GOALS FOR LEARNING OR TEACHING AND ALSO TO
ASSESS STUDENTS’ PROFICIENCY.
EXAMPLE
A LOT OF COURSE BOOKS THESE DAYS USE THE CEFR TO DEFINE THE LEVEL
OF THE LEARNERS THEY ARE INTENDED FOR AND TO DESIGN THEIR
SYLLABUS AROUND.
FURTHER READING
COUNCIL OF EUROPE (2001). COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFERENCE
FOR LANGUAGES: LEARNING, TEACHING, ASSESSMENT. CAMBRIDGE:
HEYWORTH, F. (2006). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: THE COMMON EUROPEAN
FRAMEWORK. ELTJOURNAL 60/2.
HTTPS://WWW.EAQUALS.ORG/OUR-EXPERTISE/CEFR/
HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/COMMON_EUROPEAN_FRAMEWORK_OF_REFE
RENCE_FOR_LANGUAGES
HTTPS://WWW.CAMBRIDGEENGLISH.ORG/EXAMS-AND-TESTS/CEFR/
CHUNK
CHUNKS ARE LONGER STRETCHES OF LANGUAGE THAT FREQUENTLY OCCUR
TOGETHER. THEY INCLUDE COLLOCATIONS, PHRASAL VERBS, SOCIAL
FORMULAE, SENTENCE FRAMES, IDIOMS AND DISCOURSE MARKERS. THE
TERM IS SOMETIMES USED INTERCHANGEABLY WITH COLLOCATION.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN STUDENTS LEARN FIXED EXPRESSIONS SUCH AS DESPITE THE FACT
THAT, IN MY OPINION, TO SUMMARISE OR BY THE WAY AS CHUNKS, THEY
OFTEN FIND THEM EASIER TO REMEMBER."
FURTHER READING
LEWIS, M. (1993). THE LEXICAL APPROACH. BRIGHTON: LANGUAGE TEACHING
PUBLICATIONS.
LINDSTROMBERG, S. AND BOERS, F. (2008). TEACHING CHUNKS OF
LANGUAGE. LONDON: HELBLING LANGUAGES.
SCHMIDT, N. (2000). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: CHUNKS. ELT JOURNAL 54/4.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.SCOTTTHORNBURY.COM/ARTICLES.HTML
CITATION FORM/DICTIONARY FORM

A CITATION FORM IS THE FORM OF A WORD THAT IS FOUND AS A HEADWORD
IN A DICTIONARY. A CITATION FORM REPRESENTS OTHER FORMS OF THE
SAME WORD. CITATION FORMS ARE PRONOUNCED AS FULL FORMS. THESE
MAY SOUND DIFFERENT WHEN SAID IN CONNECTED SPEECH.
EXAMPLE
TAKE IS THE CITATION FORM FOR TAKES, TAKING, TAKEN, TOOK
FURTHER READING
CARTER, R., & MCCARTHY, M. (1994). GRAMMAR AND THE SPOKEN
LANGUAGE. APPLIED LINGUISTICS, 16/2.
NATION, PAUL & WARING, ROBIN (1997). VOCABULARY SIZE, TEXT
COVERAGE AND WORD LISTS. IN
SCHMITT, NORBERT & MCCARTHY (EDS) VOCABULARY: DESCRIPTION,
ACQUISITION AND PEDAGOGY. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
CLAUSE
CLAUSE IS A GRAMMATICAL TERM THAT REFERS TO A SENTENCE OR PART
OF SENTENCE CONTAINING IN ENGLISH A SUBJECT AND A FINITE VERB AT
LEAST. A CLAUSE MAY BE MAIN OR SUBORDINATE.
EXAMPLE
HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A MAIN CLAUSE: JUDY WROTE HER FRIEND AN
EMAIL. HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE SAME MAIN CLAUSE TOGETHER WITH
THREE SUBORDINATE CLAUSES, ONE OF TIME, ONE OF REASON AND ONE OF
CONCESSION. AFTER SHE GOT HOME, JUDY SENT HER FRIEND AN EMAIL
BECAUSE SHE NEEDED SOME INFORMATION URGENTLY, EVEN THOUGH IT WAS
LATE AT NIGHT.
FURTHER READING
CARTER, R. AND MCCARTHY, M. (2006). CAMBRIDGE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH.
CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (1997). ABOUT LANGUAGE. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
CLIL
CLIL (CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING) REFERS TO AN
EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE IN PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY
CONTEXTS WHERE SUBJECT TEACHING AND LEARNING TAKE PLACE IN A
NON-NATIVE LANGUAGE. THE ACRONYM CLIL WAS FIRST USED IN 1994 AND
BY 2006 IT WAS RECOGNIZED AS ‘AN INNOVATIVE METHODOLOGICAL
APPROACH OF FAR BROADER SCOPE THAN LANGUAGE TEACHING.’
(EURYDICE 2006: 7) CONTENT WAS PLACED BEFORE LANGUAGE IN THE
ACRONYM BECAUSE SUBJECT CONTENT DETERMINES THE CHOICE OF
LANGUAGE USED TO TEACH SUBJECT MATTER AS WELL AS THE LANGUAGE
WHICH LEARNERS USE IN ORDER TO COMMUNICATE THEIR KNOWLEDGE AND
IDEAS ABOUT CURRICULAR CONTENT. WHAT DIFFERENTIATES CLIL FROM
ELT AND APPROACHES SUCH AS CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION IS ‘THE
PLANNED PEDAGOGIC INTEGRATION OF CONTEXTUALISED CONTENT,
COGNITION, COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE INTO TEACHING AND
LEARNING PRACTICE.’ (COYLE 2002 IN COYLE ET.AL. 2010: 6) THERE ARE
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CLIL PRACTICE DEPENDING ON THE COUNTRY, REGION
OR SOMETIMES THE SCHOOL WHERE IT IS BEING IMPLEMENTED.
EXAMPLE
SUBJECT AND LANGUAGE TEACHERS OFTEN WORK TOGETHER TO DELIVER
CLIL CLASSES TO SUPPORT THE TWO CORE STRANDS OF CLIL, CONTENT AND
LANGUAGE.
FURTHER READING
BENTLEY, K. (2010). THE TKT COURSE CLIL MODULE. CAMBRIDGE:
COYLE, D., HOOD, P. AND MARSH, D. (2010) CLIL CONTENT AND LANGUAGE
INTEGRATED LEARNING. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
EURYDICE (2006) CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING (CLIL) AT
SCHOOL IN EUROPE
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
HTTP://WWW.INDIRE.IT/LUCABAS/LKMW_FILE/EURYDICE/CLIL_EN.PDF
HTTP://WWW.GOETHE.DE/GES/SPA/DOS/IFS/CEU/EN2751287.HTM
CLT
THIS STANDS FOR COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING. THERE IS NOT
FULL AGREEMENT AS TO THE MEANING OF COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING. IT IS GENERALLY AGREED THAT IT REFERS TO TEACHING
LANGUAGE FOR USE IN COMMUNICATION RATHER THAN AS AN OBJECT OF
STUDY. THERE IS MUCH DISAGREEMENT, HOWEVER, AS TO THE
METHODOLOGY IT SHOULD INVOLVE, WITH SOME EXPERTS ADVOCATING
THAT THE ONLY WAY TO TEACH COMMUNICATION IS TO PUT LEARNERS IN
SITUATIONS WHERE THEY NEED TO COMMUNICATE, WHILE OTHERS BELIEVE
THAT LANGUAGE STUDY CAN ALSO AID COMMUNICATION. USE OF PAIR AND
GROUP WORK AND FREE USE OF LANGUAGE ARE TYPICAL OF A
COMMUNICATIVE CLASSROOM.
EXAMPLE
WHEN I FIRST STARTED TEACHING WE USED THE STRUCTURAL APPROACH,
TEACHING VOCABULARY AND STRUCTURES MAINLY THROUGH DRILLING
AND EXERCISES. WHEN THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH CAME ALONG, WE
WERE EXPECTED TO FOCUS ON FUNCTIONS, TOO, AND ALSO TO USE PAIR
AND GROUP WORK AND GET STUDENTS TO USE THE LANGUAGE TO
COMMUNICATE WITH ONE ANOTHER. IT WAS QUITE A CHALLENGE!
FURTHER READING
BURNS, A. AND RICHARDS, J. (2012). PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE IN SECOND
LANGUAGE TEACHING. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HARMER, J. AND THORNBURY, S. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
PLAY VIDEO

WIDDOWSON, H. G. (1978). TEACHING LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2010/08/15/C-IS-FOR-
COMMUNICATIVE/
COGNITIVE
RELATED TO MENTAL ABILITIES OR SKILLS. COGNITIVE IS THE ADJECTIVE
FROM COGNITION WHICH REFERS TO THE MENTAL PROCESSES OF
PERCEPTION AND THINKING THAT OUR BRAINS ENGAGE IN.
EXAMPLE
"COGNITIVE SKILLS SUCH AS REMEMBERING, EVALUATING, ANALYSING AND
CREATING ARE OFTEN CLASSIFIED INTO HIGHER AND LOWER-ORDER THINKING
SKILLS."
FURTHER READING
ANDERSON, L.W. (ED.), KRATHWOHL, D.R. (ED.), AIRASIAN, P.W.,
CRUIKSHANK, K.A., MAYER, R.E., PINTRICH, P.R., RATHS, J., & WITTROCK,
M.C. (2001). A TAXONOMY FOR LEARNING, TEACHING, AND ASSESSING: A
REVISION OF BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (COMPLETE
EDITION). NEW YORK: LONGMAN.
ELLIS, R. (1997). SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
SKEHAN, P. (1998). A COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LANGUAGE LEARNING.
HTTP://WWW.CELT.IASTATE.EDU/TEACHING/REVISEDBLOOMS1.HTML
COHERENCE
IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING COHERENCE REFERS TO THE WAYS IN
WHICH A PIECE OF DISCOURSE ‘MAKES SENSE’ THROUGH LINKS IN
MEANING. IT DOES THIS BY USING VARIOUS INTERNAL DEVICES SUCH AS
LOGICAL SEQUENCING, ADHERENCE TO A PARTICULAR GENRE, ACCEPTED
FORMS OF TEXT STRUCTURING, BUT ALSO BY REFERRING TO ACCEPTED
EXTERNAL CONVENTIONS AND WAYS OF THINKING AND EXPERIENCING IN
THE OUTSIDE WORLD, SUCH AS ADHERENCE TO ONE TOPIC, RELEVANCE
BETWEEN TOPICS, SHARED KNOWLEDGE.
EXAMPLE
"A: THAT'S THE TELEPHONE.
B: I'M IN THE BATH.
A: O.K."
(WIDDOWSON, H. 1978, P. 12)
FURTHER READING
CANALE. M.AND SWAIN, M. (1980). THEORETICAL BASES OF COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING AND TESTING. APPLIED
LINGUISTICS, 1/1.
MCCARTHY, M. (1991). DISCOURSE ANALYSIS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS.
WIDDOWSON, H. G. (1978). TEACHING LANGUAGE AS
COMMUNICATION. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/COHERENC
E
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/SUPPORT/ASK-THE-EXPERTS/METHODOL
OGY-QUESTIONS/METHODOLOGY-COHERENCE-AND-COHESION/
154867.ARTICLE
COHESION
THIS IS THE WAY IN WHICH LANGUAGE IS USED IN WRITTEN OR SPOKEN
DISCOURSE TO MAKE IT LINK TOGETHER. COHESION IS ACHIEVED BY USING
LEXICAL OR GRAMMATICAL DEVICES SUCH AS LEXICAL FIELDS,
SUBSTITUTION, ELLIPSIS, LINKING WORDS, DISCOURSE MARKERS, BACK
(ANAPHORIC) AND FORWARD (CATAPHORIC) REFERENCE.
EXAMPLE
"'I NEVER UNDERSTAND WHAT HE’S SAYING, SO I BOUGHT A TENNIS
RACKET.'
THIS SENTENCE IS COHESIVE THROUGH ITS USE OF A LEXICAL FIELD AND
LINKING WORDS, BUT IT’S NOT COHERENT – IT JUST DOESN’T MAKE SENSE."
FURTHER READING
CANALE. M.AND SWAIN, M. (1980). THEORETICAL BASES OF COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING AND TESTING. APPLIED
LINGUISTICS, 1/1.
HALLIDAY M. A. K. AND HASAN R. (1976) COHESION IN ENGLISH HARLOW:
LONGMAN
HOEY, M. (1991). PATTERNS OF LEXIS IN TEXT. OXFORD: OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
WIDDOWSON, H. G. (1978). TEACHING LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/COHERENC
E
OGY-QUESTIONS/METHODOLOGY-COHERENCE-AND-COHESION/
154867.ARTICLE
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/COHESION
COLLABORATE
THIS SIMPLY MEANS WORKING TOGETHER WITH OTHERS. LEARNERS CAN
WORK TOGETHER TO ACHIEVE THEIR LEARNING AIMS BY SUPPORTING ONE
ANOTHER IN VARIOUS WAYS. TEACHERS CAN ALSO COLLABORATE E.G.
COLLEAGUES WORKING TOGETHER ON ASSESSMENT, LESSON PLANNING OR
COURSE BOOK SELECTION. COLLABORATION AMONGST TEACHERS AND ALSO
AMONGST LEARNERS IS A FEATURE OF CLIL.
EXAMPLE
"IN SOME CLASSROOMS YOU CAN SEE A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH TO
LEARNING. LEARNERS HELP ONE ANOTHER BY BECOMING ‘STUDY BUDDIES’
OUT OF CLASS, AND IN CLASS THEY WORK TOGETHER ON TASKS, HELPED BY
THEIR TEACHER TO DEVELOP COLLABORATIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES."
FURTHER READING
CHARLES HIRSCH, C. AND BERES SUPPLE, D. (1996). 61 COOPERATIVE
LEARNING ACTIVITIES IN ESL. WALCH PUBLISHING.
NUNAN, D. (1992). COLLABORATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.COLLABORATIVELEARNING.ORG/
COLLIGATION
A TYPE OF COLLOCATION IN WHICH WORDS ARE LINKED TOGETHER AT THE
LEVEL OF GRAMMAR RATHER THAN MEANING E.G. IN A HURRY, WHAT
ABOUT SENDING AN EMAIL (WHAT + ABOUT + GERUND). MICHAEL HOEY
SAYS ‘THE BASIC IDEA OF COLLIGATION IS THAT JUST AS A LEXICAL ITEM
MAY BE PRIMED TO CO-OCCUR WITH ANOTHER LEXICAL ITEM, SO ALSO IT
MAY BE PRIMED TO OCCUR IN OR WITH A PARTICULAR GRAMMATICAL
FUNCTION. ALTERNATIVELY, IT MAY BE PRIMED TO AVOID APPEARANCE IN
OR CO-OCCURRENCE WITH A PARTICULAR GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION.’ (HOEY
2005:43).
EXAMPLE
"STUDENTS SOMETIMES MAKE MISTAKES OF COLLIGATION, FOR EXAMPLE: I
KNOW WHAT DO YOU MEAN; I DON’T MIND GO WORK ON SUNDAYS."
FURTHER READING
HOEY. M. (2005). LEXICAL PRIMING. LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
MITCHELL, T. (1971).LINGUISTIC ‘GOINGS-ON’: COLLOCATIONS AND OTHER
LEXICAL MATTERS ARISING ON THE LINGUISTIC RECORD, ARCHIVUM
LINGUISTICUM 2.
O’KEEFE, A., MCCARTHY, M., CARTER, R. (2007). FROM CORPUS TO
CLASSROOM. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (2002). HOW TO TEACH VOCABULARY. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
COLLOCATION
TWO OR MORE WORDS THAT OCCUR TOGETHER MORE OFTEN THAN ON A
RANDOM BASIS ARE SAID TO COLLOCATE OR TO BE COLLOCATIONS.
COLLOCATIONS MAY BE STRONG E.G. BLOND HAIR. IN STRONG
COLLOCATIONS THE WORDS CAN RARELY, IF EVER, BE REPLACED BY OTHER
WORDS. OTHER COLLOCATIONS ARE WEAKER OR WEAK E.G. GREY HAIR. THE
TERM IS SOMETIMES USED INTERCHANGEABLY WITH CHUNK. IN THIS
SENSE COLLOCATION CAN COVER E.G.: PHRASAL VERBS, COMPOUND WORDS,
IDIOMS, FIXED EXPRESSIONS.
OTHERS USE COLLOCATION TO REFER MAINLY TO TWO- OR THREE-WORD
GROUPS THAT FREQUENTLY OCCUR TOGETHER. CORPORA MAKING USE OF
CONCORDANCE PROGRAMMES HAVE HELPED LINGUISTS FIND COLLOCATIONS
IN LANGUAGE AND REALISE HOW VERY COMMON THEY ARE.
EXAMPLE
"TO HAVE A SHOWER IS A COLLOCATION IN UK ENGLISH AND AUSTRALIAN,
WHEREAS TO TAKE A SHOWER IS A MUCH MORE COMMON COLLOCATION IN
THE USA."
FURTHER READING
LEWIS, M. (1997). IMPLEMENTING THE LEXICAL APPROACH. BOSTON, MASS.,
THOMSON HEINLE.
MCCARTHY, M. AND O’DELL, F. (2005). COLLOCATIONS IN USE. CAMBRIDGE:
O’KEEFE, A., MCCARTHY, M., CARTER, R. (2007). FROM CORPUS TO
WALTER, E. AND WOODFORD, K. (2010).COLLOCATIONS EXTRA. CAMBRIDGE:
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE REFERS TO AN ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE
THAT DEPENDS NOT JUST ON LINGUISTIC ABILITY BUT ALSO
SOCIOLINGUISTIC ABILITY, INCLUDING APPROPRIATE USE OF LANGUAGE,
MANAGEMENT OF DISCOURSE AND RECOGNISING CULTURAL PRACTICES IN
COMMUNICATION E.G. WHO MAKES EYE CONTACT WITH WHO. THE GROWING
AWARENESS OF COMMUNICATIVE AS OPPOSED TO LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE
HAD A BIG IMPACT ON LANGUAGE TEACHING AND WAS BEHIND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH.
EXAMPLE
THE USE OF VIDEO IN THE CLASSROOM HAS MADE IT EASIER FOR TEACHERS
TO FOCUS ON COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE, AS THEY CAN SHOW CLIPS IN
WHICH COMMUNICATION BECOMES PROBLEMATIC, FOR EXAMPLE, BECAUSE
THE PARTICIPANTS DON’T FOLLOW CULTURAL NORMS FOR TURN TAKING,
OR USE THE WRONG REGISTER AND GIVE OFFENCE. VIDEO SHOWS
LANGUAGE IN CONTEXT AND CAN LEAD TO AWARENESS AND DISCUSSION OF
APPROPRIACY.
FURTHER READING
BACHMAN, LYLE (1990).FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN LANGUAGE
TESTING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
CANALE, M., SWAIN, M (1980). THEORETICAL BASES OF COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACHES TO SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING AND TESTING. APPLIED
LINGUISTICS (1).
HYMES, D. H. (1972). ON COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE. IN PRIDE, J. B., &
HOLMES, J. (EDS.),SOCIOLINGUISTICS, BALTIMORE, USA: PENGUIN
EDUCATION.
RICHARDS, J. AND RODGERS, T.S. (2001). APPROACHES AND METHODS IN
SAVIGNON, SANDRA (1997).COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: THEORY AND
CLASSROOM PRACTICE: TEXTS AND CONTEXTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE
LEARNING (2ND ED.). NEW YORK: MCGRAW-HILL.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/COMMUNIC
ATIVE-COMPETENCE
COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS
THIS TERM REFERS TO A WAY OF CLASSIFYING VOCABULARY. THE
LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS
DEFINES IT AS FOLLOWS:
AN APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF MEANING WHICH ANALYSES A WORD INTO
A SET OF MEANING COMPONENTS OR SEMANTIC FEATURES. FOR EXAMPLE,
THE MEANING OF THE ENGLISH WORD BOY MAY BE SHOWN AS:
<+HUMAN> <+MALE> <- ADULT>
(LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND APPLIED
LINGUISTICS)
EXAMPLE
SOMETIMES YOU SEE EXERCISES, LIKE THIS ONE, IN ELT MATERIALS BASED
ON COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS:

LAZILY
PURPOSEFULLY
CAUTIOUSLY
WITH DIFFICULTY
FORCEFULLY
IN A MILITARY CONTEXT
IN THE COUNTRYSIDE
IN THE CITY / AT THE SEASIDE
STROLL
+

+

STAGGER

+

TIPTOE

+

AMBLE
+

STOMP

+?

+

STRIDE

+

+

SAUNTER
+

PROMENADE
+

+
TRAMP

+

MARCH

+

+
+

PARADE

+

+
+

PACE

RAMBLE
+

+

HIKE

+

TRAIPSE

+

FURTHER READING
CHANNEL, J. (1981). APPLYING SEMANTIC THEORY TO VOCABULARY
TEACHING. ELT JOURNAL /35.
GAIRNES, R. AND REDMAN, S. (1986). WORKING WITH WORDS. CAMBRIDGE:
GODDARD, C. (2011). SEMANTIC ANALYSIS. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
RICHARDS, J. AND SCHMIDT, R. (2010). LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF LANGUAGE
TEACHING AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS, 4TH EDITION. HARLOW: PEARSON.
RUDZKA, B.,.CHANNELL, J., PUTSEYS Y. AND. OSTYN P. (1981). THE WORDS
YOU NEED. OXFORD:MACMILLAN.
RUDZKA, B.,.CHANNELL, J., PUTSEYS Y. AND. OSTYN P. (1985). MORE WORDS
YOU NEED. OXFORD:MACMILLAN.
COMPOUND WORDS
COMPOUND WORDS ARE COMBINATIONS OF WORDS WHICH TOGETHER FORM
ONE PART OF SPEECH AND HAVE ONE MEANING. THEY ARE WRITTEN AS ONE
WORD, HYPHENATED OR AS SEPARATE WORDS. COMPOUND WORDS CAN BE
DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH E.G. NOUNS, VERBS, PREPOSITIONS,
ADJECTIVES.
EXAMPLE
SOME PEOPLE DON’T REALISE THAT GROUPS OF WORDS LIKE IN SPITE
OF AND WITHOUT ARE COMPOUND WORDS.
FURTHER READING
LONGMAN.
LIEBER, R. & ŠTEKAUER P. EDS. (2009).THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF
COMPOUNDING, EDS. OXFORD:
PLAG, I. (2003) WORD-FORMATION IN ENGLISH, CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
TAYLOR, D. (1990). COMPOUND WORD STRESS. ELT JOURNAL 45/1.
COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT
SEE INPUT HYPOTHESIS
CONCORDANCER
A SOFTWARE PROGRAMME THAT DISPLAYS THE WORDS WITH WHICH A WORD
COLLOCATES. THE PROGRAMME PRESENTS THE WORDS, USUALLY LISTED
ALPHABETICALLY, IN LINES GIVING LINGUISTIC CONTEXT WITH
COLLOCATIONS TO THE LEFT OR THE RIGHT OF THE WORD, AS IN THIS
EXAMPLE:
CONCORDANCERS CAN BE BASED ON DIFFERENT SIZES AND KINDS OF

TEXTS. THEY ALLOW RESEARCHERS TO STUDY AUTHENTIC LANGUAGE USE.
THEY CAN ALSO BE USED BY LEARNERS TO SEE PATTERNS,
FREQUENCIES AND POSSIBILITIES OF COLLOCATION IN THEIR OWN OR
OTHERS’ LANGUAGE OUTPUT.
EXAMPLE
"ONCE STUDENTS GET USED TO WORKING WITH A CONCORDANCER THEY CAN
FIND IT REALLY USEFUL FOR SPOTTING PATTERNS AND POSSIBILITIES IN
LANGUAGE CHUNKING."
CONCORDANCERS CAN BE BASED ON DIFFERENT SIZES AND KINDS OF
TEXTS. THEY ALLOW RESEARCHERS TO STUDY AUTHENTIC LANGUAGE USE.
THEY CAN ALSO BE USED BY LEARNERS TO SEE
PATTERNS, FREQUENCIES AND POSSIBILITIES OF COLLOCATION IN THEIR
OWN OR OTHERS’ LANGUAGE OUTPUT.
FURTHER READING
CONCORDANCERS IN ELT, NICK
PEACHEY, HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/CONCORDANC
ERS-ELT
COBB, T. (1997) THE COMPLEAT LEXICAL TUTOR HTTP://WWW.LEXTUTOR.CA/
CONJUNCT/DISJUNCT
A CONJUNCT IS ANOTHER TERM FOR A LINKER. A CONJUNCT IS A WORD OR
PHRASE WHICH LINKS A PREVIOUS SENTENCE OR UTTERANCE TO THE NEXT
ONE BY SHOWING THE SENSE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEM. CONJUNCTS
MAY BE CONJUNCTIONS, ADVERBS OR DISCOURSE MARKERS.
A DISJUNCT IS AN ADVERB USED IN A SENTENCE AS AN ATTITUDE MARKER
TO INDICATE THE SPEAKER’S OR WRITER’S POINT OF VIEW. A DISJUNCT
OFTEN MODIFIES THE MEANING OF THE WHOLE SENTENCE. CONFUSINGLY, IT
IS SOMETIMES ALSO REFERRED TO AS A DISCOURSE MARKER.
EXAMPLE
THEN, HOWEVER, IN OTHER WORDS, AS I WAS SAYING, BUT, ALTHOUGH ARE
ALL EXAMPLES OF KINDS OF CONJUNCTS. THEY SHOW DIFFERENT KINDS OF
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO SENTENCES E.G. CONCESSION, CONTRAST,
RESULT, SUMMATION. HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A CONJUNCT SHOWING A
RELATIONSHIP OF TIME: SHE FILLED UP HER CAR WITH PETROL THEN WENT
TO THE BANK.
IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE ‘ACTUALLY’ IS AN EXAMPLE OF A
DISJUNCT: ACTUALLY, I’VE NO IDEA WHAT HE MEANT. IT SHOWS THE
SPEAKER’S ATTITUDE TO THE REST OF THE SENTENCE. SOME OTHER
EXAMPLES OF DISJUNCTS ARE FRANKLY, TO BE HONEST, HONESTLY,
PERSONALLY, FORTUNATELY.
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
CONJUNCTION
A CONJUNCTION IS A CLASS OF WORD WHICH JOINS WORDS, PHRASES,
SENTENCES OR PARAGRAPHS. THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF CONJUNCTION:
COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING. THE FORMER JOIN EQUAL
COMPONENTS WHEREAS THE LATTER JOIN A MAIN AND A DEPENDENT
COMPONENT. CONJUNCTIONS, UNLIKE CONJUNCTS, ARE PART OF THE
SENTENCE THEY APPEAR IN.
EXAMPLE
HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A COORDINATING CONJUNCTION IN A SENTENCE: I
WENT TO THE SHOPS AND BOUGHT SOMETHING TO EAT . AND, BUT,
AND OR ARE COMMON COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.
HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION IN A
SENTENCE: AFTER I HAD GONE TO THE SHOPS I BOUGHT SOMETHING TO
EAT. THERE ARE MANY EXAMPLES OF SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
E.G. AFTER, BEFORE, WHEN, ALTHOUGH, BECAUSE, AS A RESULT OF, DUE TO.
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
2NDEDITION. CAMBRIDGE:
CONNECTED SPEECH
THIS REFERS TO THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH AS A CONTINUOUS STREAM
RATHER THAN AS A SEQUENCE OF SEPARATE SOUNDS. IN CONNECTED
SPEECH, INDIVIDUAL SOUNDS MAY BE DIFFERENT FROM THEIR CITATION
PRONUNCIATION, AS THEY ARE AFFECTED BY PROCESSES SUCH AS
ASSIMILATION, ELISION, LIAISON (LINKING) AND SHORTENING.
EXAMPLE
IT’S OFTEN QUITE EASY TO UNDERSTAND WORDS IN ISOLATION, BUT WHEN
THEY’RE PART OF CONNECTED SPEECH THEY CAN BE MUCH MORE DIFFICULT
TO RECOGNISE. A CLASSIC EXAMPLE OF THIS IS ‘WHAT DO YOU…?’, WHICH
BECOMES /WɒDƷƏ/ IN CONNECTED SPEECH.
FURTHER READING
CELCE MURCIA, M. BRINTON, D., GOODWIN, J. (1996). TEACHING
PRONUNCIATION: A REFERENCE FOR TEACHERS OF ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF
DALTON, C. AND SEIDLHOFER, B. (2004) PRONUNCIATION. OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/CONNECTED-SPEECH-2
HTTP://WWW.BBC.CO.UK/WORLDSERVICE/LEARNINGENGLISH/GRAMMAR/PRO
N/FEATURES/CONNECTED.SHTML
LEARNING ENGLISH – I WOULD LIKE TO BUY A HAMBURGER. RETRIEVED
FROM
CONNOTATION
A CONNOTATION IS THE EMOTIONAL ASSOCIATION ATTACHED TO A WORD
COLLECTIVELY OR BY AN INDIVIDUAL. FOR EXAMPLES, DOGS IN SOME
CULTURES HAVE THE CONNOTATION OF BEING SOFT, LOYAL CREATURES. IN
OTHER CULTURES THEY ARE CONSIDERED DANGEROUS AND DIRTY.
KNOWING THE CONNOTATION OF A WORD IS PART OF KNOWING A WORD.
EXAMPLE
"MY PERSONAL CONNOTATION FOR YOGHURT IS AS SOMETHING HEALTHY,
LIGHT AND EATEN AT BREAKFAST. FOR MY MOTHER IT WAS SOMETHING WEIRD
AND UNFAMILIAR."
FURTHER READING
GAIRNS, R. AND REDMAN, S. (1986). WORKING WITH WORDS: A GUIDE TO
TEACHING AND LEARNING VOCABULARY. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
KLIPPEL, F. (1994). CULTURAL ASPECTS IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE
TEACHING. JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF BRITISH CULTURES. I/1.
SCHMITT, N. AND MCCARTHY, M. (ED.S) (1997). VOCABULARY:
DESCRIPTION, ACQUISITION, PEDAGOGY. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
TOMALIN, B. AND STEMPLESKI, S. (1993). CULTURAL AWARENESS.OXFORD:
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2013/06/02/V-IS-FOR-
VOCABULARY-TEACHING/
CONSOLIDATE
WHEN TEACHERS OR LEARNERS STRENGTHEN OR REINFORCE PREVIOUS
LEARNING THEY CONSOLIDATE IT. FOR EXAMPLE, A LEARNER MAY GO HOME
AND DO MEMORY GAMES ON THE VOCABULARY THEY LEARNT IN CLASS
THAT DAY, OR A TEACHER MIGHT DO A REVISION ACTIVITY OF A NEWLY
LEARNT SKILL. LESSONS OFTEN CONTAIN A CONSOLIDATION STAGE DURING
WHICH THE TEACHER AIMS TO REINFORCE NEW LANGUAGE OR IDEAS
INTRODUCED EARLIER ON IN THE LESSON.
EXAMPLE
"I NEVER REMEMBER LANGUAGE IF I JUST MEET IT ONCE. I ALWAYS NEED TO
DO ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES THAT HELP ME CONSOLIDATE MY LEARNING."
FURTHER READING
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHERS.CAMBRIDGEESOL.ORG/TS/DIGITALASSETS/110970_T
KT_GLOSSARY_AUGUST_2009_FINAL.PDF
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/CONSOLID
ATION
CONSONANT
A CONSONANT IS A SPEECH SOUND MADE WHEN THE AIR WE BREATHE OUT
IS IN SOME WAY BLOCKED BY AN ARTICULATOR (SEE ARTICULATOR). THERE
ARE 24 CONSONANT SOUNDS IN ENGLISH, PRODUCED IN EIGHT DIFFERENT
PLACES IN THE MOUTH, AS CAN BE SEEN ON THE PHONEMIC CHART
(SEE PHONEMIC CHART).
EXAMPLE
I NEVER THINK OF / Ŋ/ AS BEING A CONSONANT. IT SOUNDS MORE LIKE A
VOWEL. BUT IN FACT WHEN YOU SAY IT YOU CAN FEEL YOUR GLOTTIS
MOVING IN AND BLOCKING THE OUTCOMING AIR.
FURTHER READING
HTTP://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/APPS/SOUNDS-RIGHT
HTTPS://ESOL.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/CONTENT/LEARNERS/SKILLS/PRONUNCI
ATION
N/
CONSTRUCTIVISM
THIS IS THE THEORY THAT KNOWLEDGE IS ACTIVELY CONSTRUCTED BY
INDIVIDUALS RATHER THAN BEING THE FRUIT OF PASSIVE ABSORPTION OF
FACTS. ACCORDING TO CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY EACH INDIVIDUAL
INTERPRETS AND ORGANISES THE KNOWLEDGE THEY RECEIVE ACCORDING
TO THEIR OWN PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE OF THE WORLD. THIS
THEORY SUPPORTS A LEARNER-CENTRED CLASSROOM IN WHICH LEARNERS
ARE GIVEN THE OPPORTUNITY TO EXPLORE, PERSONALISE AND APPLY
KNOWLEDGE.
EXAMPLE
CLIL OFTEN ADOPTS A CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO LEARNING THROUGH
ITS ADOPTION OF GROUP WORK, PROBLEM-SOLVING AND INTERACTIVE
LEARNING.
FURTHER READING
DALE, L. AND TANNER, R. (2012). CLIL ACTIVITIES. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MERCER, S., RYAN, S., WILLIAMS, M. (2012). PSYCHOLOGY FOR LANGUAGE
LEARNING: INSIGHTS FROM RESEARCH, THEORY AND PRACTICE.
BASINGSTOKE: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN.WILLIAMS, M. AND BURDEN, L.A.
(1997). PSYCHOLOGY FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS: A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST
APPROACH. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.LEXTUTOR.CA/CV/CONSTRUCTIVISM_ENTRY.HTM
CONTEXT
THIS TERM IS USED IN ELT TO REFER EITHER TO THE SITUATIONAL (WHERE
AND WHEN) CONTEXT IN WHICH SOMETHING HAPPENS, OR TO THE
LANGUAGE SURROUNDING WORDS IN A SENTENCE OR UTTERANCE
(SOMETIMES CALLED CO-TEXT). M.A.K. HALLIDAY PROPOSED THAT A
SITUATIONAL CONTEXT CONTAINS THREE COMPONENTS: FIELD (SUBJECT
MATTER), TENOR (SOCIAL RELATIONS BETWEEN INTERACTANTS) AND MODE
(THE WAY IN WHICH LANGUAGE IS USED), WHICH STRONGLY INFLUENCE
THE REGISTER OF LANGUAGE. THE CONTEXTS IN WHICH LANGUAGES ARE
LEARNT AND TAUGHT ARE ALSO MUCH DISCUSSED IN ELT THESE DAYS.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN WE TEACH LEARNERS NEW LANGUAGE IT’S IMPORTANT TO PUT IT
IN CONTEXT – THIS HELPS THEM UNDERSTAND ITS MEANING."
FURTHER READING
BROWN, H. DOUGLAS. (1994) PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND
TEACHING, 3RD EDITION. ENGLEWOOD CLIFFS, NJ: PRENTICE HALL REGENTS.
CELCE-MURCIA. . (2001) DISCOURSE AND CONTEXT IN LANGUAGE TEACHING:
A GUIDE FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
KRAMSCH, C. (1998). LANGUAGE AND CULTURE. OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HOLLIDAY, A. WITH MARTIN HYDE AND JOHN KULLMAN
(2010). INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION: AN ADVANCED RESOURCE BOOK
FOR STUDENTS, 2ND EDITION. OXFORD: ROUTLEDGE.
CONTINUOUS ASPECT
SEE ASPECT
CONTROLLED/RESTRICTED PRACTICE
CONTROLLED/RESTRICTED PRACTICE IS THE SECOND STAGE IN
PRESENTATION, PRACTICE, PRODUCTION (PPP). THIS KIND OF PRACTICE
INVOLVES STUDENTS IN USING TARGET LANGUAGE IN A GUIDED AND
RESTRICTED WAY IN WHICH THEY HAVE LITTLE CHOICE OVER WHAT
LANGUAGE TO USE. EXAMPLES OF CONTROLLED PRACTICE ACTIVITIES ARE
REPETITION AND SUBSTITUTION DRILLS. THIS KIND OF PRACTICE IS AIMED
AT PROVIDING LEARNERS WITH STRONGLY GUIDED SUPPORT IN THEIR USE
OF NEWLY OR POORLY LEARNT LANGUAGE ITEMS.
EXAMPLE
"SOMETIMES I TRY TO DISGUISE CONTROLLED PRACTICE IN GUIDED ROLE
PLAYS OR PAIR WORK. I GIVE STUDENTS PROMPTS SO THEY CAN’T MAKE
MISTAKES. IT’S MORE INTERESTING LIKE THAT RATHER THAN JUST DOING
CHORAL DRILLS."
FURTHER READING
SCRIVENER, J. (2011). LEARNING TEACHING, 3RD EDITION. OXFORD:
MACMILLAN.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
CONVERSION
CONVERSION IS A LINGUISTIC TERM THAT DESCRIBES A WORD’S CHANGE
FROM ONE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY TO ANOTHER. AN EXAMPLE OF THIS IN
ENGLISH IS ‘TO BIG SOMETHING UP’ WHERE THE ADJECTIVE ‘BIG’ IS
NOWADAYS OFTEN COMBINED WITH ‘UP’ TO MAKE A PHRASAL VERB
MEANING ‘TO RECOGNISE THE IMPORTANCE OF SOMETHING’ OR ‘TO PRAISE’
IT.
THE TERM ‘CONVERSION’ IS OFTEN USED INTERCHANGEABLY WITH
‘FUNCTIONAL SHIFT’, THOUGH SOME PEOPLE SAY THAT CONVERSION
REFERS TO A CHANGE IN LEXICAL MEANING WHILE FUNCTIONAL SHIFT
REFERS TO A CHANGE IN SYNTACTIC MEANING.
EXAMPLE
ENGLISH IS FULL OF WORDS THAT ARE THE RESULT OF CONVERSION, FOR
EXAMPLE THE VERB TO HAND FROM THE NOUN HAND, USING A COLOUR
ADJECTIVE AS A NOUN E.G. THE REDS, THE GREENS, THE BLACKS, OR
USING UP AS A VERB IN E.G. AFTER THE MEAL, THEY JUST UPPED AND WENT
HOME.
FURTHER READING
CRYSTAL, D. (2004). THE STORIES OF ENGLISH. NEW YORK: THE OVERLOOK
PRESS.
FOWLER, H.W. (2000). FOWLER'S MODERN ENGLISH USAGE. NEW YORK:
HUDDLESTON, R. & PULLAM, G. (2002). THE CAMBRIDGE GRAMMAR OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. NEW YORK: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF TEACHING AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS (2010).
HARLOW: PEARSON.
CORPUS/CORPORA
CORPORA ARE COLLECTIONS OF SPOKEN AND/ OR WRITTEN LANGUAGE THAT
ARE STORED AND PROCESSED ELECTRONICALLY. CORPORA ARE USED IN
CORPUS LINGUISTICS TO FIND PATTERNS IN LANGUAGE USE E.G. THE
COLLOCATIONS OF WORDS, GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES IN SPOKEN
LANGUAGE, WORD FREQUENCIES, TYPES OF ERROR. CORPORA IN ELT CAN
CONTAIN A RANGE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEXTS OR BE BASED ON
PARTICULAR GENRES E.G. ESP TEXTS, OR ON PROFICIENT SPEAKER OR
LEARNER ENGLISH. EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE CORPORA ARE
THE BRITISH NATIONAL CORPUS (BNA), CORPUS OF CONTEMPORARY
AMERICAN ENGLISH (COCA), CAMBRIDGE ENGLISH CORPUS (CEC), THE
LOUVAIN CORPUS OF NATIVE ENGLISH ESSAYS (LOCNESS).
EXAMPLE
"THE CORPUS SHOWS THIS WORD COLLOCATES MORE FREQUENTLY

WITH SLIGHTLY THAN WITH A LITTLE."
FURTHER READING
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CORPUS LINGUISTICS, JOHN BENJAMIN
PUBLISHING.
CARTER, RONALD & MCCARTHY, MICHAEL (1995): GRAMMAR AND THE
SPOKEN LANGUAGE. APPLIED LINGUISTICS 16:2, 141-158.
CHENG, W., WARREN, M. & XU X.F. (2003). THE LANGUAGE LEARNER AS
LANGUAGE RESEARCHER: PUTTING CORPUS LINGUISTICS ON THE
TIMETABLE. SYSTEM 31:2, 173-186.
GRANGER, S.; HUNG, J. & PETCH-TYSON, S. (EDS) (2002). COMPUTER
LEARNER CORPORA, SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND FOREIGN
LANGUAGE TEACHING. AMSTERDAM: BENJAMINS.
O’KEEFE, A., MCCARTHY, M., CARTER, R. (2007.) FROM CORPUS TO
SINCLAIR, J. ED. (2004) HOW TO USE CORPORA IN LANGUAGE TEACHING, JOHN
BENJAMINS PUBLISHING.
COURSE OF STUDY
THIS TERM IS USED IN TWO DIFFERENT WAYS. IT REFERS TO A SET OF
LESSONS OR WORKSHOPS MAKING UP A WHOLE. IN THIS SENSE IT IS
SYNONYMOUS WITH ‘COURSE’.
IT IS ALSO USED TO REFER TO A PROGRAMME OF STUDY INTO WHICH
DIFFERENT COURSES ARE INTEGRATED.
EXAMPLE
IN THIS EXAMPLE COURSE IS USED IN BOTH ITS MEANINGS, WHICH MAKES
THE EXAMPLE POTENTIALLY A LITTLE CONFUSING!
THE COURSE I TOOK IN ITALIAN AT UNIVERSITY WAS MADE UP OF LOTS OF
DIFFERENT COURSES E.G. MEDIEVAL LITERATURE, PHILOLOGY,
ETYMOLOGY, 19TH CENTURY HISTORY.
FURTHER READING
NO FURTHER READING IS PROVIDED FOR THIS GENERAL WORD.
CURRICULUM
THIS TERM IS USED TO REFER TO SYLLABUS (SEE SYLLABUS), LEARNING
OBJECTIVES, METHODS OF ASSESSMENT, TEACHING METHODS AND
MATERIALS.
THE TERM IS ALSO SOMETIMES USED SYNONYMOUSLY WITH SYLLABUS.
EXAMPLE
WRITING A CURRICULUM FOR A PARTICULAR LEARNING SITUATION
INVOLVES UNDERSTANDING A LOT ABOUT THE CONTEXT IN WHICH THE
TEACHING AND LEARNING WILL TAKE PLACE.
FURTHER READING
CHRISTISON, M AND MURRAY, D. (2014). WHAT ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHERS NEED TO KNOW,
VOLUME 3. NEW YORK AND LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
GRAVES, K. (1996). TEACHERS AS COURSE DEVELOPERS. CAMBRIDGE:
NATION, I.S.P. AND MACALISTER, J.(2010). LANGUAGE CURRICULUM DESIGN.
OXFORD: ROUTLEDGE.
NUNAN D. 1994. THE LEARNER-CENTERED CURRICULUM. CAMBRIDGE:
NUNAN D. 1996. SYLLABUS DESIGN. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
RICHARDS, J. (2013). CURRICULUM APPROACHES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING:
FORWARD, CENTRAL, AND
BACKWARD DESIGN. RELC JOURNAL 44/1
RICHARDS, J. (2001). CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.PROFESSORJACKRICHARDS.COM/WP-CONTENT/UPLOADS/CURRIC
ULUM-APPROACHES-IN LANGUAGE-TEACHING.PDF.
TOMLINSON B. (2012). LANGUAGE CURRICULUM DESIGN. ELT JOURNAL 66/2.
WHITE, R. (1998). THE ELT CURRICULUM: DESIGN, INNOVATION AND
MANAGEMENT. HOBOKEN, NJ.:WILEY.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/BLOGS/ADMIN/ENGLISH-
LANGUAGE-TEACHING-CURRICULUM-EVALUATION-SHAFAGHI-ALIAKI-
HOSSEINI-AGHAEI
DTOP
DEBATE
A DEBATE IS AN ACTIVITY IN WHICH STUDENTS ARE PLACED IN TWO
GROUPS ARGUING FOR OR AGAINST AN ISSUE. DEBATES CAN BE INFORMAL
OR FORMAL. FORMAL DEBATES MAY FOLLOW RULES, FOR INSTANCE, ON
HOW LONG TO SPEAK, HOW TO INTERRUPT, WHO SPEAKS AFTER WHO,
OBEYING THE CHAIRPERSON AND VOTING ON THE ISSUE AT THE END OF THE
DEBATE. IN ELT, DEBATES ARE USED TO DEVELOP FLUENCY, FOCUS ON
REGISTER AND EXPLORE ISSUES. STUDENTS ARE USUALLY GIVEN
PREPARATION TIME TO PREPARE AND POSSIBLY SCRIPT THEIR ARGUMENTS.
EXAMPLE
"LAST WEEK IN CLASS WE HAD A FORMAL DEBATE ABOUT THE ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGES OF WEARING SCHOOL UNIFORM. IT WAS INTERESTING
BUT I THINK IT MIGHT HAVE BETTER AS AN INFORMAL DISCUSSION INSTEAD –
IN THAT MY WAY STUDENTS WOULD HAVE FELT FREER AND SAID WHAT THEY
REALLY THOUGHT."
FURTHER READING
HARMER, J. (2007). THE PRACTICE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING. HARLOW: PEARSON.
HARMER, J.(2012). ESSENTIAL TEACHER KNOWLEDGE. HARLOW: PEARSON.
DEFINING VOCABULARY
THIS IS VOCABULARY USED BY PEOPLE WRITING DICTIONARIES TO WRITE
DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES. DEFINING VOCABULARY IS HIGH FREQUENCY
VOCABULARY WHICH IS THOUGHT TO BE EASILY AND WIDELY
UNDERSTOOD.
EXAMPLE
MONOLINGUAL LEARNER DICTIONARIES MAKE USE OF A VERY HIGH
FREQUENCY DEFINING VOCABULARY TO TRY TO ENSURE THAT LEARNERS OF
ALL LEVELS CAN UNDERSTAND THE DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES.
FURTHER READING
COWIE, A. P. (2000). THE EFL DICTIONARY PIONEERS AND THEIR
LEGACY: HTTP://WWW.KDICTIONARIES.COM/NEWSLETTER/KDN8-1.HTML
FOX, G. (1989) A VOCABULARY FOR WRITING DICTIONARIES. IN M.L. TICKOO
(1989). LEARNERS’ DICTIONARIES: STATE OF THE ART.
TICKOO, M. L. (1989). INTRODUCTION. IN TICKOO M. L. (ED.): LEARNERS’
DICTIONARIES: STATE OF THE ART. SEAMEO (SINGAPORE).
DEFINITE ARTICLE
SEE ARTICLES
DELEXICAL VERB
THESE ARE VERBS THAT WHEN USED WITH THEIR COMMON COLLOCATIONS
HAVE LITTLE MEANING OF THEIR OWN, THE MEANING COMING FROM THE
COLLOCATION AS A WHOLE E.G. TO HAVE A SHOWER, TO TAKE A BATH, TO
MAKE A MISTAKE.
EXAMPLE
DELEXICAL VERBS IN COLLOCATIONS ARE A GOOD EXAMPLE OF THE
IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING CHUNKS OF LANGUAGE RATHER THAN TRYING
TO WORK OUT THE MEANING OF EACH SINGLE WORD.
FURTHER READING
LEWIS, M. (1993). THE LEXICAL APPROACH. BRIGHTON: LANGUAGE TEACHING
PUBLICATIONS.
HILL, J. (1999) COLLOCATIONAL COMPETENCE. ETP/11.
WILLIS, J. AND WILLIS, D. (1996). CHALLENGE AND CHANGE IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING. OXFORD:
MACMILLAN HEINEMANN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING.
DEMONSTRATIVE
SEE PRONOUN
DENOTATION
THIS TERM REFERS TO THE CORE OR CENTRAL MEANING OF A WORD, I.E. ITS
DIRECT OR LITERAL MEANING RATHER THAN ITS MEANING BY ASSOCIATION
(SEE CONNOTATION).
EXAMPLE
THE DENOTATION OF ‘FACEBOOK’ IS A SOCIAL MEDIA SITE ON WHICH YOU
POST THINGS AND CONTACT PEOPLE. ITS CONNOTATIONS DEPEND A LOT ON
YOUR OPINIONS. FOR SOME IT IS FUN, ESSENTIAL; FOR OTHERS IT IS
INTRUSIVE AND DANGEROUS; FOR YET OTHERS OLD-FASHIONED ETC.
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/WORKING-VOCABULARY
DERIVATION
THIS IS A TERM RELATED TO WORD BUILDING. IT REFERS TO THE
FORMATION OF NEW WORDS, IN ENGLISH BY ADDING A MORPHEME TO A
BASE WORD. THIS SOMETIMES MAKES THE NEW WORD A DIFFERENT PART OF
SPEECH FROM THE BASE WORD.
EXAMPLE
BASE WORD
DERIVATION
HAPPY
UNHAPPY
DECIDE
DECISION
TEACH
TEACHER
PRODUCE
PRODUCTIVE

FURTHER READING
LEWIS, M. (1997). IMPLEMENTING THE LEXICAL APPROACH. BOSTON, MASS.:
THOMSON HEINLE.
SCHMITT, M.AND MCCARTHY, M. (ED.S) (1997). VOCABULARY: DESCRIPTION,
DESCRIPTIVE
SEE PRESCRIPTIVE
DICTOGLOSS
SEE GRAMMAR DICTATION
DIFFERENTIATION
WHEN TEACHERS RECOGNISE THE DIFFERENT NEEDS OF THEIR LEARNERS
AND TRY TO MEET THEM BY CATERING FOR DIFFERENT ABILITIES,
INTERESTS OR LEARNING STYLES. THIS IS DONE THROUGH USE OF A RANGE
OF DIFFERENT TASKS, INPUTS AND OUTPUTS. DIFFERENTIATION HAS A BIG
INFLUENCE ON LESSON PLANNING AND THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS AND
TASKS.
EXAMPLE
"IT HAS BECOME MORE IMPORTANT FOR TEACHERS TO
BRING DIFFERENTIATION INTO THEIR CLASSROOMS AS THEY HAVE
INCREASINGLY ACKNOWLEDGED THE RANGE OF ABILITIES, INTERESTS AND
BACKGROUNDS OF LEARNERS."
FURTHER READING
PRODROMOU, L. (1992) MIXED ABILITY CLASSES. OXFORD: MACMILLAN
SCRIVENER, J. (2012). CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES. CAMBRIDGE:
TICE, J. (1997) THE MIXED ABILITY CLASS. LONDON:RICHMOND PUBLISHING.
HTTPS://ELT-RESOURCEFUL.COM/2012/02/17/IDEAS-FOR-PROVIDING-
DIFFERENTIATION-THAT-DONT-INVOLVE-WRITING-DIFFERENT-MATERIALS-
AND-A-DIFFERENT-PLAN-FOR-EACH-STUDENT-IN-THE-CLASS-2/
DIPHTHONG
A DIPHTHONG IS A SOUND IN WHICH ONE VOWEL SOUND GLIDES TOWARDS
ANOTHER, AS IN /BƆɪ/, /SEɪ/, HɪƏ/. IN RP ENGLISH THERE ARE 8
DIPHTHONGS.
EXAMPLE
YOU CAN SEE THE RP ENGLISH DIPHTHONGS IN THE TOP RIGHT HAND
CORNER OF THE PHONEMIC CHART, WHICH YOU CAN FIND (WITH AUDIO)
AT HTTP://WWW.ENGLISHCLUB.COM/PRONUNCIATION/PHONEMIC-CHART-
IA.HTM
FURTHER READING
LONGMAN.
HTTP://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/APPS/SOUNDS-RIGHT
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/SITES/TEACHENG/FILES/TEPHONEMI
C_GREYBLUE2_0.SWF
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/DIPHTHO
NG
DIRECT METHOD
A METHOD OF LANGUAGE TEACHING POPULAR UNTIL THE EARLY 1950S. THE
METHOD ADVOCATED THE USE OF ONLY THE TARGET LANGUAGE IN THE
CLASSROOM, AND THE USE OF STUDENT-TEACHER DIALOGUE SUPPORTED BY
VISUALS SUCH AS GESTURES OR PHOTOS.
EXAMPLE
WHEN I LEARNT RUSSIAN MY TEACHER USED THE DIRECT METHOD. SHE
WOULD DO THINGS ROUND THE CLASSROOM OR TALK ABOUT OBJECTS OR
PICTURES SHE SHOWED US, DESCRIBING HER ACTIONS OR THE PICTURES
AND THEN ASKING US QUESTIONS ABOUT THEM. IN SOME WAYS IT WAS
QUITE SIMILAR TO THE WAY IN WHICH A PARENT TEACHES A CHILD
LANGUAGE.
FURTHER READING
HOWATT, A.P.R. AND WIDDOWSON, H. (2004). A HISTORY OF ENGLISH
RICHARDS, J. AND RIDGERS, T. (2001). APPROACHES AND METHODS IN
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/DIRECT-
METHOD
DISCOURSE
THIS REFERS TO STRETCHES OF CONNECTED WRITTEN OR SPOKEN
LANGUAGE THAT ARE USUALLY MORE THAN ONE SENTENCE OR UTTERANCE
LONG. SEEING STRETCHES OF LANGUAGE AS DISCOURSE RATHER THAN SETS
OF GRAMMATICAL PATTERNS ALLOWS US TO ANALYSE IT FOR BOTH THE
INTERNAL LINGUISTIC LINKS IT CONTAINS AND THE EXTERNAL LINKS IT
MAKES TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN I LEARNT ENGLISH AT SCHOOL WE RARELY USED LANGUAGE
AS DISCOURSE. THE TEACHER LIMITED OUR LANGUAGE USE MAINLY TO SHORT
SENTENCES. WE CERTAINLY NEVER LOOKED AT THINGS LIKE COHERENCE AND
COHESION."
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (2005). BEYOND THE SENTENCE: INTRODUCING DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/DISCOURS
E
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2011/01/09/D-IS-FOR-DISCOURSE/
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
THE STUDY OF HOW SENTENCES AND UTTERANCES JOIN TOGETHER TO MAKE
‘WHOLES’, I.E. STUDY OF THE VARIOUS WAYS IN WHICH SENTENCES OR
UTTERANCES ACHIEVE COHERENCE AND COHESION.
EXAMPLE
"DISCOURSE ANALYSIS HAS MADE US AWARE OF ALL THE DIFFERENT
COHESIVE DEVICES THERE ARE IN WRITING, FOR EXAMPLE, CONJUNCTIONS,
BACKWARD AND FORWARD REFERENCING, SUBSTITUTION. KNOWING ABOUT
THESE THINGS HELPS US TO TEACH LEARNERS TO WRITE BETTER."
FURTHER READING
CELCE-MURCIA, M,. & OLSHTAIN, E. (2000).DISCOURSE AND CONTEXT IN
LANGUAGE TEACHING. NEW YORK: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HATCH, E. (1992).DISCOURSE AND LANGUAGE EDUCATION. NEW YORK:
JOHNSON, K. (1995).UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SECOND LANGUAGE
CLASSROOMS.NEW YORK: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MCCARTHY, M. (1992). DISCOURSE ANALYSIS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS. NEW
YORK: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.CAL.ORG/RESOURCES/DIGEST/0107DEMO.HTML
DISCOURSE MARKER
A DISCOURSE MARKER IS A WORD OR GROUP OF WORDS, OFTEN AT THE
BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE OR UTTERANCE, WHICH SIGNAL(S) TO THE
LISTENER OR READER THE DIRECTION IN WHICH THE SPEAKER OR WRITER
INTENDS TO CONTINUE WHAT THEY ARE SAYING. EXAMPLES OF DISCOURSE
MARKERS ARE AS I WAS SAYING, TO SUM UP, BY THE WAY. LINKERS ARE ALSO
SOMETIMES SAID TO BE DISCOURSE MARKERS.
EXAMPLE
"IT’S USEFUL TO TEACH DISCOURSE MARKERS TO LEARNERS. THEY HELP
LEARNERS STRUCTURE WHAT THEY ARE SAYING OR WRITING AND MAKE THE
PURPOSE OF WHAT THEY ARE SAYING CLEARER."
FURTHER READING
COOK, G. (1989) DISCOURSE. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HEDGE, T. (2005). WRITING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (2005) BEYOND THE SENTENCE. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
WIDDOWSON, H.G. (2007) DISCOURSE ANALYSIS. OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
DISCRETE
ISOLATED, DISTINCT, BY ITSELF. THIS TERM IS USED TO REFER TO THE
TEACHING OR TESTING OF LANGUAGE ITEMS, WHEN THEY ARE FOCUSSED ON
SEPARATELY FROM OTHERS AND IN A MINIMAL CONTEXT. A TEACHER
MIGHT, FOR EXAMPLE, GIVE STUDENTS AN EXERCISE JUST
PRACTISING MODAL MUST, OR A DRILL ON THE WORD STRESS IN NEW
VOCABULARY.
IN LANGUAGE TESTS, MULTIPLE CHOICE IS OFTEN USED TO PROVIDE A
DISCRETE FOCUS ON SPECIFIC GRAMMAR ITEMS. CORRECTION IS OFTEN
DISCRETE TOO, FOCUSSING ON SPECIFIC LANGUAGE ITEMS.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN I LISTENED TO MY STUDENTS DOING A GROUP DISCUSSION IT WAS
CLEAR THEY WERE HAVING REAL PROBLEMS WITH THE FORMS OF SOME
IRREGULAR PAST TENSES, SO THE NEXT LESSON I JUST FOCUSSED ON THESE,
DOING NOTICING ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES – A DISCRETE APPROACH –
BEFORE COMBINING THEM INTO ANOTHER GROUP DISCUSSION IN THE
FOLLOWING LESSON."
FURTHER READING
DAVIES, A. BROWN, A. ET AL. (1999). DICTIONARY OF LANGUAGE TESTING.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/DISCRETE-
ITEM
DISCRETE-ITEM AND INTEGRATIVE TESTS

DISCRETE-ITEM TESTS FOCUS ON ELICITING AND EVALUATING PARTS OF
LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY SEPARATELY, E.G. GRAMMAR, LEXIS,
PRONUNCIATION. INTEGRATIVE TESTS AIM TO ELICIT AND ASSESS
LANGUAGE USE AS A WHOLE. MULTIPLE CHOICE GRAMMAR ITEMS ARE AN
EXAMPLE OF DISCRETE-ITEM TESTING, WHEREAS INTERVIEWS ARE
INTEGRATIVE TESTS.
EXAMPLE
IT IS OFTEN EASIER TO DESIGN AND MARK DISCRETE-ITEM TESTS BECAUSE
THEY FOCUS ON JUST ONE THING E.G. TENSES. INTEGRATIVE TESTS, WHICH
FOCUS ON ASSESSING E.G. LEARNERS’ ABILITY TO SPEAK OR WRITE ARE
MORE COMPLEX TO MARK RELIABLY.
FURTHER READING
H.D. BROWN (2004). LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT: PRINCIPLES AND CLASSROOM
PRACTICES. HARLOW: PEARSON LONGMAN.
OLLER J.W. (1983). ISSUES IN LANGUAGE TESTING RESEARCH. ROWLEY MA:
NEWBURY HOUSE.
DISPLAY QUESTION
THIS IS A QUESTION THAT A TEACHER ASKS IN THE CLASSROOM IN ORDER
TO GET THE STUDENT TO ‘DISPLAY’ OR SHOW THEIR LEARNING RATHER
THAN BECAUSE THE TEACHER IS INTERESTED IN THE INFORMATION
CONTENT OF THE REPLY. IN FACT, THE TEACHER OFTEN KNOWS THE
ANSWER TO A DISPLAY QUESTION BEFORE IT IS GIVEN. DISPLAY QUESTIONS
ARE SOMETIMES CRITICISED FOR BEING RATHER MEANINGLESS AND NON-
COMMUNICATIVE BUT THEY CAN IN FACT BE USEFUL IN CHECKING
LEARNING. DISPLAY QUESTIONS ARE OFTEN CONTRASTED WITH
REFERENTIAL QUESTIONS (SEE REFERENTIAL QUESTIONS).
EXAMPLE
IN THIS EXCHANGE THE TEACHER’S FIRST QUESTION IS A DISPLAY
QUESTION WHEREAS THE SECOND IS NOT.
TEACHER: MARIA, WHAT’S THE PAST OF ‘TELL’?
MARIA: TOLD
TEACHER: CAN YOU TELL US WHAT YOU THINK ABOUT USING YOUTUBE IN
THE CLASSROOM?
MARIA: IT’S GREAT – IT REALLY MAKES US INTERESTED IN THE LESSON.
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
TSUI, A.B.M. (1995). INTRODUCING CLASSROOM INTERACTION. LONDON:
PENGUIN
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/DISPLAY-
QUESTIONS
DRILLING
DRILLING IS A TEACHING TECHNIQUE IN WHICH THE TEACHER ASKS THE
STUDENTS TO REPEAT SEVERAL TIMES ITEMS OF LANGUAGE THAT THEY ARE
LEARNING. THESE CAN BE VOCABULARY, STRUCTURES, SOUNDS OR
FUNCTIONS. DRILLING, WHICH INVOLVES STUDENTS IN RESPONDING TO A
PROMPT, ORIGINATED IN THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH TO LEARNING AND
WAS INTENDED TO REINFORCE LEARNING THROUGH HABIT FORMATION.
MANY NOW CRITICISE DRILLING FOR BEING A PASSIVE, BORING AND
UNCREATIVE WAY OF LEARNING LANGUAGE. OTHERS THINK IT HAS A PLACE
IN PROVIDING ACCURACY PRACTICE AND SECURITY FOR LEARNERS AT
EARLY MOMENTS OF LEARNING SOMETHING NEW. THERE ARE VARIOUS
KINDS OF DRILL, FOR EXAMPLE: WHOLE CLASS, INDIVIDUAL, REPETITION,
SUBSTITUTION, TRANSFORMATION.
EXAMPLE
"WHENEVER I TEACH NEW VOCABULARY I ASK MY STUDENTS TO REPEAT IT
AFTER ME, SOMETIMES FOUR OR FIVE TIMES. I MAKE SURE TO LISTEN
CAREFULLY TO THEIR RESPONSES, AND TRY TO MAKE THE DRILL INTERESTING
BY E.G. ASKING THEM TO SAY THINGS VERY QUIETLY, VERY LOUDLY, VERY
SLOWLY, VERY QUICKLY ETC. I THINK DRILLING, IN SMALL DOSES, HELPS
LEARNERS, ESPECIALLY THOSE WHO LACK CONFIDENCE."
FURTHER READING
MACMILLAN.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
UR, P. (2009). GRAMMAR PRACTICE ACTIVITIES. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
ETOP
ECLECTICISM
AN APPROACH TO TEACHING AND LEARNING WHICH DOES NOT ADHERE TO
ANY ONE RECOGNISED APPROACH BUT SELECTS FROM DIFFERENT
APPROACHES AND METHODS ACCORDING TO TEACHER PREFERENCE AND
ALSO TO THE BELIEF THAT DIFFERENT LEARNERS LEARN IN DIFFERENT
WAYS AND DIFFERENT CONTEXTS, AND THAT THEREFORE NO ONE APPROACH
OR METHOD IS SUFFICIENT TO CATER FOR A RANGE OF LEARNERS.
ECLECTICISM IS SOMETIMES CRITICISED AS BEING TOO RANDOM AND
HAVING NO GUIDING PRINCIPLES. THIS CRITICISM HAS GIVEN RISE
TO PRINCIPLED ECLECTICISM WHICH ATTEMPTS TO KEEP THE FLEXIBILITY
OF ECLECTICISM WHILE INCLUDING IN IT PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND
LEARNING.
EXAMPLE
"SOME TEACHERS APPRECIATE THE FREEDOM AND FLEXIBILITY
THAT ECLECTICISM ALLOWS THEM IN THEIR TEACHING, WHILE OTHERS
PREFER THE CLEAR TEACHING GUIDELINES THAT USING ONE PARTICULAR
APPROACH OR METHOD CAN PROVIDE."
FURTHER READING
KUMARAVADIVELU, (2012). TOWARDS A POST-METHOD PEDAGOGY. TESOL
QUARTERLY VOLUME 35, ISSUE 4, PAGES 537–560.
LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. (2000). TECHNIQUES AND PRINCIPLES IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING, 2ND ED. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://TESL-EJ.ORG/EJ20/A1.HTML
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/ECLECTIC-
APPROACH
HTTPS://BLOG.TJTAYLOR.NET/METHOD-PRINCIPLED-ECLECTICISM/
EFL/ESL
EFL STANDS FOR ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE. GENERALLY
SPEAKING, IT REFERS TO LEARNERS LEARNING ENGLISH IN AN
ENVIRONMENT WHERE ENGLISH IS NOT USED, OR TO LEARNERS STUDYING
ENGLISH ON BRIEF TRIPS TO AN ANGLOPHONE COUNTRY. ESL STANDS FOR
ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE AND HAS GENERALLY BEEN USED TO
REFER TO LEARNERS WHO HAVE ANOTHER MOTHER TONGUE, LEARNING
ENGLISH WHILE LIVING IN AN ENGLISH-SPEAKING ENVIRONMENT. IN THE
UK NOWADAYS THIS TENDS TO BE CALLED ESOL (ENGLISH FOR SPEAKERS
OF OTHER LANGUAGES). ESOL OR ESL CLASSES ARE LIKELY TO INCLUDE A
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION, BUT ALSO ON THE CULTURAL
PRACTICES OF THE ANGLOPHONE COUNTRY THE STUDENTS ARE LIVING IN.
WITH GLOBALISATION AND THE INCREASED MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE AND
IMMIGRATION, THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN EFL AND ESL IS BECOMING LESS
CLEAR.
EXAMPLE
I TEACH FRENCH IN FRENCH GUYANA WHERE THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE IS
FRENCH. MOST OF MY STUDENTS SPEAK VERY LITTLE FRENCH, THOUGH.
THEIR MOTHER TONGUE MIGHT BE PORTUGUESE AND/OR AN INDIAN
LANGUAGE. IN THE STREET THEY OFTEN HEAR AND SPEAK FRENCH CREOLE.
SO, AM I TEACHING EFL OR ESL?
FURTHER READING
KACHRU, B. (1997) WORLD ENGLISHES AND ENGLISH-USING
COMMUNITIES. ANNUAL REVIEW OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS. CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.ENGLISHCLUB.COM/TEFL-TRAINING/EFL-ESL.HTM
HTTP://WWW.MACMILLANGLOBAL.COM/BLOG/AUTHOR-BLOG/DISPATCH-FROM-
THE-UK-%E2%80%93-ESOL-EFL-ESL%E2%80%A6-WHAT%E2%80%99S-THE-
DIFFERENCE
HTTP://OUPELTGLOBALBLOG.COM/2011/07/12/HOW-ESL-AND-EFL-CLASSROOMS-
DIFFER/
ELF
THIS STANDS FOR ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA, AND REFERS TO THE USE
OF ENGLISH IN INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION. CERTAIN SCHOLARS
HAVE SUGGESTED THAT AS ENGLISH HAS BECOME A LINGUA FRANCA
BETWEEN PEOPLE FROM A RANGE OF L1S, FEATURES OF ITS USE SUCH AS
PARTICULAR PRONUNCIATIONS AND GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTIONS WHICH
WOULD PREVIOUSLY HAVE BEEN CONSIDERED NON-STANDARD AND
‘WRONG’ SHOULD BE ACCEPTED RATHER THAN CORRECTED, PROVIDING
THEY DO NOT CAUSE A BREAKDOWN IN COMMUNICATION, AS THEY ARE A
MARK OF THE L1 LEARNER’S IDENTITY THERE IS MUCH DEBATE IN ELT
ABOUT THE RESEARCH BASE FOR ELF’S FINDINGS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS
FOR THE CLASSROOM.
EXAMPLE
IF YOU LISTENED TO TWO NON-NATIVE SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH TALKING
TOGETHER YOU MIGHT HEAR THEM REGULARLY PRONOUNCING THE
ARTICLE ‘THE’ AS /DƏ/ OR /ZƏ/ YET OBVIOUSLY HAVING NO PROBLEM
COMMUNICATING WITH ONE ANOTHER. ELF PROPOSES THAT IF THAT’S THE
CASE THERE IS NO NEED TO INSIST ON ‘CORRECT’ PRONUNCIATION WITH
THE CORRESPONDING LOSS OF LEARNER IDENTITY THAT CORRECTION CAN
LEAD TO.
FURTHER READING
SEIDLHOFER, B. (2005). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: ENGLISH AS A LINGUA
FRANCA. ELT JOURNAL 59/4.
JENKINS, J. (2012). ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA FROM THE CLASSROOM
TO THE CLASSROOM. ELT
JOURNAL 66/4. HTTP://WWW.SCRIBD.COM/DOC/125335514/JENNIFER-JENKINS-
ENGLISH-AS-A-LINGUA-FRANCA-FROM-THE-CLASSROOM-TO-THE-CLASSROOM
JENKINS, J. (2000).THE PHONOLOGY OF ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL

LANGUAGE. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
WALKER, R. (2011).TEACHING THE PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH AS A LINGUA
FRANCA. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
WIDDOWSON, H.G. (2003).DEFINING ISSUES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.MACMILLANDICTIONARIES.COM/MED-MAGAZINE/JANUARY2005/
26-NEW-WORD-ELF.HTM
CHIT CHEUNG MATTHEW SUNG (2013). ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA AND
ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING HTTP://JALT-
PUBLICATIONS.ORG/JJ/ARTICLES/3436-PERSPECTIVES-ENGLISH-LINGUA-
FRANCA-AND-ITS-IMPLICATIONS-ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-TEACHING JALT
JOURNAL, VOL. 35, NO. 2, NOVEMBER 2013
ELICITING
THIS IS A TEACHING TECHNIQUE IN WHICH THE TEACHER PROMPTS
LEARNERS IN ORDER TO ELICIT OR DRAW OUT FROM THEM SPECIFIC
ANSWERS. IT IS A TECHNIQUE USED ESPECIALLY TO RE-ACTIVATE OR
REVISE LANGUAGE ITEMS OR IDEAS, AND/OR TO ENCOURAGE LEARNERS TO
CONTRIBUTE TO THEIR OWN LEARNING RATHER THAN BEING SPOON-FED BY
THE TEACHER. SOME PEOPLE CRITICISE THE USE OF ELICITATION
TECHNIQUES AS THEY THINK THAT THEY LEAD TO LANGUAGE BEING USED
SIMPLY FOR DISPLAY (TO SHOW YOU KNOW IT), RATHER THAN TO REAL
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE USE.
EXAMPLE
"TEACHER: WHAT DO YOU CALL SOMEONE WHO CHECKS AND RECORDS A
FIRM’S MONEY?
STUDENT 1: A BANKER.
TEACHER: NO, THEY WORK IN THE FIRM AND WATCH WHAT MONEY THE FIRM
SPENDS AND RECEIVES. AN A………
STUDENT 2: AN ACCOUNTANT.
TEACHER: THAT’S RIGHT."
FURTHER READING
MACMILLAN.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/ELICITING
ELISION
THIS IS THE PROCESS IN WHICH PARTICULAR SOUNDS ARE OMITTED IN
CONNECTED SPEECH BECAUSE THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY ANOTHER SIMILAR
SOUND. IN ENGLISH, ELISION OFTEN HAPPENS BETWEEN PLOSIVE SOUNDS
AND WITH THE VOWEL SOUND SCHWA /Ə/. ELISION HELPS SPEAKERS TO
PRODUCE SOUNDS MORE SMOOTHLY AND EFFICIENTLY.
EXAMPLE
MANY PEOPLE PRONOUNCE ‘CHOCOLATE’ AS /TƩɒKLƏT/ ELIDING THE SCHWA
BEFORE /L/. ‘HE WENT TO THE CINEMA’ CAN GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF AN
ELIDED PLOSIVE WITH ‘WENT TO’ PRONOUNCED AS ‘/WENTU:/.
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HANCOCK, M. (1995). PRONUNCIATION GAMES. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LONGMAN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/CONNECTED-SPEECH-2
HTTP://ELT-RESOURCEFUL.COM/2012/10/24/HELPING-STUDENTS-WITH-
CONNECTED-SPEECH/
ELLIPSIS
ELLIPSIS REFERS TO LEAVING OUT WORDS FROM SENTENCES WHERE THE
MEANING IS SUFFICIENTLY CLEAR FROM THE SITUATION OR THE LANGUAGE
ALREADY USED. USUALLY ELLIPSIS DOES NOT LEAD TO A LOSS OF
MEANING, THOUGH STUDENTS MAY NEED TRAINING IN RECOGNISING IT AND
THE COHESION IT GIVES TO DISCOURSE.
EXAMPLE
THERE IS ELLIPSIS IN THIS SENTENCE BOB OFTEN GOES ON HOLIDAY TO THE
SEA, AND TOM TOO. DOES OR GOES THERE HAS BEEN LEFT OUT AFTER ‘TOM’
BECAUSE THE SPEAKER THINKS IT’S NOT NECESSARY TO SAY THESE
ELEMENTS.
FURTHER READING
ALBERY, D. (2012) THE TKT COURSE KAL MODULE. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/ELLIPSIS
EMERGENT LANGUAGE
THIS IS LANGUAGE WHICH IS A FRUIT OF THE LEARNING PROCESS RATHER
THAN TAUGHT LANGUAGE. IT OCCURS AS LEARNERS, IN AN EFFORT TO
EXPRESS THEMSELVES, EXPERIMENT WITH LANGUAGE THEY HAVEN'T AS
YET FULLY MASTERED. MANY EXPERTS SUGGEST THAT TEACHERS WOULD
DO BETTER TO SUPPORT LEARNERS’ EMERGENT LANGUAGE RATHER THAN
PRESENTING THEM WITH LANGUAGE THEY HAVE NOT YET SHOWN A NEED
FOR.
EXAMPLE
DOGME IS AN APPROACH TO TEACHING THAT RECOMMENDS TEACHERS
WORK WITH LEARNERS’ EMERGING LANGUAGE BY PROVIDING
OPPORTUNITIES FOR USE AND GIVING FEEDBACK, RATHER THAN WORKING
WITH A PRE-SET SYLLABUS.
FURTHER READING
LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. (2003). TEACHING LANGUAGE: FROM GRAMMAR TO
GRAMMARING. BOSTON:HEINLE & HEINLE.
MEDDINGS, L. AND THORNBURY, S. (2009). TEACHING UNPLUGGED: DOGME
IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING. GUILDFORD: DELTA PUBLISHING.
THORNBURY, S. (2005) UNCOVERING GRAMMAR. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
HTTPS://LANGUAGEMOMENTS.WORDPRESS.COM/2011/08/05/DEALING-WITH-
EMERGING-LANGUAGE/
HTTPS://MICHAELJEDWARDS.WEEBLY.COM/BLOG/THE-EMERGENT-
CLASSROOM-AND-ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-DEVELOPMENT
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/NOT-UNIT-5
ENVIRONMENTAL PRINT
SEE LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE
ERROR/MISTAKE/SLIP
THESE WORDS – ERROR AND MISTAKE IN PARTICULAR – ARE OFTEN USED
INTERCHANGEABLY. WHEN GIVEN DISTINCT MEANINGS, A SLIP REFERS TO
THE KIND OF MISTAKE WE CAN ALL (INCLUDING PROFICIENT SPEAKERS)
MAKE DUE TO PRESSURE OF TIME, ANXIETY ETC. I.E. THIS IS NOT A
MISTAKE DUE TO LACK OF PROFICIENCY BUT DUE TO THE TEMPORARY
EFFECT ON THE SPEAKER OF PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES .
AN ERROR REFERS TO A SYSTEMATIC MISTAKE MADE BY A LANGUAGE
LEARNER THAT IS DUE TO LACK OF MASTERY OF THAT PART OF THE
LANGUAGE SYSTEM [SEE ALSO INTERLANGUAGE]. MISTAKE IS A NON-
TECHNICAL WORD THAT REFERS TO BOTH A SLIP AND AN ERROR.
EXAMPLE
"HE’S A PROFICIENT ENGLISH SPEAKER – THERE ARE NO ERRORS IN HIS
LANGUAGE, BUT WHEN HE GAVE THAT TALK THE OTHER NIGHT HE WAS SO
NERVOUS THAT HE MADE LOADS OF SLIPS."
FURTHER READING
ELLIS, R. AND BARKHUIZEN, G.P. (2005). ANALYSING LEARNER LANGUAGE.
CORDER, S. P. (1967). THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LEARNERS'
ERRORS. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS 5.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/BLOGS/LINGUACOM/FEEDBACK-
ERROR-CORRECTION-%E2%80%93-IT-YOUR-JOB
ESL
SEE EFL/ESL
ESOL
SEE EFL/ESL
ESTUARY ENGLISH
THIS REFERS TO AN ACCENT OF ENGLISH, FIRST NOTICED AND NAMED BY
DAVID ROSEWARNE, AN EFL TEACHER, THAT IS FOUND PARTICULARLY IN
THE SOUTH EAST OF GREAT BRITAIN. IT HAS SOME SIMILARITIES WITH THE
SOUNDS OF COCKNEY, AND HAS BEEN IDENTIFIED AS FAR NORTH AS
YORKSHIRE AND AS FAR WEST AS THE WELSH BORDER!
EXAMPLE
IT COULD BE USEFUL FOR TEACHERS TO GET THEIR STUDENTS TO LISTEN TO
EXAMPLES OF ESTUARY ENGLISH AS IT’S SO COMMONLY HEARD IN MANY
PARTS OF ENGLAND.
FURTHER READING
COGGLE, P. (1993).DO YOU SPEAK ESTUARY? THE NEW STANDARD ENGLISH –
HOW TO SPOT IT AND SPEAK IT. LONDON: BLOOMSBURY.
CRYSTAL, D. (1995) CAMBRIDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
CAMBRIDGE:
ROSEWARNE, DAVID (1984). ''ESTUARY ENGLISH''. TIMES EDUCATIONAL
SUPPLEMENT, 19 (OCTOBER 1984)". PHON.UCL.AC.UK. 1999-05-21.
1994 ESTUARY ENGLISH: TOMORROW'S RP? ENGLISH TODAY 37/10.
HTTP://WWW.PHON.UCL.AC.UK/HOME/ESTUARY/HOME.HTM
HTTP://WWW.BBC.CO.UK/WORLDSERVICE/LEARNINGENGLISH/RADIO/SPECIAL
S/1728_UPTODATE/PAGE20.SHTML
ETYMOLOGY
THE STUDY OF THE ORIGINS OF WORDS AND HOW THEIR MEANING, USE AND
FORM HAVE EVOLVED OVER TIME.
EXAMPLE
I STUDIED THE ETYMOLOGY OF ITALIAN WHEN I WAS LEARNING ITALIAN AT
UNIVERSITY – IT WAS ALL ABOUT THE PATTERNS OF CHANGE THAT WORDS
AND SOUNDS HAD FOLLOWED ACROSS THE CENTURIES. AT THE TIME I
FOUND IT INCREDIBLY DRY AND BORING, BUT NOW IT HELPS ME TO WORK
OUT THE MEANING OR PRONUNCIATION OF SOME WORDS I DON’T KNOW.
FURTHER READING
CRYSTAL, D. (2007). WORDS WORDS WORDS. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
HOGG, R. AND DENISON, D. (2006). A HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
HTTP://WWW.TELEGRAPH.CO.UK/CULTURE/BOOKS/8824676/FROM-RIDDLE-TO-
TWITTERSPHERE-DAVID-CRYSTAL-TELLS-THE-STORY-OF-ENGLISH-IN-100-
WORDS.HTML
HTTP://WWW.THEGUARDIAN.COM/BOOKS/2012/AUG/31/SPELL-IT-OUT-
CRYSTAL-REVIEW
HTTP://WWW.OPEN.EDU/OPENLEARN/HISTORY-THE-ARTS/CULTURE/ENGLISH-
LANGUAGE/THE-HISTORY-ENGLISH-TEN-MINUTES
EVALUATION
THIS IS THE PROCESS OF ASSESSING THE VALUE OF SOMETHING BY
COLLECTING DATA. EVALUATION OFTEN LEADS TO DECISION-MAKING.
EVALUATION CAN BE OF TEACHING, LEARNING, CURRICULA, METHODS,
EXAM IMPACT, MATERIALS OR OTHER AREAS RELATED TO TEACHING AND
LEARNING.
EXAMPLE
WHEN EVALUATING MATERIALS IT IS USEFUL TO COLLECT NOT JUST
TEACHERS’ OPINIONS BUT THOSE OF LEARNERS, TOO.
FURTHER READING
ALDERSON, C. AND CLAPHAM, C. (1995).LANGUAGE TEST CONSTRUCTION AND
EVALUATION. CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
CUNNINGSWORTH, A. (1984). EVALUATING AND SELECTING ELT MATERIALS.
HEINEMAN.
CUNNINGSWORTH, A. (1995). CHOOSING YOUR COURSEBOOK. MACMILLAN
HEINEMAN.
KIELY, R. N. &REA-DICKINS, P. M.(2005). PROGRAMME EVALUATION IN
LANGUAGE EDUCATION. OXFORD: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN.
MCDONOUGH, J. AND SHAW, C. (1993). MATERIALS AND METHODS IN
ELT. OXFORD: BLACKWELL.
MURPHY. D (2000). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: EVALUATION. ELT JOURNAL 54/2.
SHELDON, L. (1988). EVALUATING ELT TEXTBOOKS AND MATERIALS. ELT
JOURNAL 37/3.
WEIR, C. AND ROBERTS, J. (1994). EVALUATION IN ELT. NJ: WILEY
WILLIAMS, M AND BURDEN, R. (1993) THE ROLE OF EVALUATION IN ELT
PROJECT DESIGN. ELT JOURNAL 48/1.
HTTPS://WWW.CAMBRIDGE.ORG/ELT/CES/METHODOLOGY/EVALUATION.HTM
EXPONENT
THIS TERM REFERS TO THE WORDS USED TO EXPRESS DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS
OF LANGUAGE. EXPONENTS ARE ONE WAY TO BEGIN LOOKING AT
FUNCTIONAL APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TEACHING.
EXAMPLE
HERE ARE JUST SOME EXAMPLES OF THE EXPONENTS OF SUGGESTING:
WHAT ABOUT …..?
HOW ABOUT…..?
WHAT IF WE …..?
WHY DON’T WE…..?
WE COULD……
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
HALLIDAY, M.A.K. 1975.LEARNING HOW TO MEAN. LONDON: EDWARD
ARNOLD.
UR, P. (1996) A COURSE IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
WILKINS, D.A. (1976) NOTIONAL SYLLABUSES. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/SUPPORT/METHODOLOGY/TEACHING-
APPROACHES/TEACHING-APPROACHES-FUNCTIONAL-APPROACHES-IN-EFL/-
ESL/146492.ARTICLE
EXPOSURE
THIS REFERS TO THE BENEFICIAL EFFECT OF BEING SURROUNDED BY
SPOKEN AND/OR WRITTEN LANGUAGE. A CHILD GROWING UP IN A
MONOLINGUAL ENVIRONMENT NORMALLY HAS A LARGE AMOUNT OF
EXPOSURE TO THEIR NATIVE LANGUAGE. MANY LANGUAGE LEARNING
EXPERTS BELIEVE THAT LEARNERS MUST BE EXPOSED TO ADEQUATE
AMOUNTS OF LANGUAGE USED NATURALLY AND IN CONTEXT FOR
ACQUISITION TO TAKE PLACE.
EXAMPLE
SHE LIVED IN RUSSIA FOR A LONG TIME BUT ACTUALLY LEARNT VERY
LITTLE RUSSIAN, AS SHE SPENT MOST OF HER TIME WITH PEOPLE FROM HER
OWN COUNTRY, SO SHE HAD VERY LITTLE EXPOSURE TO RUSSIAN.
FURTHER READING
DOUGHTY, C. (2001). COGNITIVE UNDERPINNINGS OF FOCUS ON FORM. IN P.
ROBINSON. (ED.),
COGNITION AND SECOND LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
DOUGHTY, C. & J. WILLIAMS (EDS) (1998). FOCUS ON FORM IN CLASSROOM
SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
ELLIS, R. (1994). THE STUDY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. OXFORD:
ELLIS, R. (ED.) (2001).FORM-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION AND SECOND LANGUAGE
LEARNING. MALDEN, MA:
BLACKWELL.
GASS, S. (1997) INPUT, INTERACTION AND THE SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNER.
MAHWAH, NJ: LAWRENCE
ERLBAUM.
KRASHEN, S. (1985).THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS: ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS.
HARLOW: LONGMAN.
SKEHAN, P. (1998).A COGNITIVE APPROACH TO LANGUAGE LEARNING.
OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/EXPOSURE
FTOP
FEEDBACK
THIS TERM HAS TWO MEANINGS IN ELT. IT REFERS TO THE RESPONSES THAT
WE, AS LISTENERS, GIVE TO A SPEAKER E.G. EYE CONTACT, EXCLAMATIONS,
INTERRUPTIONS, IN ORDER TO ENCOURAGE OR DISCOURAGE THEM FROM
CONTINUING.
FEEDBACK ALSO REFERS TO THE COMMENTS A TEACHER OR OTHER
STUDENTS MAKE IN CLASS ON A LEARNER’S / LEARNERS’ PERFORMANCE.
THIS FEEDBACK CAN BE POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE.
EXAMPLE
"I FOUND HIM QUITE DIFFICULT TO TALK TO BECAUSE HE NEVER REACTED TO
WHAT YOU SAID – HE KEPT HIS EYES DOWN, NEVER NODDED, SHOWED
SURPRISE OR ANYTHING – YOU JUST GOT NO FEEDBACK FROM HIM."
FURTHER READING
RINVOLUCRI, M. (1994) KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: FEEDBACK. ELT
HTTPS://WWW.CAMBRIDGE.ORG/ELT/CES/METHODOLOGY/FEEDBACK.HTM
HTTP://WWW.STEVEDARN.COM/?WRITINGS::GME
%3A_STUDENT_FEEDBACK_ON_TASKS_AND_ACTIVITIES
FINITE VERB/NON-FINITE VERB
A FINITE VERB IS THE PART(S) OF A VERB THAT IN ENGLISH SHOWS TIME,
NUMBER OR PERSON. A NON-FINITE VERB SHOWS NONE OF THESE. AN
INDEPENDENT SENTENCE OR MAIN CLAUSE MUST CONTAIN A FINITE VERB.
EXAMPLE
HERE ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF BOTH KINDS OF VERB:
FINITE
NON-FINITE
SHE TAKES
THEY TAKE
WE TOOK
TO TAKE
TAKING
HAVING TAKEN

FURTHER READING
FLOW
A STATE IN WHICH SOMEONE IS TOTALLY INVOLVED IN, FOCUSSED ON AND
MOTIVATED BY WHAT THEY ARE DOING. THIS STATE IS CONSIDERED TO BE
AN OPTIMUM ONE FOR LEARNING, AND SAID TO BE ENCOURAGED BY
MEANINGFUL CHALLENGES THIS NOTION WAS POPULARISED BY MIHALY
CSIKSZENTMIHALYI.
EXAMPLE
SOMETIMES, USUALLY WHEN YOU’RE DOING SOMETHING YOU ENJOY, YOU
MANAGE TO FOCUS JUST ON THAT, NOTHING ELSE DISTRACTS YOU AND YOU
FEEL COMPLETELY ABSORBED IN WHAT YOU’RE DOING. IT’S A VERY
REWARDING AND SATISFYING FEELING THAT IS SOMETIMES CALLED ‘FLOW’.
FURTHER READING
CSIKSZENTMIHALYI, M. (1998) FINDING FLOW. NEW YORK: BASIC BOOKS.
EGBERT, J. 2003. A STUDY OF FLOW THEORY IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM’. THE MODERN
LANGUAGE JOURNAL, 87/4.
VAN LIER, L. 1996.INTERACTION IN THE LANGUAGE CURRICULUM:
AWARENESS, AUTONOMY &
AUTHENTICITY.HARLOW: LONGMAN.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2010/05/30/F-IS-FOR-FLOW/
FLUENCY
FLUENCY IS THE ABILITY TO SPEAK OVER STRETCHES OF LANGUAGE
SMOOTHLY, NATURALLY AND WITHOUT TOO MUCH HESITATION OR PAUSING.
FLUENCY IS SOMETIMES ALSO USED TO REFER TO WRITING. IN THIS CASE IT
MEANS WRITING WITH EASE – COHERENTLY AND WITH FLOW.
EXAMPLE
"HE WAS A NATIVE SPEAKER BUT HE SPOKE SO SLOWLY – HE WAS ALWAYS
SEARCHING FOR WORDS, HESITATING AND PAUSING. HIS LACK
OF FLUENCY MADE HIM A BIT DIFFICULT TO PAY ATTENTION TO AND
UNDERSTAND."
FURTHER READING
BYGATE, M. (1987). SPEAKING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
ELLIS, R. (ED.) (2005). PLANNING AND TASK PERFORMANCE IN A SECOND
LANGUAGE. AMSTERDAM: JOHN BENJAMINS.
HEDGE, T. (1993) KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: FLUENCY. ELT JOURNAL 47/3.
THORNBURY, S. (2006). THE A-Z OF ELT. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2009/12/17/F-IS-FOR-FLUENCY/
FOCUS ON FORM
THIS APPROACH TO TEACHING LANGUAGE WAS FIRST DEFINED BY MICHAEL
LONG AS FOLLOWS: ‘FOCUS ON FORM…OVERTLY DRAWS STUDENTS’
ATTENTION TO LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS AS THEY ARISE INCIDENTALLY IN
LESSONS WHOSE OVERRIDING FOCUS IS ON MEANING OR COMMUNICATION’
(LONG 1991) AND ‘FOCUS ON FORM OFTEN CONSISTS OF AN OCCASIONAL
SHIFT OF ATTENTION TO LINGUISTIC CODE FEATURES – BY THE TEACHER
AND/OR ONE OR MORE OF THE STUDENTS – TRIGGERED BY PERCEIVED
PROBLEMS WITH COMPREHENSION OR PRODUCTION' (LONG AND ROBERTSON
IN DOUGHTY AND WILLIAMS, 1998). FOCUS ON FORM (SEE FORM), IN WHICH
FORM IS FOCUSSED ON IN THE CLASSROOM AS THE NEED ARISES IN THE
CONTEXT OF COMMUNICATION, IS SOMETIMES CONTRASTED WITH ‘FOCUS
ON FORMS’ IN WHICH FORMS ARE THE PRIMARY FOCUS IN THE CLASSROOM.
EXAMPLE
I OBSERVED A CLASS YESTERDAY THAT WAS HAVING A DISCUSSION ABOUT
‘GOOD NEWSPAPERS’. IN THE MIDDLE OF THE DISCUSSION ONE OF THE
STUDENTS ASKED THE TEACHER WHY YOU COULD SAY ‘PAPERS’
(NEWSPAPERS) IF ‘PAPER’ IS AN UNCOUNTABLE NOUN. THE TEACHER TOLD
HIM, THEN THEY ALL GOT BACK TO THE DISCUSSION. A FEW WEEKS AGO I
OBSERVED ANOTHER CLASS IN WHICH THE TEACHER HAD BEEN TEACHING
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS. SHE GAVE THE LEARNERS A SHORT
TEXT CONTAINING BOTH KINDS OF NOUN, THEN ASKED THE LEARNERS TO
DO A GUIDED DISCOVERY ACTIVITY TO WORK OUT THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN THE TWO, THEN THE STUDENTS DID EXERCISES. IN THE FIRST
CLASS THERE WAS AN EXAMPLE OF FOCUS ON FORM; THE SECOND CLASS
WAS AN EXAMPLE OF FOCUS ON FORMS.
FURTHER READING
PRESS.
GASS, SUSAN; SELINKER, LARRY (2008).SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: AN
INTRODUCTORY COURSE. NEW YORK, NY: ROUTLEDGE.
LONG, M.H. (1991). FOCUS ON FORM: A DESIGN FEATURE IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING METHODOLOGY. IN K.DE BOT, R. GINSBERG, AND C. KRAMSCH
(ED.S), FOREIGN LANGUAGE RESEARCH IN CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE .
AMSTERDAM: JOHN BETJAMINS.
SHEEN, R. (2002). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: FOCUS ON ‘FORM’ V ‘FOCUS ON
FORMS’. ELT JOURNAL 48/1.
FOOT (STRESS / RHYTHM)

A FOOT IS A RHYTHMIC UNIT THAT FORMS PART OF A TONE UNIT. IT
CONSISTS OF ONE OR MORE SYLLABLES, ONE OF WHICH IS STRONGER THAN
THE OTHER (WEAK) SYLLABLES. IN NATURAL ENGLISH SPEECH THERE IS A
TENDENCY FOR THE FOOT TO BEGIN WITH A STRONG SYLLABLE, I.E. IT IS
STRESSED. (THUS IN TERMS OF ITS RHYTHMIC STRUCTURE ENGLISH IS
SOMETIMES DESCRIBED AS A LEFT-DOMINANT LANGUAGE.) SO WITHIN A
FOOT WE CAN DISTINGUISH BETWEEN STRONG AND WEAK SYLLABLES, AND
ACROSS FEET WITHIN A WORD, BETWEEN SYLLABLES THAT CARRY PRIMARY
OR SECONDARY STRESS, OR ARE WEAK (UNSTRESSED).
EXAMPLE
IF THEY HAVE STUDIED POETRY, STUDENTS MIGHT BE FAMILIAR WITH THE
CONCEPT OF FEET IN REGULAR METRICAL PATTERNS, LIKE SHAKESPEARE’S
IAMBIC PENTAMETER, FOR EXAMPLE:
IF MU¦ SIC BE¦ THE FOOD ¦ OF LOVE, ¦ PLAY ON
THE FOOT FUNCTIONS IN A SIMILAR WAY IN NATURAL SPEECH, BUT WITH
MUCH MORE VARIATION IN THE NUMBER OF SYLLABLES PER FOOT:
IF YOU BE ¦ LIEVE THAT ¦ MU SIC IS THE ¦ FOOD OF ¦ LOVE, THEN ¦ GO ON
PLAYING
FURTHER READING
HTTP://CLAS.MQ.EDU.AU/SPEECH/PHONETICS/PHONOLOGY/SYLLABLE/SYLL_F
OOT.HTML
FORM/FORMS
THESE ARE THE WAYS THROUGH WHICH LANGUAGE IS EXPRESSED, FOR
EXAMPLE, IN GRAMMAR THEY REFER TO GRAMMATICAL PATTERNS, IN
PRONUNCIATION TO SOUNDS, STRESS AND INTONATION AND IN WRITING TO
HANDWRITING AND SPELLING. LEARNERS LEARNING A LANGUAGE NEED TO
LEARN BOTH THE FORMS OF LANGUAGE AND THE MEANINGS THEY CONVEY.
FORM IN LANGUAGE LEARNING IS RELATED PARTICULARLY TO ACCURACY.
EXAMPLE
"SOME PEOPLE FIND LANGUAGES LIKE FRENCH, SPANISH AND ITALIAN QUITE
DIFFICULT TO LEARN AS EACH VERB TENSE AND PERSON HAS A
DISTINCT FORM. REMEMBERING ALL OF THEM CAN BE A HEADACHE."
FURTHER READING
DOUGHTY, C., & WILLIAMS, J. (EDS.) (1998). FOCUS ON FORM IN CLASSROOM
PRESS.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2011/03/13/F-IS-FOR-FOCUS-ON-
FORM/
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
MAKING JUDGMENTS ABOUT THE SUCCESS OF LEARNING WHILE IT IS
TAKING PLACE RATHER THAN ONCE IT IS OVER. THE PURPOSE OF
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT IS TO HELP THE TEACHER (OR LEARNERS) DECIDE
WHAT SHOULD BE TAUGHT NEXT, AND POSSIBLY HOW, BASED ON ANALYSIS
OF THE NEEDS OF THE LEARNERS AS REVEALED BY THE ASSESSMENT.
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT IS OFTEN INFORMAL, WITH THE TEACHER
LISTENING TO OR LOOKING AT LEARNERS’ PERFORMANCE AND POSSIBLY
TAKING NOTES. LEARNERS MAY BE UNAWARE THAT IT IS TAKING PLACE.
EXAMPLE
"FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT REALLY HELPS ME SEE HOW WELL MY LEARNERS,
AND INDIVIDUAL LEARNERS IN PARTICULAR, HAVE LEARNT SOMETHING. TO
HELP ME FOCUS AND REMEMBER I OFTEN USE A CHECKLIST TO MONITOR
THEM WHILE THEY ARE DOING GROUPWORK."
FURTHER READING
BOYLE, B. & CHARLES, M. (2013) FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT FOR TEACHING AND
LEARNING) LONDON: SAGE
CUMMINS, J. AND DAVISON, C. (2007). INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING, PART 1. NEW YORK: SPRINGER.
HARLOW: PEARSON.
HUGHES, A. (2003). TESTING FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS. CAMBRIDGE:
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/FORMATIV
E-ASSESSMENT
FORMULAIC SUBJUNCTIVE
SEE MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
FOSSILIZATION
THIS REFERS TO THOSE PARTS OF LEARNERS’ LANGUAGE WHICH ARE USED
INCORRECTLY BUT WHICH DO NOT SEEM RESPONSIVE TO CORRECTION OR
OPEN TO IMPROVEMENT. MANY LEARNER ERRORS CORRECT THEMSELVES
AUTOMATICALLY OVER TIME, BUT SOME SEEM RESISTANT TO CHANGE.
THESE LATTER ARE CALLED FOSSILIZED ERRORS.
EXAMPLE
MANY ADVANCED LEARNERS WILL BE VERY FLUENT AND ACCURATE BUT
HAVE SOME RECURRENT ERRORS WHICH REFUSE TO DISAPPEAR. THIS
PHENOMENON IS KNOWN AS FOSSILIZATION.
FURTHER READING
CANDLIN, C. AND MERCER, N. (2001). ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN ITS
SOCIAL CONTEXT. ABINGDON, OXON.: PSYCHOLOGY PRESS.
DOUGHTY ,C.J. AND LONG, M.H. (2008). THE HANDBOOK OF SECOND
LANGUAGE. HOBOKEN, N.J.:
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
HAN, Z. (2004) FOSSILIZATION IN ADULT SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
BRISTOL, UK: MULTILINGUAL MATTERS.
THORNBURY, S. THE DE-FOSSILIZATION
DIARIES: HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURYBLOG.COM/2013/08/18/THE-DE-
FOZZILIZATION-DIARIES/
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/FOSSILIZA
TION
FUNCTIONAL LANGUAGE
THIS IS LANGUAGE WHICH IS AN EXPONENT (EXPRESSION) OF A
PARTICULAR LANGUAGE FUNCTION. FOR EXAMPLE, IF YOU CONSIDER
LANGUAGE FROM A GRAMMATICAL PERSPECTIVE, WHY DON’T YOU GET A
HAIRCUT? IS, OF COURSE, AN EXAMPLE OF A NEGATIVE QUESTION FORM.
BUT IT IS ALSO A FUNCTIONAL EXPONENT OF SUGGESTING. THE FUNCTION
OF A PIECE OF LANGUAGE IS THE COMMUNICATIVE PURPOSE FOR WHICH IT
WAS PRODUCED E.G. TO INVITE, TO HYPOTHESISE, TO DESCRIBE, TO GREET.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN I LEARNT FRENCH AT SCHOOL I WAS TAUGHT LOADS OF GRAMMAR AND
VOCABULARY BUT VERY LITTLE FUNCTIONAL LANGUAGE THAT WOULD HELP
ME GET THINGS DONE THROUGH THE LANGUAGE."
FURTHER READING
GREEN, A. (2012). LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS REVISITED. CAMBRIDGE:
HALLIDAY, M.A.K. (1994) AN INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR,
2ND EDITION. LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD.
4TH EDITION. HARLOW: PEARSON.
WILKINS, D. (1976). NOTIONAL SYLLABUSES. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS ARE THE COMMUNICATIVE REASONS FOR WHICH WE USE
LANGUAGE. FOR EXAMPLE, WE SAY HELLO TO GREET SOMEONE, WE
SAY BECAUSE I WAS TIRED TO GIVE AN EXPLANATION, AND GO ON – YOU
CAN DO IT! TO ENCOURAGE SOMEONE. SEEING LANGUAGE AS A SET OF
FUNCTIONS OR REASONS FOR COMMUNICATING RATHER THAN AS A SET OF
GRAMMATICAL ITEMS ALLOWS A TEACHER OR MATERIALS WRITER TO
FOCUS ON THE LEARNER’S COMMUNICATIVE NEEDS. THIS WAY OF SEEING
LANGUAGE WAS IMPORTANT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACH.
EXAMPLE
"I TOOK RUSSIAN LESSONS A FEW YEARS AGO. WE SPENT OUR TIME LEARNING
AND USING THE LANGUAGE FOR FUNCTIONS SUCH AS APOLOGISING,
EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT, DESCRIBING, GIVING OPINIONS,
DISAGREEING. YOU COULD SEE IMMEDIATELY THE REASON WHY YOU WERE
LEARNING THESE THINGS."
FURTHER READING
HOWATT, A. P. R. AND WIDDOWSON, H.G. ED.S. (2004). A HISTORY OF
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
VAN EK, J.K. AND TRIM J. (1998) THRESHOLD 1990. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
WIDDOWSON, H. G. (1992). ELT AND EL TEACHERS . ELT JOURNAL 46/4.
GTOP
GENRE
A GENRE REFERS TO TEXTS (SPOKEN OR WRITTEN) THAT SHARE THE SAME
CONVENTIONS E.G. STRUCTURE, VOCABULARY, REGISTER, GRAMMAR.
STUDENTS OFTEN NEED TO BE AWARE OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
PARTICULAR GENRES IN ORDER TO PRODUCE THEM WELL.
EXAMPLE
GENRES CAN BE VERY DIFFERENT FROM ONE ANOTHER. IN SPEAKING, FOR
EXAMPLE, LECTURES AND CONVERSATION ARE TWO QUITE DIFFERENT
GENRES WITH DIFFERENT STRUCTURES AND REGISTERS. AND IN WRITING
THE GENRE OF EMAILS IS QUITE DIFFERENT FROM THAT OF ESSAYS.
FURTHER READING
ALLISON, D. (1999) KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: GENRE. ELT JOURNAL, 53/2.
LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. & CAMERON, L. (2008) COMPLEX SYSTEMS AND APPLIED
LINGUISTICS, OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MARTIN, J. (1989) FACTUAL WRITING: EXPLORING AND CHALLENGING SOCIAL
REALITY (2ND ED.), OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MCCARTHY, M. AND CARTER, R. (1994) LANGUAGE AS DISCOURSE:
PERSPECTIVES FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING, LONDON: LONGMAN.
PALTRIDGE, B. (2001). GENRE AND THE LANGUAGE LEARNING CLASSROOM.
ANN ARBOR: UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN PRESS.
SWALES, J.M. (1990)GENRE ANALYSIS: ENGLISH IN ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH
SETTINGS, CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (2005). BEYOND THE SENTENCE: INTRODUCING DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
HTTPS://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/TAG/GENRE/
GERUND
THIS IS A GRAMMATICAL TERM REFERRING IN ENGLISH TO A VERB + -ING
FORM WHICH ACTS AS A NOUN. BECAUSE IT IS A NOUN IT IS NOT THE SAME
AS THE –ING FORM USED IN THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. SOME GRAMMARS
USE THE TERM ‘-ING FORM’ TO REFER TO BOTH GERUNDS AND PRESENT
PARTICIPLES AND DO NOT DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE TWO.
EXAMPLE
YOU OFTEN FIND GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS ON NOTICES E.G. RUNNING IN THE
PLAYGROUND IS FORBIDDEN, TALKING AFTER LIGHTS GO OUT IS FORBIDDEN,
DRIVING OVER THE SPEED LIMIT CARRIES A £60 FINE.
FURTHER READING
CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
FOWLER, H.W. (1926). A DICTIONARY OF MODERN ENGLISH USAGE, OXFORD:
OXFORD UNIVERSITYPRESS.
GRADED READER
A GRADED READER IS A BOOK IN WHICH THE LANGUAGE HAS BEEN GRADED
OR ADAPTED TO MATCH A PARTICULAR LEVEL OF PROFICIENCY E.G. A2, B2.
GRADED READERS MAY BE NEWLY WRITTEN OR ADAPTATIONS OF EXISTING
BOOKS. THEY CAN INCLUDE ANY GENRE OF WRITING. THEY SOMETIMES
INCLUDE A GLOSSARY AND ACTIVITIES ON THE TEXT. THE PURPOSE OF
GRADED READERS IS TO PROVIDE LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL EXPOSURE
TO LANGUAGE, OFTEN OUT OF CLASS, AND DEVELOP THEIR READING
SKILLS.
EXAMPLE
WHEN I WAS LEARNING ENGLISH, MY TEACHER USED TO FEED ME WITH
GRADED READERS AS SHE KNEW I LOVED READING. I USED TO READ AT
LEAST ONE GRADED READER A WEEK AND WAS SOON ABLE TO MOVE ON TO
‘REAL BOOKS’.
FURTHER READING
CAMBRIDGE ENGLISH READERS. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MACMILLAN READERS. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
OXFORD BOOKWORMS COLLECTION: OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/LANGUAGE-ASSISTANT/TEACHING-
TIPS/USING-GRADEDREADERS-0
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/THINK/ARTICLES/EXTENSIVE-
READING- EXTENSIVE READING. BY GRAHAM STANLEY
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/THINK/ARTICLES/READING-OUT-
LOUD - READING ALOUD, BY JAMES HOULTBY.
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/SECTION.ASP?DOCID=146513 USING
READERS IN THE ESL, EFL CLASSROOM, BY LINDSAY CLANDFIELD WITH JO
BUDDEN
GRAMMAR DICTATION
THE TERMS GRAMMAR DICTATION AND DICTOGLOSS ARE USED
INTERCHANGEABLY TO REFER TO A TECHNIQUE FOR DEVELOPING
STUDENTS’ GRAMMATICAL COMPETENCE. THE TECHNIQUE INVOLVES
DICTATING A TEXT TO STUDENTS AT NORMAL SPEED WHILE STUDENTS COPY
DOWN WHAT THEY CAN OF WHAT THEY HEAR, LEAVING GAPS FOR THE
PARTS THEY HAVE NOT BEEN ABLE TO WRITE DOWN FOR WHATEVER
REASON. THEN THE STUDENTS IN PAIRS OR GROUPS COMPARE WHAT THEY
HAVE WRITTEN AND TRY AND COMPLETE THEIR VERSION OF THE TEXT. THE
TEACHER MAY CHOOSE TO THEN REPEAT THIS PROCESS. AT THE END
STUDENTS ARE GIVEN A COPY OF THE ORIGINAL TEXT TO COMPARE WITH
THEIR TEXT AND DISCUSS THE DIFFERENCES. THE THINKING BEHIND
GRAMMAR DICTATION IS THAT IT ENCOURAGES STUDENTS TO THINK ABOUT
BOTH MEANING AND GRAMMAR, AND MAKE GRAMMATICAL CHOICES BASED
ON WORKING OUT INTENDED MEANINGS.
EXAMPLE
IN MY EXPERIENCE STUDENTS ARE ALWAYS DISCOURAGED WHEN YOU DO
GRAMMAR DICTATION FOR THE FIRST TIME. THEY FIND IT HARD. BUT OVER
TIME, THEY COME TO LIKE IT AND APPRECIATE HOW MUCH THEY LEARN
FROM IT.
FURTHER READING
WAINRYB, R. (1990). GRAMMAR DICTATION. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/SKILLS/VOCABULARY/PHRASAL-
VERBS/PHRASAL-VERBS-TEACHING-PHRASAL-VERBS-USING-AN-ORAL-TEXT-
AND-PERSONALIZING-NEW-PHRASAL-VERBS-TIPS-AND-ACTIVITIES/
144984.ARTICLE
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/DICTOGLOSS
GRAMMAR TRANSLATION
A METHOD OF LANGUAGE TEACHING IN WHICH STUDENTS STUDY RULES OF
LANGUAGE, THEN TEST OUT THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF THESE RULES
THROUGH DOING EXERCISES ON THEM. STUDENTS ALSO TRANSLATE TEXTS
IN THE L2 INTO THEIR L1. THIS METHOD WAS VERY POPULAR IN THE
19TH CENTURY AND THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH, BEING GRADUALLY
REPLACED BY METHODS WHICH FOCUSSED MORE ON USE OF THE LANGUAGE.
EXAMPLE
"I LEARNT LATIN AT SCHOOL – I SPENT MY TIME LEARNING RULES, DOING
GRAMMAR EXERCISES, THEN TRANSLATING PASSAGES BY CAESAR, VIRGIL AND
OTHERS. I NOW KNOW THIS WAS CALLED THE GRAMMAR-
TRANSLATION METHOD. I LOVED IT!"
FURTHER READING
MACMILLAN.
GRAMMATISATION
THIS IS A TEACHING TECHNIQUE, ALSO KNOWN AS GRAMMATICIZATION, IN
WHICH STUDENTS ARE GIVEN KEY WORDS, E.G. FROM A DIALOGUE OR TEXT
THAT HAVE JUST READ OR ARE ABOUT TO READ, AND ASKED TO ADD
‘GRAMMAR’ WORDS TO THESE KEY WORDS TO PRODUCE A TEXT THAT
MAKES SENSE. BEHIND THIS TECHNIQUE IS DIANA LARSEN-FREEMAN’S IDEA
OF ‘GRAMMARING’, THE SKILL OF RELATING FORM AND STRUCTURE TO
MEANINGFUL UNITS.
EXAMPLE
I LIKE DOING GRAMMATISATION WITH MY STUDENTS AND THEY LIKE IT
TOO. I JUST GIVE THEM KEY WORDS IN THE CORRECT ORDERFROM VERY
SHORT TEXTS AND THEY HAVE TO FILL IN THE ‘GRAMMAR’ WORDS. THEY
FIND IT QUITE INTRIGUING HOW MANY MEANINGFUL COMBINATIONS YOU
CAN GET FROM A FEW KEY WORDS. SOMETIMES THEY GET REALLY
INVOLVED IN DEFENDING THE MEANING OF THEIR SENTENCES.
FURTHER READING
LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. (2003). TEACHING LANGUAGE: FROM GRAMMAR TO
GRAMMARING. BOSTON: HEINLE AND HEINLE.
THORNBURY, S. (1995). UNCOVERING GRAMMAR. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
THORNBURY, S. (1998). THE LEXICAL APPROACH: A JOURNEY WITHOUT
MAPS? MODERN ENGLISH TEACHER 7/4.
BATSTONE, R. (1994). GRAMMAR. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
GUIDED DISCOVERY
GUIDED DISCOVERY IS AN APPROACH TO TEACHING LANGUAGE IN WHICH
LEARNERS ARE PRESENTED WITH EXAMPLES OF LANGUAGE (E.G.
ADJECTIVES STARTING WITH THE PREFIXES IN- OR UN- OR IR-) AND
PROMPTED OR ASKED LEADING QUESTIONS IN ORDER TO WORK OUT WHAT
THE RULE OF USE IS, OR WHAT GRAMMATICAL PATTERNING UNDERLIES THE
EXAMPLES. GUIDED DISCOVERY IS SAID TO ENCOURAGE LEARNERS TO
BECOME MORE AUTONOMOUS AND TO BE BASED ON THE WAY LANGUAGE IS
LEARNT NATURALLY OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM.
EXAMPLE
"TEACHER: LOOK AT THESE EXAMPLES ON THE BOARD, THEN COMPLETE THE
RULE ABOUT HOW TO FORM THE PRESENT PERFECT."

THE PRESENT PERFECT
I HAVE BEEN TO CHINA.
HE HAS TRAVELLED ALL OVER THE WORLD.
THEY HAVE BOUGHT TICKETS FOR A BOAT TRIP TO CYPRUS.
THE FORM OF THE PRESENT PERFECT:
SUBJECT + ………………… + …………………

FURTHER READING
ELLIS, R. (2002) METHODOLOGICAL OPTIONS IN GRAMMAR TEACHING
MATERIALS. IN HINKEL, E., & FOTOS, S. (EDS.) NEW PERSPECTIVES ON
GRAMMAR TEACHING IN SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS. MAHWAH NJ:
LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES.
MACMILLAN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/GUIDED-
DISCOVERY
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/TAG/GUIDED-DISCOVERY/
HTOP
HEDGING
THIS REFERS TO A FEATURE OF WRITTEN AND SPOKEN DISCOURSE IN WHICH
THE WRITER/ SPEAKER TONES DOWN THE DEFINITENESS OF WHAT THEY ARE
SAYING EITHER AS AN EXPRESSION OF THEIR UNSURENESS OR FOR
INTERPERSONAL REASONS. THERE ARE MANY LINGUISTIC ITEMS AVAILABLE
TO EXPRESS HEDGING.
EXAMPLE
SOME PEOPLE DON’T LIKE APPEARING VERY DEFINITE IN THEIR OPINIONS
SO THEY USE EXPRESSIONS LIKE: IT COULD BE/ MAYBE/ THERE’S A
POSSIBILITY THAT/TO A CERTAIN EXTENT/ ARGUABLY TO HEDGE THEIR
OPINIONS I.E. TO SOFTEN THE STRENGTH OF THE OPINION THEY ARE
EXPRESSING.
FURTHER READING
BYGATE, M. (1987) SPEAKING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HYLAND, K. (1994) HEDGING IN ACADEMIC WRITING AND EAF
TEXTBOOKS. ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES.13/3.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/TAG/HEDGING/
HTTP://OUPELTGLOBALBLOG.COM/TAG/HEDGING/
HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (HOTS)

THINKING SKILLS ARE OFTEN DIVIDED INTO HIGHER ORDER THINKING
SKILLS (HOTS) AND LOWER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS). HIGHER ORDER
THINKING SKILLS INCLUDE ANALYSING, EVALUATING AND CREATING. HOTS
INVOLVE GREATER MANIPULATION OF INFORMATION THAN LOTS DO. THE
DIVISION OF THINKING SKILLS INTO HOTS AND LOTS WAS MADE INITIALLY
IN THE LATE 1940S BY A COMMITTEE OF EDUCATORS IN BOSTON, MASS.
CHAIRED BY BENJAMIN BLOOM AND COLLEAGUES. THIS TAXONOMY (KNOWN
AS BLOOM’S TAXONOMY) HAS BEEN REVISED SEVERAL TIMES.
EXAMPLE
"TEACHERS ARE SOMETIMES CRITICISED FOR ASKING TOO MANY LOW LEVEL
LOTS QUESTIONS IN THEIR CLASSES AND NOT ASKING
ENOUGH HOTS QUESTIONS WHICH REALLY CHALLENGE LEARNERS TO THINK
ABOUT THE INFORMATION THEY ARE GIVEN RATHER THAN JUST ABSORBING IT
PASSIVELY."
FURTHER READING
ANDERSON, L. W., KRATHWOHL, D. R., AIRASIAN, P. W., CRUIKSHANK, K. A.,
MAYER, R. E., PINTRICH, P. R., RATHS, J., WITTROCK, M. C. (2000). A
TAXONOMY FOR LEARNING, TEACHING, AND ASSESSING: A REVISION OF
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES. NEW YORK: PEARSON,
ALLYN & BACON.
BIGGS, J. B. AND COLLIS, K. (1982). EVALUATING THE QUALITY OF LEARNING:
THE SOLO TAXONOMY. NEW YORK, ACADEMIC PRESS.
BLOOM B. S. (1956). TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES, HANDBOOK
I: THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN. NEW YORK: DAVID MCKAY CO INC.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.NWLINK.COM/~DONCLARK/HRD/BLOOM.HTML
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/BLOGS/SAKILANDESWARI/HIGHER-
ORDER-THINKING-SKILLS-HOTS
HOT / COLD CORRECTION

HOT CORRECTION IS WHEN THE TEACHER (OR A PEER) CORRECTS THE
LEARNER DURING AN ACTIVITY. COLD CORRECTION IS WHEN THE TEACHER
PRESENTS THE LEARNERS WITH THEIR MISTAKES FOR CORRECTION AFTER
AN ACTIVITY HAS TAKEN PLACE.
EXAMPLE
WE ARE OFTEN TOLD TO AVOID HOT CORRECTION AS IT INTERRUPTS
LEARNERS’ FLUENCY. BUT I THINK THAT A TEACHER CAN INTERRUPT
SUBTLY BY USING GESTURES OR FACIAL EXPRESSIONS. STUDENTS CAN
OFTEN RELATE TO THIS KIND OF HOT CORRECTION BETTER THAN TO THE
MORE DETACHED PRESENTATION OF THEIR ERRORS IN COLD CORRECTION
AT THE END OF AN ACTIVITY.
FURTHER READING
BARTRAM, M. AND WALTON, R. (1991) CORRECTION. STAMFORD, CT:
CENGAGE.
LI, S. (2014). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: ORAL CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK. ELT
JOURNAL 68 (2): 196-198
LIGHTBOWN AND SPADA (2006). HOW LANGUAGES ARE LEARNED, 3RD ED.
SEIDLHOFER, B. (2011) UNDERSTANDING ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA: A
COMPLETE INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORETICAL NATURE AND PRACTICAL
IMPLICATIONS OF ENGLISH USED AS A LINGUA FRANCA. OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/ERROR-CORRECTION-1
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/ERROR-CORRECTION-2
HYPERNYM
A HYPERNYM IS ANOTHER WORD FOR THE MORE COMMON
TERM SUPERORDINATE. IT IS A WORD WHICH IS THE NAME OF A CATEGORY
FOR OTHER WORDS E.G. GADGET IS A HYPERNYM FOR MOBILE PHONE, PEN
DRIVE, MOUSE, TABLET, HAND-HELP DEVICE.
EXAMPLE
SOMETHING I SOMETIMES DO WITH MY CLASS IS ASK THEM TO GO THROUGH
THEIR VOCABULARY RECORDS AND FIND HYPERNYMS (I DON’T USE THAT
TERM WITH THEM!) FOR AS MANY WORDS AS THEY CAN, OR I GIVE THEM
SOME HYPERNYMS AND ASK THEM TO FIND WORDS BELONGING TO THEM. IT
SEEMS TO HELP THEM REMEMBER THE WORDS AND CONSOLIDATE THEIR
MEANING.
FURTHER READING
BERRY, R. (2010). TERMINOLOGY IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING: NATURE
AND USE. BERN: PETER LANG.
COOK, V. (2013). SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING AND LANGUAGE TEACHING.
LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/HYPONYMS
HYPONYM
HYPONYM IS A TERM USED TO DESCRIBE A LEXICAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN WORDS. HYPONYMS ARE THE WORDS THAT ARE EXAMPLES OF A
PARTICULAR CATEGORY, FOR EXAMPLE, PENS, PENCILS, PAPER, SELLOTAPE
ARE ALL HYPONYMS OF THE CATEGORY, STATIONERY. HYPONYMS FORM A
LARGE PART OF LEXICAL SETS.
EXAMPLE
AT BEGINNER AND ELEMENTARY LEVEL WE OFTEN TEACH HYPONYMS OF
EVERYDAY CATEGORIES SUCH AS MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY, TYPES OF
SHOP, ITEMS OF CLOTHING, DAYS OF THE WEEK, TYPES OF FOOD, COLOURS,
TYPES OF LEISURE ACTIVITIES. AT THE END OF LAST TERM I DIVIDED MY
CLASS INTO GROUPS AND GAVE THEM EACH AN AREA OF VOCABULARY,
A SUPERORDINATE. THEY THEN DREW MIND MAPS, POSTERS OR OTHER
DRAWINGS WITH ALL THE HYPONYMS THEY COULD THINK OF FOR THEIR
AREA. THEY DREW SOME GREAT THINGS, FOR EXAMPLE, PEOPLE IN
NATIONAL DRESS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD TO
ILLUSTRATE DIFFERENT ITEMS OF CLOTHING.
FURTHER READING
MCCARTHY, M. (1990). VOCABULARY. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
NATION, I.S.P.(2001).LEARNING VOCABULARY IN ANOTHER LANGUAGE,
NATION, I., (2000). LEARNING VOCABULARY IN LEXICAL SETS: DANGERS
AND GUIDELINES. TESOL JOURNAL/9.
YULE, G. (2014). THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
ITOP
IATEFL
THIS ACRONYM STANDS FOR INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS
OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE. ITS AIMS ARE TO ‘TO LINK, DEVELOP
AND SUPPORT ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING PROFESSIONALS AROUND THE
WORLD’ (HTTP://WWW.IATEFL.ORG/). IATEFL’S MAIN ACTIVITIES ARE
ORGANISING AN ANNUAL CONFERENCE FOR TEACHERS AND LOCAL
SEMINARS, AWARDING GRANTS AND SCHOLARSHIPS, PUBLISHING A
NEWSLETTER AND MAGAZINE, AND PUTTING ON WEBINARS.
EXAMPLE
TEACHERS COME FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD TO ATTEND THE IATEFL
ANNUAL CONFERENCE. IT GIVES THEM AN OPPORTUNITY TO GIVE A TALK
ON AN AREA OF INTEREST, OR TO LISTEN TO A WIDE RANGE OF SPEAKERS
SPEAKING ON A WIDE RANGE OF ELT RELATED SUBJECTS. IT IS ALSO A
GREAT OPPORTUNITY TO MEET TEACHERS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES AND
TO VISIT A WELL-STOCKED RESOURCES EXHIBITION.
FURTHER READING
HTTP://WWW.IATEFL.ORG/
CONFERENCE VIDEO: HTTP://IATEFL.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/
HTTPS://WWW.FACEBOOK.COM/IATEFLONLINE
IDIOM
AN IDIOM IS A FORMULAIC EXPRESSION WITH ONE OVERALL MEANING. IT IS
OFTEN NOT POSSIBLE TO WORK OUT THE MEANING OF AN IDIOM JUST BY
LOOKING AT ITS INDIVIDUAL WORDS, AS IDIOMS OFTEN CARRY A LOT OF
CULTURAL MEANING, FOR EXAMPLE SHE MADE A REAL DOG’S BREAKFAST OF
HER HOMEWORK; A LITTLE BIRDIE TOLD ME YOU’VE HAD SOME VERY GOOD
NEWS. THERE ARE SEVERAL DIFFERENT KINDS OF IDIOMS SUCH AS PHRASAL
VERBS, SIMILES, METAPHORS, PROVERBS AND EUPHEMISMS.
EXAMPLE
"MY ENGLISH IS PRETTY FLUENT BUT I STILL HAVE PROBLEMS
UNDERSTANDING IDIOMS. WHAT DOES ‘LET’S GO FOR A WHIRL’ MEAN, FOR
EXAMPLE, OR ‘I REALLY LIKE CHILLING OUT WITH FRIENDS’? IT’S NOT EASY
TO LEARN THIS KIND OF ENGLISH AT SCHOOL."
FURTHER READING
CAMBRIDGE IDIOMS DICTIONARY, 2ND EDITION. (2006). CAMBRIDGE,
LEWIS, M. (1997). IMPLEMENTING THE LEXICAL APPROACH. BOSTON, MASS.,
THOMSON HEINLE.
MCCARTHY, M. AND O’DELL, F. (2002) ENGLISH IDIOMS IN USE. CAMBRIDGE:
HTTP://WWW.VISUAL-IDIOMS.COM/
IMPERATIVE
THE PART OF THE VERB USED TO GIVE ORDERS OR INSTRUCTIONS. IN
ENGLISH THE POSITIVE FORM OF THE IMPERATIVE IS THE BASE FORM
WITHOUT ‘TO’ E.G. BRUSH YOUR TEETH, KEEP QUIET, DRIVE CAREFULLY.
ITS NEGATIVE FORM IS DON’T/ DO NOT + BASE FORM E.G. DON’T
WORRY ABOUT THAT, DON’T FORGET YOUR KEYS, DON’T LOSE IT.
EXAMPLE
IT’S QUITE IMPORTANT TO TEACH THE REGISTER OF THE IMPERATIVE IN
ENGLISH. LEARNERS SOMETIMES THINK IT’S THE SAME AS A POLITE
IMPERATIVE IN THEIR OWN LANGUAGE AND DON’T REALISE THAT IN
ENGLISH IT CAN BE QUITE DIRECT AND ABRUPT.
FURTHER READING
ENGLISH. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PARROTT, M. (2010). GRAMMAR FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS, ECOND
HTTPS://LEARNENGLISHKIDS.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/GRAMMAR-GAMES/IM
PERATIVES
INDEFINITE ARTICLE
SEE ARTICLES
INDUCTIVE V DEDUCTIVE
THESE TERMS ARE USED TO REFER TO WAYS OF LEARNING. INDUCTIVE
LEARNING TAKES PLACE BY THE LEARNER EXTRACTING OR WORKING OUT
RULES FROM EXAMPLES OR DATA WHEREAS DEDUCTIVE LEARNING WORKS
BY LEARNING RULES THEN APPLYING THEM TO EXAMPLES OR DATA.
EXAMPLE
THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD MADE HEAVY USE OF A DEDUCTIVE
WAY OF LEARNING, PRESENTING LEARNERS WITH RULES AND THEN ASKING
THEM TO USE THEM TO COMPLETE EXERCISES. THE COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACH RELIES MUCH MORE ON AN INDUCTIVE APPROACH IN WHICH
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS HEAR OR READ LANGUAGE AROUND THEM, IN
MUCH THE SAME WAY AS FIRST LANGUAGE LEARNERS DO, THEN
UNCONSCIOUSLY DEVISE RULES ABOUT HOW DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF
LANGUAGE WORK.
FURTHER READING
DOUGHTY, C. & J. WILLIAMS (EDS) (1998). FOCUS ON FORM IN CLASSROOM
SECOND LANGUAGE
GOLLIN, J. (1998). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: DEDUCTIVE VS INDUCTIVE
LANGUAGE LEARNING. ELT JOURNAL, 52/1.
HOWATT, A.P.R. AND WIDDOWSON, H. (2004). A HISTORY OF ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TEACHING. OXFORD:
LANGUAGE TEACHING.
INFERRING MEANING
WHEN WE INFER MEANING WE WORK OUT FROM LINGUISTIC AND
CONTEXTUAL CLUES WHAT A WORD, GROUP OF WORDS OR SENTENCE MIGHT
MEAN. WE DO THIS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEANING E.G. DENOTATION,
CONNOTATION, ATTITUDE.
EXAMPLE
SHE SAID THE FOOD WAS GREAT BUT IT WAS VERY EASY TO INFER FROM
THE LOOK ON HER FACE THAT SHE REALLY MEANT IT WAS HORRIBLE!
FURTHER READING
CLARKE, D.F., & NATION, I.S. P. (1980). GUESSING THE MEANINGS OF WORDS
FROM CONTEXT:STRATEGY AND TECHNIQUES. SYSTEM/ 8.
COADY, J. AND HUCKIN, T. (EDS.), (1997). SECOND LANGUAGE VOCABULARY
MACARO, E., (2003). TEACHING AND LEARNING A SECOND LANGUAGE . NEW
YORK: CONTINUUM.
SCHMITT, N., (1997). VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES. IN N. SCHMITT,
AND M. MCCARTHY, EDS. VOCABULARY: DESCRIPTION, ACQUISITION AND
PEDAGOGY. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
TAKAČ, V. P. (2008). VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES AND FOREIGN
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. BRISTOL: MULTILINGUAL MATTERS.
INFLECTION
THIS REFERS TO THE PROCESS OF ADDING A MORPHEME TO A WORD TO
CHANGE ITS GRAMMATICAL MEANING (E.G. TENSE, PERSON) BUT NOT ITS
WORD CLASS. IN ENGLISH IT APPLIES PARTICULARLY TO VERBS, NOUNS
AND ADJECTIVES.
EXAMPLE
SOME LANGUAGES MAKE HEAVY USE OF INFLECTIONS, GERMAN, GREEK AND
TURKISH, FOR EXAMPLE. THIS MAKES IT A CHALLENGE FOR LEARNERS TO
SPEAK THESE LANGUAGES ACCURATELY – A LANGUAGE MIGHT, FOR
INSTANCE, HAVE AT LEAST SEVEN DIFFERENT INFLECTIONS FOR NOUNS:
SINGULAR, PLURAL. NOMINATIVE CASE, GENITIVE, VOCATIVE, DATIVE,
ACCUSATIVE. WHAT A NIGHTMARE FOR THOSE SEEKING TO ACHIEVE
PERFECTION!
FURTHER READING
ENGLISH.CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/INFLECTION
INFORMATION GAP
THIS TERM IS USED TO REFER TO THE SITUATION IN WHICH ONE PERSON OR
GROUP HAS INFORMATION WHICH ANOTHER PERSON OR GROUP WANTS BUT
DOESN’T HAVE. FOR EXAMPLE, IF A SHOPKEEPER KNOWS THE PRICE OF AN
ITEM YOU WANT TO BUY BUT YOU DON’T KNOW THE PRICE, THEN THERE IS
AN INFORMATION GAP BETWEEN YOU AND THE SHOPKEEPER. TO ‘BRIDGE’
THIS INFORMATION GAP, YOU ASK THE SHOPKEEPER THE PRICE AND HE/SHE
REPLIES. AS CAN BE SEEN FROM THIS EXAMPLE, THE INFORMATION GAP
PROMPTS PURPOSEFUL COMMUNICATION. THIS IS THE REASON WHY MANY
COMMUNICATIVE CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES ARE DESIGNED AROUND
INFORMATION GAPS. THEY ARE SAID TO PROMOTE GENUINE
COMMUNICATION AND USE OF LANGUAGE RATHER THAN LANGUAGE USE
FOR DISPLAY OR PURELY PRACTICE PURPOSES. MANY WELL-KNOWN ELT
ACTIVITIES ARE BASED AROUND AN INFORMATION GAP E.G. FIND SOMEONE
WHO, JIGSAW READING AND LISTENING, DESCRIBE AND DRAW, PROBLEM
SOLVING.
EXAMPLE
"IN OUR FIRST LESSON I GAVE EACH STUDENT BROCHURE OF THEIR NEW
TOWN, THEN I ASKED THEM TO PLAN A JOINT OUTING TOGETHER FOR NEXT
SUNDAY. TO DO THIS THE STUDENTS HAD TO SHARE INFORMATION ABOUT ALL
THE PLACES THEY COULD VISIT, THEN EXCHANGE OPINIONS AND MAKE A
DECISION. IT WAS A HUGE INFORMATION GAP ACTIVITY, WHICH WORKED VERY
WELL."
FURTHER READING
HARMER, J. (2012). ESSENTIAL TEACHER KNOWLEDGE. HARLOW: PEARSON.
INPUT
THE LANGUAGE IN THE LEARNER’S ENVIRONMENT THAT THE LEARNER IS
EXPOSED TO THROUGH HEARING OR READING AND WHICH IS AVAILABLE
FOR INTAKE IN ORDER TO DRIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN YOU GO TO A FOREIGN COUNTRY THERE IS INPUT EVERYWHERE: IN
STREET SIGNS, NEWSPAPERS, TELEVISION, PEOPLE TALKING, MENUS,
LEAFLETS ETC ETC."
FURTHER READING
PRESS.
INPUT HYPOTHESIS
THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS IS THE IDEA, DEVELOPED PARTICULARLY BY
STEPHEN KRASHEN, THAT LANGUAGE IS ACQUIRED BY EXPOSURE TO
LANGUAGE THAT IS OF INTEREST TO THE LEARNER AND THAT IS MADE UP
OF A LEVEL OF LEXIS AND GRAMMAR SLIGHTLY ABOVE THAT OF THE
LEARNER’S. THIS IS CALLED COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT. KRASHEN HAS
RECENTLY REFINED HIS IDEA OF COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT TO SAY THAT ‘IT
MAY BE THE CASE THAT INPUT NEEDS TO BE NOT JUST INTERESTING BUT
COMPELLING. COMPELLING MEANS THAT THE INPUT IS SO INTERESTING YOU
FORGET THAT IT IS IN ANOTHER LANGUAGE’ (KRASHEN, S., 2011).
EXAMPLE
WHEN WE GO TO A FOREIGN COUNTRY AS A FAMILY WE SEEM TO LEARN
DIFFERENT THINGS EVEN THOUGH WE’RE ALL IN THE SAME ENVIRONMENT.
MY SON, AN ENORMOUS EATER, SEEMS TO LEARN ALL THE WORDS FOR
FOOD, MY HUSBAND, AN AVID FOOTBALL FAN, NOTICES AND LEARNS WORDS
TO DO WITH SPORT, AND I TEND TO PICK UP SOCIAL FORMULAE. WE ALL
HAVE THE SAME INPUT BUT WE NOTICE AND ACQUIRE DIFFERENT THINGS
FROM IT. THIS SEEMS TO ME TO BE EVIDENCE OF THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS
AND OF THE NEED FOR COMPELLING INPUT.
FURTHER READING
PRESS.
LIGHTBOWN, P. AND SPADA, N. (2013). HOW LANGUAGES ARE LEARNED,
4TH EDITION. OXFORD:OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
STEPHEN KRASHEN
IN HTTP://WWW.KOREATESOL.ORG/SITES/DEFAULT/FILES/PDF_PUBLICATIONS
/TECV15N3-11AUTUMN.PDF
INTAKE
THE LANGUAGE THAT A LEARNER MEETS IN THEIR ENVIRONMENT AND THAT
THEY ABSORB. A DISTINCTION IS MADE BETWEEN INPUT AND INTAKE. INPUT
IS THE LANGUAGE AVAILABLE IN THE ENVIRONMENT, INTAKE IS THAT PART
OF THE INPUT THAT THE LEARNER (CONSCIOUSLY OR UNCONSCIOUSLY)
CHOOSES TO PAY ATTENTION TO AND TAKE IN. INTAKE IS THE FIRST STAGE
IN NOTICING LANGUAGE.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN HE HEARS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE HIS EARS PERK UP AND HIS EYES
BRIGHTEN-HE SEEMS TO UNCONSCIOUSLY OR CONSCIOUSLY PAY ATTENTION
TO EVERY BIT OF INPUT THAT COMES HIS WAY, BUSILY TURNING INPUT
INTO INTAKE."
FURTHER READING
GASS, S. AND MADDEN, C. (1985). INPUT IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
CALIFORNIA: NEWBURY HOUSE. KUMARAVADIVELU, B. (1994). INTAKE
FACTORS AND INTAKE PROCESSES IN ADULT LANGUAGE
LEARNING. APPLIED LANGUAGE LEARNING 1994, 5/1.
VAN PATTEN, B. (2002). FROM INPUT TO OUTPUT. NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/INPUT
INTEGRATED
THIS TERM IS USED TO REFER TO A WAY OF TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS
AND TO TYPES OF SYLLABUS. A LESSON WHICH EXTENDS WORK ON ONE
SKILL INTO ANOTHER IS CALLED AN INTEGRATED SKILLS LESSON. FOR
EXAMPLE, LEARNERS COULD DO WORK ON A LISTENING TEXT ON A
PARTICULAR TOPIC THEN DO A SPEAKING ACTIVITY THAT PICKS UP ON THE
LANGUAGE OF THE SAME TOPIC, OR THEY COULD DO WORK ON A READING
TEXT THEN DEVELOP THEIR IDEAS AND LANGUAGE BY WRITING ABOUT THE
TOPIC OF THE READING TEXT.
AN INTEGRATED SYLLABUS IS ONE WHICH TRIES TO ENSURE THAT THE
DIFFERENT SYLLABUS COMPONENTS SUPPORT ONE ANOTHER E.G. THE
VOCABULARY ENABLES THE GRAMMAR, THE GRAMMAR ENABLES THE
FUNCTIONS.
EXAMPLE
"I LIKE USING INTEGRATED SKILLS IN CLASS. I THINK THIS APPROACH GIVES
LEARNERS AN OPPORTUNITY TO CONSOLIDATE AND EXTEND THEIR LANGUAGE
IN A DIFFERENT CONTEXT OR SKILL."
FURTHER READING
MCDONOUGH, J. AND SHAW, C. (2003). MATERIALS AND METHODS IN ELT,
2ND EDITION. OXFORD: BLACKWELL.
NUNAN, D. AND CARTER, R. (2001). TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF
SELINKER, L. AND RUSSELL, S. (1986). AN EMPIRICAL LOOK AT THE
INTEGRATION AND SEPARATION OF SKILLS IN ELT. ELT JOURNAL 40/3.
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/SKILLS/INTEGRATED-SKILLS/
INTEGRATIVE TESTS
SEE DISCRETE-ITEM AND INTEGRATIVE TESTS
INTERLANGUAGE
THE VERSION OF THE TARGET LANGUAGE SPOKEN BY A LEARNER AT ANY
GIVEN TIME DURING THE PERIOD OF LEARNING . A LEARNER’S
INTERLANGUAGE WILL CHANGE AND DEVELOP AS THEY BECOME MORE
PROFICIENT. SOME ASPECTS OF IT MAY FOSSILIZE AS THEIR PROFICIENCY
DEVELOPS.
EXAMPLE
"LEARNERS’ INTERLANGUAGE CAN DEVELOP QUICKLY IF THEY GET ENOUGH
EXPOSURE – YOU SEE THE WAY THEY USE DIFFERENT GRAMMATICAL
STRUCTURES WITH MORE PRECISION, THE RANGE AND APPROPRIATENESS OF
VOCABULARY USE AND THE CLARITY OF THEIR PRONUNCIATION REALLY
CHANGING FAST."
FURTHER READING
BATSTONE, R. (1994). GRAMMAR. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
BROWN, H.D. (1994). PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING.
HARLOW: PEARSON EDUCATION.
PITT CORDER, S. (1991). ERROR ANALYSIS AND INTERLANGUAGE . OXFORD:
RUTHERFORD, W.E. (1987). SECOND LANGUAGE GRAMMAR: LEARNING AND
TEACHING. HARLOW: LONGMAN.
SKEHAN, P. (1994.) SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION STRATEGIES,
INTERLANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND TASK-BASED LEARNING, IN BYGATE,
M., A. TONKYN, AND E. WILLIAMS, GRAMMAR AND THE LANGUAGE TEACHER .
HEMEL HEMPSTEAD: PRENTICE HALL.
INTERLOCUTOR
THIS IS SOMEONE WITH WHOM A SPEAKER TALKS AND INTERACTS. AN
INTERLOCUTOR PARTICIPATES IN A CONVERSATION OR DIALOGUE.
IN SPEAKING TESTS THE INTERLOCUTOR IS THE PERSON WITH WHOM THE
CANDIDATE SPEAKS.
EXAMPLE
INTERLOCUTORS INTERACT IN DIFFERENT WAYS IN DIFFERENT CULTURES.
ONE OF THE THINGS TO LEARN WHEN LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE IS
HOW TO ACT AS AN INTERLOCUTOR E.G. HOW FAR AWAY FROM THE
SPEAKER TO STAND, WHEN AND WHETHER TO INTERRUPT. OTHERWISE YOU
MAY NOT GET YOUR MESSAGE ACROSS SUCCESSFULLY.
FURTHER READING
CRIBB, M. (2009). DISCOURSE AND THE NON-NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKER. NEW
YORK: CAMBRIA.
STENSTROM, A. (1994). AN INTRODUCTION TO SPOKEN INTERACTION.
HARLOW: LONGMAN.
THORNBURY, S. (2005) HOW TO TEACH SPEAKING. HARLOW: PEARSON.
TSUI, A. (1994). INTRODUCING CLASSROOM INTERACTION. LONDON: PENGUIN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/INTERLOC
UTOR
INTERROGATIVE
SEE PRONOUN
INTONATION AND INTONATION CONTOUR

INTONATION IS THE MOVEMENT WE INTRODUCE INTO OUR VOICES IN ORDER
TO CONVEY MEANING. WE MOVE OUR VOICES UP OR DOWN OR SOME
COMBINATION OF THE TWO OVER A TONE UNIT, WITH OUR INTONATION
FORMING AN INTONATION PATTERN OR INTONATION CONTOUR OVER THAT
UNIT. WE USE INTONATION TO INDICATE ATTITUDE, GRAMMATICAL
FUNCTIONS OR THE ORGANISATION OF DISCOURSE.
EXAMPLE
TRY SAYING THESE THREE SENTENCES IN THE WAY INDICATED IN
BRACKETS AND FOLLOWING THE INTONATION CONTOUR GIVEN IN THE
LINES. NOTICE HOW THE INTONATION IS DIFFERENT IN EACH SENTENCE AND
HOW YOUR VOICE MOVES ACROSS EACH CONTOUR.

HE GAVE YOU THE TICKET (SAID AS A STATEMENT)

HE GAVE YOU THE TICKET (SAID AS A QUESTION)

HE GAVE YOU THE TICKET (SAID TO SHOW SURPRISE)

FURTHER READING
BRAZIL, D. (1997). THE COMMUNICATIVE VALUE OF INTONATION IN ENGLISH.
CELCE-MURCIA, M., BRINTON, D. AND GOODWIN, J. (1996). TEACHING
PRONUNCIATION. CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HALLIDAY, M.A.K., AND GREAVES, W.S., (2008). INTONATION IN THE
GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH. LONDON:EQUINOX.
HIRST, D.J. & DI CRISTO, A. (EDS) 1998. INTONATION SYSTEMS. A SURVEY OF
TWENTY LANGUAGES. CAMBRIDGE, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
ROACH, PETER (2009). ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY, 4TH EDITION.
WELLS, J.C. (2006) ENGLISH INTONATION: AN INTRODUCTION. CAMBRIDGE:
HTTPS://INTONATIONPATTERNS.WORDPRESS.COM/2012/11/23/SUMMARY-BY-
VIVIAN-COOK/
INTRANSITIVE
SEE TRANSITIVE / INTRANSITIVE
INTRINSIC / EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

THESE TERMS BOTH REFER TO TYPES OF MOTIVATION. INTRINSIC
MOTIVATION IS THE WISH TO DO SOMETHING BECAUSE OF THE PLEASURE
OR ENJOYMENT THAT DOING THIS BRINGS. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION REFERS
TO THE WISH TO DO SOMETHING THAT IS DUE TO THE DESIRED RESULT OR
OUTCOME OF DOING IT. BOTH OF THOSE MOTIVATIONS HAVE BEEN USED TO
EXPLAIN THE WISH TO LEARN LANGUAGES, THOUGH NOWADAYS MORE
COMPLEX EXPLANATIONS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING MOTIVATION ARE
AVAILABLE. TEACHERS ARE OFTEN CONCERNED ABOUT HOW TO INCREASE
THEIR LEARNERS’ MOTIVATION.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN I LEARNT ENGLISH AT SCHOOL I JUST DID IT TO GET GOOD MARKS,
AND BECAUSE I THOUGHT IT WOULD HELP ME WHEN TRAVELLING. NOW
THOUGH, I JUST LOVE IT – I LOVE LEARNING ALL THOSE WORDS, IMITATING
THE ACCENT, LISTENING TO THE FLOW ETC ETC – I GUESS
MY MOTIVATION HAS CHANGED FROM EXTRINSIC TO INTRINSIC."
FURTHER READING
DÖRNYEI, Z. (1990). CONCEPTUALIZING MOTIVATION IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE
LEARNING. LANGUAGE LEARNING, 40.
DÖRNYEI, Z. (2001). MOTIVATION STRATEGIES IN THE LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM.CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
DÖRNYEI, Z.(2008). THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION .
DÖRNYEI, Z. (2010). TEACHING AND RESEARCHING: MOTIVATION. LONDON:
ROUTLEDGE.
MCDONOUGH, S. (2007). MOTIVATION IN ELT. ELT JOURNAL 61/4. OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MACMILLAN.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/INTRINSIC
-MOTIVATION
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/BLOGS/ALEXENOAMEN/WAYS-
MOTIVATING-EFL-ESL-STUDENTS-CLASSROOM
INTRUSIVE /R/ /W/ /J/

INTRUSIVE /R/ /W/ AND /J/ ARE SOUNDS USED IN ENGLISH TO HELP WITH
LINKING WORDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH. THEY ARE INSERTED AT WORD
BOUNDARIES.
EXAMPLE
INTRUSIVE /R/-HER EFFORTS (/Hɜ:REFƏTS/), LAW AND ORDER
(/LƆ:RƏNDƆ:DƏ/)
INTRUSIVE /W/ - YOU ARE (/JU:Wɑ:/), GO ON /GƱƏWɒN/
INTRUSIVE /J/ - THEY ARE (/ÐEɪJɑ:/), SHE IS (/ƩI:JɪZ/)
FURTHER READING
HANCOCK, M. (1995). PRONUNCIATION GAMES. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LONGMAN.
IPA
THIS ACRONYM STANDS FOR INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET. THE IPA
PROVIDES ONE SYMBOL FOR EACH SOUND PRODUCED ACROSS THE
DIFFERENT HUMAN LANGUAGES. THE IPA CHART SHOWS THESE SOUNDS IN
RELATION TO ONE ANOTHER. ANY ONE LANGUAGE WILL ONLY USE A
SUBSET OF ALL THE SOUNDS ON THE IPA CHART. TO SEE THE IPA CHART,
CLICK HERE:
HTTP://COMMONS.WIKIMEDIA.ORG/WIKI/FILE:IPA_1024X768.PNG
EXAMPLE
MOST LANGUAGE TEACHERS DON’T KNOW ALL THE SYMBOLS USED ON THE
IPA CHART. IT’S OFTEN SIMPLER AND MORE USEFUL FOR THEM JUST TO
KNOW THOSE USED IN THE LANGUAGE THEY TEACH.
FURTHER READING
INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION (1999). HANDBOOK OF THE
INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION: A GUIDE TO THE USE OF THE
INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET. CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
JONES, D. (1988).ENGLISH PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY, 14TH ED. LONDON:
DENT.
LADEFOGED, P. (1990). "THE REVISED INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC
ALPHABET". LANGUAGE 66/ 3.
LAVER, J. (1994). PRINCIPLES OF PHONETICS. NEW YORK: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PULLUM, G. K., LADUSAW, W.A. (1986).PHONETIC SYMBOL GUIDE. CHICAGO:
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS.
LTOP
L1 / L2
AN L1 IS YOUR MOTHER TONGUE, THE FIRST LANGUAGE YOU LEARN IN
YOUR HOME ENVIRONMENT. L2 HAS VARIOUS MEANINGS. IT CAN REFER TO
ANY LANGUAGE LEARNT AFTER LEARNING L1.
IT ALSO REFERS TO THE LANGUAGE LEARNT AFTER THE L1 AND THAT IS
USED IN THE LEARNER’S ENVIRONMENT (E.G. LEARNING GREEK AS A CHILD
WHILE LIVING IN GREECE, HAVING FIRST LEARNT ENGLISH FROM YOUR
ENGLISH-SPEAKING PARENTS).
A THIRD MEANING IS FOR LANGUAGES WIDELY USED IN COUNTRIES OR
REGIONS BUT NOT RECOGNISED AS OFFICIAL LANGUAGES. FOR EXAMPLE, IN
GUYANA, ENGLISH IS THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE BUT GUYANESE CREOLE IS
AN L2 WIDELY USED BY MANY PEOPLE.
EXAMPLE
"NOWADAYS, WITH SO MANY PEOPLE BEING BILINGUAL, IT IS NOT ALWAYS
SIMPLE TO SAY WHICH IS THEIR L1 AND WHICH IS THEIR L2."
FURTHER READING
COOK, V.J., LONG, J., & MCDONOUGH, S. (1979), FIRST AND SECOND
LANGUAGE LEARNING, IN G.E. PERREN (ED.)THE MOTHER TONGUE AND
OTHER LANGUAGES IN EDUCATION, CILTR.
CRYSTAL, D. (2003). ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE. CAMBRIDGE:
KACHRU, B. (1992). WORLD ENGLISHES: APPROACHES, ISSUES AND
RESOURCES. LANGUAGE TEACHING, 25. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
KACHRU, B. B. (1997). WORLD ENGLISHES AND ENGLISH-USING
COMMUNITIES. ANNUAL REVIEW OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS, 17.
LANGUAGE SYSTEMS
LANGUAGE SYSTEMS REFERS TO THE WAY LINGUISTS ANALYSE LANGUAGE
AS A SYSTEM OF UNITS OR PARTICULAR ELEMENTS IN A SPECIFIC
LANGUAGE. THERE ARE FOUR MAIN LANGUAGE SYSTEMS THAT WE CAN
THINK ABOUT:
1. GRAMMAR: THIS WOULD BE CONCERNED WITH HOW THE MORPHEMES

IN A LANGUAGE COMBINE INTO AN ACCEPTABLE STRUCTURE WITH
RECOGNISABLE MEANING.
2. LEXIS: THIS WOULD DEAL WITH THE WORDS IN THE LANGUAGE AND
THEIR MEANINGS.
3. PHONOLOGY: THIS WOULD LOOK AT THE ESTABLISHMENT AND
DESCRIPTION OF THE DISTINCTIVE SOUND UNITS OF A LANGUAGE, AS
WELL AS HOW STRESS AND INTONATION MAY CONTRIBUTE TO THE
MEANING OF WORDS OR UTTERANCE.
4. DISCOURSE: THIS WOULD FOCUS ON THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE IN USE
AS STRETCHES OF CONNECTED WRITTEN OR SPOKEN LANGUAGE THAT
ARE MORE THAN ONE SENTENCE OR UTTERANCE LONG.
LEARNER AUTONOMY
THIS REFERS TO THE LEARNER’S ABILITY TO TAKE CHARGE OF AND DIRECT
THEIR OWN LANGUAGE LEARNING WITHOUT RELYING ON THE TEACHER. IT
IS BELIEVED THAT IF A LEARNER IS AUTONOMOUS, THEY TAKE
RESPONSIBILITY FOR THEIR OWN LEARNING AND THAT THIS IS A GOOD
THING, AS IT ALLOWS THEM TO LEARN INDEPENDENTLY (AND HENCE MORE
DEEPLY) AND TO GO ON LEARNING. MANY TEACHING APPROACHES,
MATERIALS AND COURSES CONTAIN A FOCUS ON STRATEGIES THAT HELP TO
MAKE THE LEARNER MORE AUTONOMOUS E.G. HOW TO WORK WITH A
DICTIONARY, DEVELOPING PROOFREADING SKILLS, DECIDING WHAT TO
LEARN NEXT. SOME LEARNERS APPRECIATE THE FREEDOM AND
RESPONSIBILITY AUTONOMY GIVES THEM, WHILE OTHERS MAY PREFER THE
TEACHER TO REMAIN IN CHARGE. LEARNER AUTONOMY IS ALSO REFERRED
TO AS SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING.
EXAMPLE
"HE’S SUCH AN AUTONOMOUS LEARNER THAT HE FINDS IT HARD TO ACCEPT
BEING TOLD WHAT AND HOW TO LEARN BY A TEACHER IN A CLASSROOM."
FURTHER READING
BENSON, P. (2001). TEACHING AND RESEARCHING AUTONOMY IN LANGUAGE
LEARNING. HARLOW: LONGMAN.
BENSON, P. & VOLLER, P. (1996) AUTONOMY AND INDEPENDENCE IN
LANGUAGE LEARNING. HARLOW: LONGMAN.
COHEN, A. D. (1998). STRATEGIES IN LEARNING AND USING A SECOND
LANGUAGE. HARLOW: LONGMAN.
HOLLIDAY, A. (2005) THE STRUGGLE TO TEACH ENGLISH AS AN
INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
KUMARAVADIVELU, B. (2003). BEYOND METHODS: MACROSTRATEGIES FOR
LANGUAGE TEACHING. NEW HAVEN, NH: YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LITTLE, D., RIDLEY, J. & USHIODA, E. (EDS.). (2003). LEARNER AUTONOMY IN
FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS: TEACHER, LEARNER, CURRICULUM AND
ASSESSMENT. DUBLIN: AUTHENTIK.
NUNAN, D. (1988). THE LEARNER-CENTRED CURRICULUM: A STUDY IN SECOND
NUNAN, D. (1996). THE SELF-DIRECTED TEACHER. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
SCHARLE, A & SZABO, A. (2000) LEARNER AUTONOMY: A GUIDE TO
DEVELOPING LEARNER RESPONSIBILITY CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
SMITH, R. (2008). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: LEARNER AUTONOMY. E LT
LEARNER TRAINING
LEARNER TRAINING INVOLVES TEACHING LEARNERS HOW TO CARRY OUT
THE STRATEGIES THAT ENABLE THEM TO BECOME BETTER LEARNERS, AND
OFTEN MORE AUTONOMOUS LEARNERS. EXAMPLES OF THESE STRATEGIES
ARE: WRITING DOWN NEW WORDS ON VOCABULARY CARDS, TAKING
ADVANTAGE OF ALL OPPORTUNITIES TO USE THE TARGET LANGUAGE,
REPEATING NEW WORDS TO YOURSELF, LISTENING OUT FOR SPECIFIC
GRAMMATICAL FEATURES.
EXAMPLE
"I ONCE HAD A STUDENT WHO NEEDED NO LEARNER TRAINING - SHE ALREADY
KEPT BEAUTIFULLY ORGANISED FILES, NOTED DOWN NEW WORDS, ASKED
QUESTIONS WHEN SHE DIDN’T UNDERSTAND, LISTENED TO ALL AVAILABLE
RADIO AND TV PROGRAMMES, HAD AN ENGLISH STUDY BUDDY ETC ETC. SHE
WAS REMARKABLE AND MADE VERY RAPID PROGRESS."
FURTHER READING
ELLIS, G. AND SINCLAIR, B. (1989). LEARNING TO LEARN ENGLISH.
CAMBRIDGE, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
GRIFFITHS, G. (2007). LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES: STUDENTS' AND
TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS. ELT JOURNAL 61/2. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
O’MALLEY, J. AND CHAMOT, A.(1990). LEARNING STRATEGIES IN SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTPS://WWW.CAMBRIDGE.ORG/ELT/CES/METHODOLOGY/LEARNINGSTRATEGI
ES.HTM
LEARNER-CENTREDNESS
THIS TERM IS USED WITH TWO DIFFERENT MEANINGS. ONE MEANING REFERS
TO CLASSROOM INTERACTION IN WHICH THE FOCUS IS ON THE STUDENTS AS
OPPOSED TO THE TEACHER, AND WHICH INVOLVES HEAVY USE OF PAIR AND
GROUP WORK.
THE SECOND MEANING REFERS TO INVOLVING LEARNERS IN DECISIONS
ABOUT THEIR OWN LEARNING. THESE CAN INCLUDE DECISIONS ABOUT
CURRICULUM CONTENT, WAYS OF LEARNING AND WAYS OF ASSESSING.
EXAMPLE
WHEN I LEARNT A FOREIGN LANGUAGE AT SCHOOL THE TEACHER WAS IN
COMMAND OF AND AT THE CENTRE OF EVERYTHING – INTERACTION, CHOICE
OF WHAT AND HOW TO LEARN AND ALSO HOW TO ASSESS. IN SOME FOREIGN
LANGUAGE LEARNING THESE DAYS THERE IS MUCH MORE LEARNER-
CENTREDNESS – SOMETIMES LEARNERS MAKE DECISIONS ABOUT THE
CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT, AND OFTEN THERE IS AN EMPHASIS ON
STUDENT PARTICIPATION IN THE CLASSROOM, WITH THE TEACHER TAKING
ON MAINLY A MONITORING ROLE WHILE THE LEARNERS TAKE OVER THE
ROLE OF LANGUAGE USER AND INPUTTER.
FURTHER READING
HOLLIDAY, A. (2005). THE STRUGGLE TO TEACH ENGLISH AS AN
INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. NEW YORK: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
KUMARAVADIVELU, B. (2006). UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE TEACHING FROM
METHOD TO POST-METHOD. LONDON: LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES,
PUBLISHERS.
NUNAN, D. (1988). THE LEARNER-CENTRED CURRICULUM: A STUDY IN SECOND
(2012). LEARNER-CENTERED ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION: THE SELECTED
WORKS OF DAVID NUNAN. ABINGDON, OXON.: ROUTLEDGE.
NUNAN, D., & LAMB, C. (2001). MANAGING THE LEARNING PROCESS. IN D. R.
HALL & A. HEWINGS (EDS.), INNOVATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING (PP. 27-45). LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
WILLIAMS, M., & BURDEN, R. L. (1997). PSYCHOLOGY FOR LANGUAGE
TEACHER: A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LEARNING AIM
A LEARNING AIM IS SOMETHING THAT THE TEACHER INTENDS HER
STUDENTS WILL LEARN DURING A LESSON, AND THAT SHE DESIGNS HER
LESSON AROUND IN ORDER FOR THAT LEARNING TO TAKE PLACE. IT MAY
ALSO REFER TO THE LEARNING GOALS OF A COURSE OR SYLLABUS. THE
TERM IS OFTEN USED INTERCHANGEABLY WITH THE TERM OBJECTIVE.
EXAMPLE
"MY AIMS IN MY LAST LESSON WERE:
- TO PRESENT AND PRACTISE NEW ADJECTIVES FOR DESCRIBING PEOPLE
- TO GIVE STUDENTS ORAL FLUENCY PRACTICE IN DESCRIBING ONE ANOTHER
- TO GIVE STUDENTS WRITTEN PRACTICE IN DESCRIBING THEIR FAMILIES"
FURTHER READING
MACMILLAN.
WATKINS, P. 2005. LEARNING TO TEACH ENGLISH: A PRACTICAL
INTRODUCTION FOR NEW TEACHERS. PEASLAKE: DELTA PUBLISHING.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2011/04/24/A-IS-FOR-AIMS/
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/DOGME
LEARNING OUTCOME
A LEARNING OUTCOME IS A STATEMENT (OFTEN IN A LESSON PLAN OR
SYLLABUS) OF WHAT A LEARNER IS EXPECTED TO KNOW OR BE ABLE TO DO,
AND TO WHAT DEGREE, AT THE END OF A LESSON OR COURSE AS A RESULT
OF SUCCESSFUL LEARNING OF THE FOCUS OF THE LESSON OR COURSE.
LEARNER OUTCOMES CAN BE USED TO TELL LEARNERS WHAT THEY WILL BE
LEARNING. THEY ARE ALSO USED TO SHAPE LESSON ACTIVITIES AND GUIDE
THE CONTENT OF ASSESSMENT.
EXAMPLE
"THINKING ABOUT LEARNING OUTCOMES WHEN YOU ARE PLANNING YOUR
LESSON AND WRITING A LESSON PLAN REALLY HELPS THE TEACHER TO SEE IF
WHAT THEY INTEND TO TEACH IS AT THE RIGHT LEVEL FOR THEIR LEARNERS."
FURTHER READING
BURNS, A. AND RICHARDS, J.(2012). PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE IN SECOND
RICHARDS, J. (2013). CURRICULUM APPROACHES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING:
FORWARD, CENTRAL AND BACKWARD DESIGN. RELC JOURNAL 44/1.
HTTPS://WWW.ITL.USYD.EDU.AU/ASSESSMENTRESOURCES/LEARNING_OUTCO
MES.HTM
HTTP://WWW.BANGOR.AC.UK/ADU/THE_SCHEME/DOCUMENTS/BIGGS.PDF
LEMMA
A LEMMA IS THE DICTIONARY OR CITATION FORM OF A WORD. SPOKE,
SPEAKING, SPOKEN, SPEAKS ARE ALL FORMS OF THE LEMMA SPEAK, FOR
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
WHEN STUDENTS START USING A DICTIONARY THEY SOMETIMES CAN’T FIND
THE WORD THEY WANT BECAUSE THEY DON’T REALISE THEY NEED TO LOOK
FOR THE CITATION FORM OF THE WORD, ITS LEMMA. THEY NEED TRAINING
IN HELPING THEM TO DO THIS.
FURTHER READING
KNOWLES, G. AND DON, Z. M. (2004). THE NOTION OF A LEMMA:
HEADWORDS, ROOTS AND LEXICAL SETS IN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
CORPUS LINGUISTICS 9/1.
MACARO, E. (2003). TEACHING AND LEARNING A SECOND LANGUAGE. NEW

YORK:CONTINUUM.
N. SCHMITT, AND M. MCCARTHY, EDS. (1997). VOCABULARY: DESCRIPTION,
HTTPS://WWW.THOUGHTCO.COM/WHAT-IS-A-LEMMA-1691108
LEXICAL APPROACH
IN A LEXICAL APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING, LEARNING LEXIS IS A
PRINCIPLE GOAL, THUS INFLUENCING SYLLABUS DESIGN AND CLASSROOM
ACTIVITIES. LEXIS IN THE LEXICAL APPROACH INCLUDES NOT JUST SINGLE
WORDS BUT COLLOCATIONS AND CHUNKS, AND LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL
ASPECTS OF LEXIS AS WELL AS PURELY SEMANTIC.
EXAMPLE
ONE WAY OF IMPLEMENTING THE LEXICAL APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM IS
TO WORK WITH SPOKEN OR WRITTEN TEXTS AND USE VARIOUS TECHNIQUES
TO MAKE STUDENTS AWARE OF THE COLLOCATIONS AND CHUNKS THE
TEXTS CONTAIN.
FURTHER READING
LEWIS, M. (1993). THE LEXICAL APPROACH, HOVE: LANGUAGE TEACHING
PUBLICATIONS.
LEWIS, MICHAEL (1996). IMPLICATIONS OF A LEXICAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE . IN
CHALLENGE AND CHANGE IN LANGUAGE TEACHING, JANE WILLIS AND DAVE
WILLIS (EDS.). OXFORD: HEINEMANN.
LEWIS, M. (1997). IMPLEMENTING THE LEXICAL APPROACH: PUTTING THEORY
INTO PRACTICE. HOVE: LANGUAGE TEACHING PUBLICATIONS.
LEWIS, M. (2000). LANGUAGE IN THE LEXICAL APPROACH. IN TEACHING
COLLOCATION: FURTHER
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LEXICAL APPROACH, MICHAEL LEWIS (ED.), 126-154.
HOVE: LANGUAGE TEACHING PUBLICATIONS.
SCHMITT, N. (2000). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: LEXICAL CHUNKS. ELT
JOURNAL 54/4.
THORNBURY, SCOTT (1997). REFORMULATION AND RECONSTRUCTION: TASKS
THAT PROMOTE 'NOTICING'. ELT JOURNAL 51/4.
THORNBURY, SCOTT (1998). THE LEXICAL APPROACH: A JOURNEY WITHOUT
MAPS? MODERN ENGLISH TEACHER 7(4).
THORNBURY, SCOTT (2006). AN A-Z OF ELT. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
WILLIS, D. (1990).THE LEXICAL SYLLABUS: A NEW APPROACH TO LANGUAGE
LEARNING. LONDON: COLLINS ELT.
HTTP://WWW.THEGUARDIAN.COM/EDUCATION/2013/MAR/26/LEIXICAL-
APPROACH-REVOLUTION
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/LEXICAL-APPROACH-1-
WHAT-DOES-LEXICAL-APPROACH-LOOK
LEXICAL CHAIN
A LEXICAL CHAIN IS A SERIES OF WORDS USED IN A TEXT THAT ARE LINKED
TO THE SAME LEXICAL FIELD, INCLUDING SYNONYMS AND RELATED TERMS.
A LEXICAL CHAIN IS ONE SOURCE OF COHESION IN A TEXT.
EXAMPLE
"IN THE SENTENCE 'ELEPHANTS HAVE LONG TRUNKS AND TUSKS, WHICH
DISTINGUISH ELEPHANTS FROM MANY OTHER ANIMALS’, ‘ELEPHANT’,
‘TRUNKS’, ‘TUSKS’, AND ‘ANIMALS’ ALL FORM A LEXICAL CHAIN IN THAT THEY
ALL RELATE TO THE LEXICAL FIELD OF ELEPHANTS."
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (2005) BEYOND THE SENTENCE. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
HTTP://AEO.SLLF.QMUL.AC.UK/FILES/COHESION/COHESION%201.PDF
LEXICAL COHESION
LEXICAL COHESION REFERS TO THE LEXICAL DEVICES USED IN SPOKEN OR
WRITTEN DISCOURSE TO HELP JOIN TEXTS TOGETHER. THESE DEVICES
INCLUDE LEXICAL CHAINS, LEXICAL SETS, REPETITION OF WORDS,
SUBSTITUTION AND ELLIPSIS.
EXAMPLE
"THE LEXICAL COHESION IN THIS SENTENCE IS IN ITALICS: I WENT TO PARIS
AS A CHILD. I REMEMBER IT AS A VERY LOVELY CITY. CITIES THOUGH ARE
FULL OF PROBLEMS THESE DAYS SO I IMAGINE THE CAPITAL OF FRANCE IS
TOO NOW."
FURTHER READING
FLOWERDEW, J. AND MAHLBERG, M. (2009). LEXICAL COHESION AND CORPUS
LINGUISTICS. AMSTERDAM: JOHN BENJAMINS.
HALLIDAY, M.A.K; AND RUQAYIA HASAN (1976). COHESION IN ENGLISH.
LONDON: LONGMAN.
HOEY, MICHAEL (1991): PATTERNS OF LEXIS IN TEXT. OXFORD: OUP.
HTTP://GRAMMAR.ABOUT.COM/OD/C/G/COHESIONTERM.HTM
LEXICAL FIELD
SEE SEMANTIC FIELD
LEXICAL ITEM
A LEXICAL ITEM IS A WORD OR GROUP OF WORDS WITH A SINGLE MEANING.
HERE, FOR EXAMPLE, ARE FIVE LEXICAL ITEMS: LOOK AFTER, QUICK AS A
FLASH, POTATO, AT, WASTE PAPER BASKET. A LEXICAL ITEM MAY HAVE
MORE THAN ONE FORM E.G. CHILD AND CHILDREN ARE ONE LEXICAL ITEM
AS ARE SLEEP, SLEEPING, SLEPT. THORNBURY (2006) DEFINES A LEXICAL
ITEM AS ‘ANY ITEM THAT FUNCTIONS AS A SINGLE MEANING UNIT,
REGARDLESS OF ITS DIFFERENT DERIVED FORMS, OR THE NUMBER OF
WORDS THAT MAKE IT UP’. ESTIMATES OF PROFICIENT OR LEARNER
SPEAKER VOCABULARY SIZE ARE NORMALLY BASED ON LEXICAL ITEMS
RATHER THAN WORDS.
EXAMPLE
"YOU RECOGNISE A LEXICAL ITEM THROUGH THE UNIT OF MEANING IT
CONVEYS."
FURTHER READING
AITCHISON, J. 1987. WORDS IN THE MIND: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MENTAL
LEXICON. OXFORD:BLACKWELL.
LEWIS, M (1997). IMPLEMENTING THE LEXICAL APPROACH. BOSTON: HEINLE
AND HEINLE.
NATION, I.S.P. 1990. TEACHING AND LEARNING VOCABULARY. BOSTON:
HEINLE AND HEINLE.
SCHMIDT, N. (2000). VOCABULARY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING, CAMBRIDGE:
NATION, PAUL, AND ROBERT WARING. "VOCABULARY SIZE, TEXT COVERAGE
AND WORD LISTS”
HTTP://WWW.FLTR.UCL.AC.BE/FLTR/GERM/ETAN/BIBS/VOCAB/CUP.HTML
THORNBURY, S. (2006). A-Z OF ELT. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2010/10/03/V-IS-FOR-
VOCABULARY-SIZE/
LEXICAL MODALITY
SEE MODALITY
LEXICAL PRIMING
THE IDEA BEHIND LEXICAL PRIMING IS THAT AS WE LEARN WORDS, WE
BEGIN TO ASSOCIATE THEM WITH CERTAIN CONTEXTS OF LANGUAGE IN
USE, SO THAT LATER, WHEN WE MEET THESE CONTEXTS AGAIN, THEY ARE
LIKELY TO TRIGGER THE WORD, I.E. PARTICULAR CONTEXTS PRIME US TO
USE PARTICULAR WORDS.
EXAMPLE
WHAT WORD WOULD YOU PUT INTO THIS GAP? THESE DAYS POLITICIANS
ARE NO LONGER HIGHLY……….
RESPECTED, PAID, EMPLOYABLE, MORAL, POLISHED, AMUSED, SKILLED,
REGARDED AND OTHER WORDS ARE ALL POSSIBLE COMPLETIONS FOR THE
BLANK BUT LEXICAL PRIMING SUGGESTS THAT WE WOULD CHOOSE ONE OF
THE FIRST TWO WORDS AS THE LIKELY COMPLETION.
FURTHER READING
HOEY, M. (2000). A WORLD BEYOND COLLOCATION: NEW PERSPECTIVES ON
VOCABULARY TEACHING. IN LEWIS, M. (ED.). TEACHING COLLOCATION:
FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LEXICAL APPROACH. HOVE: THOMSON-
HEINLE.
HOEY, M. (2005). LEXICAL PRIMING: A NEW THEORY OF WORDS AND
LANGUAGE. LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
HOEY, M. (2009). A REVIEW OF “LEXICAL PRIMING: A NEW THEORY OF
WORDS AND LANGUAGE. LANGUAGE AWARENESS 18/1.
PACE-SIGG, M. (2013). LEXICAL PRIMING IN SPOKEN ENGLISH USAGE.
BASINGSTOKE, HAMPSHIRE: PALGRAVE, MACMILLAN.
HTTP://WWW.TANDFONLINE.COM/DOI/ABS/10.1080/09658410802147378#.VCU19
_LDUPK
LEXICAL SET
A LEXICAL SET IS A SET OF WORDS THAT ALL RELATE TO THE SAME TOPIC
OR SITUATION, FOR EXAMPLE, WORDS FOR FURNITURE, WORDS FOR
DESCRIBING GRAPHS, WORDS FOR DESCRIBING DIFFERENT KINDS OF
MOVEMENT. VOCABULARY TEACHING AT BEGINNER OR ELEMENTARY
LEVELS IS OFTEN BASED AROUND LEXICAL SETS.
EXAMPLE
"HERE ARE SOME POSSIBLE WORDS FROM THE LEXICAL SET FOR READING:
BOOKS, BLOGS, TEXT, TO READ, TO SKIM, TO SCAN, PAGE, PRINT, INK,
PRINTING, FONT SIZE, GLASSES."
HERE ARE SOME FOR THE LEXICAL SET FOR COOKING: BOIL, STIR, STEW,
BURN, MIX, SAUCEPAN, BOWL, RECIPE, SPOON, OVEN.
FURTHER READING
NATION, P. (2011). LEARNING VOCABULARY IN LEXICAL SETS: DANGERS
AND GUIDELINES. TESOL JOURNAL 9/2.
WELLS, J.C. (1982). ACCENTS OF ENGLISH. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/LEXICAL-
SET
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/COMMUNITY/LESSON-SHARE/EXTRAS/TE
AM/TEAM-GAMES-THE-ALPHABET-CODE/145345.ARTICLE
LEXICON
A LEXICON IS THE SET OF VOCABULARY THAT MAKES UP A LANGUAGE. THE
GRAMMAR OF A LANGUAGE AND ITS LEXICON ARE OFTEN CONSIDERED ITS
KEY COMPONENTS. DIFFERENT PROFESSIONS AND SUBJECTS ARE ALSO SAID
TO HAVE THEIR OWN LEXICON, AS ARE INDIVIDUAL CHILDREN AND
LANGUAGE LEARNERS. SOME EXPERTS ONLY INCLUDE INDIVIDUAL WORDS
IN A LEXICON, OTHERS INCLUDE CHUNKS AND COLLOCATIONS.
EXAMPLE
"A YOUNG CHILD’S LEXICON WILL BE VERY DIFFERENT FROM THAT OF AN
ADULT LANGUAGE LEARNER."
FURTHER READING
FITZPATRICK, T. AND BARFIELD, A. (2009) LEXICAL PROCESSING IN SECOND
LANGUAGE LEARNERS: PAPERS AND PERSPECTIVES IN HONOUR OF PAUL
MEARA (SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. MULTILINGUAL MATTERS.
NATION, P. (2001). LEARNING VOCABULARY IN ANOTHER LANGUAGE.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/LEXICON
HTTP://WWW.THEGUARDIAN.COM/EDUCATION/2013/MAR/26/LEIXICAL-
APPROACH-REVOLUTION
LIKERT SCALE
A LIKERT /ˈLɪKɜT/SCALE (DEVISED IN 1932 BY ORGANISATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGIST RENSIS LIKERT) AND ALSO KNOWN AS A ‘SUMMATIVE
SCALE’, IS A BIPOLAR PSYCHOMETRIC SCALE USED IN QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH TO RECORD RESPONSES ALONG A RANGE WHICH CAPTURES
INTENSITY OF FEELING ABOUT ATTITUDES TO A GIVEN ISSUE. IT IS
REGARDED AS A BALANCED METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION AS IT FEATURES
AN EQUAL NUMBER OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE RESPONSES, USUALLY
SEPARATED BY A NEUTRAL RESPONSE IN MID-POSITION. HOWEVER, SOME
RESEARCHERS PREFER TO PRODUCE A ‘FORCED CHOICE’ BY OMITTING THE
MIDDLE OPTION. GENERALLY, FIVE POSSIBLE RESPONSES ARE SET ALONG A
HORIZONTAL LINE (ALTHOUGH SOME PRACTITIONERS USE AS MANY AS
SEVEN, OR EVEN NINE, WHICH GIVES MORE SCOPE TO RESPONDENTS WHO
LIKE TO AVOID EXTREMES!)
A TYPICAL FIVE-ITEM RESPONSE LINE IS:
STRONGLY DISAGREE - DISAGREE - NEITHER AGREE NOR DISAGREE -
AGREE - STRONGLY AGREE
AS WELL AS LEVELS OF AGREEMENT, LIKERT SCALES CAN ALSO BE USED TO
RECORD OTHER VARIABLE RESPONSES:
FREQUENCY
VERY FREQUENTLY - FREQUENTLY - OCCASIONALLY - RARELY - NEVER

IMPORTANCE
VERY IMPORTANT - IMPORTANT - MODERATELY IMPORTANT - OF LITTLE
IMPORTANCE - UNIMPORTANT
LIKELIHOOD
ALMOST ALWAYS TRUE - USUALLY TRUE - OCCASIONALLY TRUES -
USUALLY NOT TRUE - ALMOST NEVER TRUE

STRICTLY SPEAKING, A LIKERT SCALE IS THE SUM OF RESPONSES TO A
NUMBER OF STATEMENTS (‘LIKERT ITEMS’) AND REFERS TO THE RANGE OF
POTENTIAL SCORES. SO, IN A 5-POINT RANGE LIKE THE ONE BELOW, IF
SCORES OF ARE DISTRIBUTED IN A RANGE OF 1-5, THE LIKERT SCALE IS 5-
25:
STRONGLY DISAGREE 1
DISAGREE 2
NEITHER AGREE NOR DISAGREE 3
AGREE 4
STRONGLY AGREE 5

TO REPORT ON A LIKERT SCALE, THE VALUES FOR EACH SEPARATE OPTION
SHOULD BE SUMMED AND A SCORE CREATED FOR EACH RESPONDENT.
SCORES CAN THEN BE USED TO CREATE A CHART SHOWING THE
DISTRIBUTION OF OPINION ACROSS THE TARGET POPULATION. SCORES ARE
VERY OFTEN PLOTTED AND REPORTED USING DIVERGING STACKED BAR
CHARTS (SEE ROBBINS & HEIBERGER 2011). FOR RESULTS TO BE
MEANINGFUL, ALL THE ITEMS SELECTED SHOULD BELONG TO A SIMILAR
CATEGORY, SO THAT THE SUMMED SCORE PRODUCES A RELIABLE
MEASUREMENT OF THE PARTICULAR BEHAVIOUR OR ATTITUDE BEING
INVESTIGATED.
THE ADVANTAGE OF LIKERT SCALES IS THAT THEY PROVIDE QUANTITATIVE
DATA ABOUT PERSONAL ATTITUDES WHILST ALLOWING FOR DEGREES OF
OPINION (OR NO OPINION). POSSIBLE DRAWBACKS ARE ‘CENTRAL TENDENCY
BIAS’, WHERE RESPONDENTS AVOID THE EXTREMES, ‘ACQUIESCENCE BIAS’,
WHERE THEY SIMPLY AGREE WITH THE STATEMENT PRESENTED, AND
‘SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS’, WHERE THEY GIVE THE RESPONSE THAT THEY
THINK REPRESENTS THEM IN THE MOST POSITIVE LIGHT. ANOTHER
POTENTIAL DISADVANTAGE IS THAT FEW OPTIONS ARE ON OFFER, AND
RESPONDENTS MAY NOT EASILY BE ABLE TO ALIGN THEMSELVES WITH ANY
OF THEM. THERE MAY ALSO BE A PROBLEM WITHIN SETS OF ITEMS,
WHEREBY RESPONDENTS ARE INFLUENCED BY THEIR OWN ANSWERS TO
EARLIER QUESTIONS, EITHER REMAINING CONSISTENT OUT OF HABIT, OR
DELIBERATELY BREAKING THE PATTERN. THESE ISSUES CAN BE RESOLVED
AT THE DESIGN STAGE BY MEANS OF CAREFULLY DESIGNED AND
SEQUENCED QUESTIONS.
EXAMPLE
"EXAMPLE LIKERT SCALE" BY NICHOLAS

SMITH HTTP://COMMONS.WIKIMEDIA.ORG/WIKI/FILE:EXAMPLE_LIKERT_SCAL
E.SVG#MEDIAVIEWER/FILE:EXAMPLE_LIKERT_SCALE.SVG
FURTHER READING
BERTRAM, D. “LIKERT SCALES…ARE THE MEANING OF
LIFE” HTTP://POINCARE.MATF.BG.AC.RS/~KRISTINA/TOPIC-DANE-LIKERT.PDF
BRYMAN, A. 2012. SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS. 4TH ED OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
DENSCOMBE, M. 2014 THE GOOD RESEARCH GUIDE: FOR SMALL SCALE
RESEARCH PROJECTS 2014 MAIDENHEAD: OPEN UNIVERSITY PRESS
LIKERT, R. 1932. “A TECHNIQUE FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF
ATTITUDES” ARCHIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY, NO.140.
ROBBINS, N. B. & M. R. HEIBERGER. 2011. “PLOTTING LIKERT AND OTHER
RATING
SCALES” HTTPS://WWW.AMSTAT.ORG/SECTIONS/SRMS/PROCEEDINGS/Y2011/FI
LES/300784_64164.PDF
UEBERSAX, J.S. “LIKERT SCALES: DISPELLING THE CONFUSION”
HTTP://WWW.JOHN-UEBERSAX.COM/STAT/LIKERT.HTM
LINGUA FRANCA
A LINGUA FRANCA IS A LANGUAGE WHICH IS NOT THE FIRST LANGUAGE OF
THE SPEAKERS IN AN INTERACTION, AND THAT IS USED BY THEM TO
ENABLE COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THEM. PIDGINS AND CREOLES OFTEN
ACT AS LINGUA FRANCAS, AND NOWADAYS ENGLISH OFTEN DOES, TOO.
EXAMPLE
WHEN JIMMY WENT TO MOROCCO, HE SOMETIMES ENDED UP SPEAKING WITH
PEOPLE IN DUTCH, THOUGH HIS LANGUAGE WAS ENGLISH AND THEIRS WAS
ARABIC OR BERBER. HE’D LEARNT DUTCH WHILE LIVING IN HOLLAND AS
HAD HIS MOROCCAN FRIENDS. DUTCH BECAME THEIR LINGUA FRANCA.
FURTHER READING
JENKINS, JENNIFER. 2007. ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA: ATTITUDES AND
IDENTITY. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
KACHRU, B. (ED.). 1992. THE OTHER TONGUE (SECOND EDITION). URBANA
AND CHICAGO: UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS PRESS.
MCARTHUR, T. 1998. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGES. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MCKAY, S. 2002. TEACHING ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE.
OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PHILLIPSON, ROBERT (1992), LINGUISTIC IMPERIALISM. OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
SEIDLHOFER, B. (2005) KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: ENGLISH AS A LINGUA
FRANCA. ELT JOURNAL 59/4.
HTTP://ELTJ.OXFORDJOURNALS.ORG/CONTENT/59/4/339.FULL.PDF+HTML
LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE
THE LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE, SOMETIMES KNOWN AS 'ENVIRONMENTAL
PRINT', IS THE TEXT AND ACCOMPANYING IMAGES WHICH CAN BE SEEN IN
(USUALLY) URBAN ENVIRONMENTS ON THE STREETS, SHOPS, VEHICLES, AND
PEOPLE (E.G. T-SHIRT SLOGANS; TATTOOS). IT IS A RICH SOURCE OF
CONTEMPORARY LANGUAGE USE, AND CAN HAVE A MULTITUDE OF
FUNCTIONAL PURPOSES, E.G. TO ADVERTISE, TO WARN, TO ENTERTAIN, TO
INFORM. SEVERAL STUDIES (E.G. SAYER, 2010; CHERN & DOOLEY, 2013),
HAVE RELATED THE USE OF ENGLISH IN NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING
ENVIRONMENTS TO CULTURAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS. DRAWING
STUDENTS' ATTENTION TO HOW LANGUAGE(S) CAN BE USED IN THE
LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE CAN PROMOTE 'NOTICING' AND LEAD TO
DISCUSSION AND DEBATE.
EXAMPLE
"I ALWAYS ASK MY STUDENTS TO TAKE PHOTOS OF THE LINGUISTIC
LANDSCAPE WHICH SURROUNDS THEM AS THEY WALK TO AND FROM THE
LANGUAGE SCHOOL."
FURTHER READING
CHECK OUT THE NILE LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE GALLERY IN THE MEMBERS
AREA
CHERN, C. & DOOLEY, K. (2013). LEARN ENGLISH BY WALKING DOWN THE
STREET. ELTJ 68 / 2 PP. 113-123
GORTER, D. (ED). (2006). LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE. A NEW APPROACH TO
MULTILINGUALISM. CLEVEDON: MULTILINGUAL MATTERS
LOPRIORI, L. (2011). BUZZWORD OF THE DAY: LINGUISTIC
LANDSCAPES. TESOL ITALY NEWSLETTER VOL XXI, NO. 5, P.3
SAYER, P. (2010). USING THE LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE AS A PEDAGOGICAL
RESOURCE. ELTJ 64 / 2 PP. 143-154
LOOP INPUT
A METHOD OF CARRYING OUT TEACHER TRAINING / DEVELOPMENT SESSIONS
IN WHICH THE TRAINER CARRIES OUT ACTIVITIES FOR TRAINING THAT
HAVE THE SAME DESIGN AND FOCUS AS ACTIVITIES FOR USE IN THE
LANGUAGE LEARNING CLASSROOM. FOR EXAMPLE, A TRAINING COURSE
COULD START OFF WITH A FIND SOMEONE WHO ACTIVITY ABOUT TEACHERS’
USE OF ICE-BREAKERS AND MINGLING IN CLASS. THE TRAINER WOULD THEN
GO ON TO REFER TO THIS ACTIVITY WHEN DISCUSSING THE USE OF
ICEBREAKERS / MINGLING ACTIVITIES / COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES. LOOP
INPUT MIRRORS THE ACTIVITY IN FOCUS AND ALLOWS PARTICIPANTS TO
EXPERIENCE IT AND REFLECT ON THAT EXPERIENCE.
EXAMPLE
"ON MY TRAINING COURSE THE TEACHER ONCE MADE US DO AN ACTIVITY IN
WHICH WE HAD TO PUT CARDS INTO TWO DIFFERENT CATEGORIES:
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DOING CATEGORISING ACTIVITIES. SHE
THEN SUGGESTED HOW WE COULD USE CATEGORISING ACTIVITIES IN CLASS
AND ASKED US WHAT OUR OPINION OF DOING THEM HAD BEEN. I LATER
FOUND OUT THAT THIS WAS CALLED A LOOP INPUT APPROACH TO TRAINING –
IT’S A METHOD THAT REALLY HELPS YOU UNDERSTAND AND EVALUATE
DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES."
FURTHER READING
WOODWARD, T. (1991). MODELS AND METAPHORS IN LANGUAGE TEACHER
TRAINING: LOOP INPUT AND OTHER STRATEGIES. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
WOODWARD, T. (2003). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: LOOP INPUT. ELT
JOURNAL 57/3.
HTTP://ELTJ.OXFORDJOURNALS.ORG/CONTENT/57/3/301.FULL.PDF
HTTP://ELTEACHERTRAINER.COM/2010/05/28/DO-WE-STILL-USE-
%E2%80%98LOOP-INPUT%E2%80%99-THESE-DAYS/
LOWER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS)

THINKING SKILLS ARE OFTEN DIVIDED INTO HIGHER ORDER THINKING
SKILLS (HOTS) AND LOWER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS). LOWER ORDER
THINKING SKILLS INCLUDE REMEMBERING, UNDERSTANDING AND
APPLYING. GENERALLY SPEAKING, LOTS INVOLVE FOCUSSING ON AND
ABSORBING INFORMATION, AND LESS MANIPULATION OF INFORMATION
THAN HOTS DO. (SEE HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS). THE DIVISION OF
THINKING SKILLS INTO HOTS AND LOTS WAS MADE INITIALLY IN THE LATE
1940S BY A COMMITTEE OF EDUCATORS IN BOSTON, MASS. CHAIRED BY
BENJAMIN BLOOM AND COLLEAGUES. THIS TAXONOMY (KNOWN AS BLOOM’S
TAXONOMY) HAS BEEN REVISED SEVERAL TIMES.
EXAMPLE
"‘TELL ME WHAT YOU DID IN THE HOLIDAYS’ OR ‘DESCRIBE YOUR FAMILY’
ARE TYPICAL ELT LOTS QUESTIONS. AN EXAMPLE OF A HOTS QUESTION MIGHT
BE ‘WHAT DO YOU THINK OF THAT FILM’?’ OR ‘COMPARE YOUR TOWN WITH
LONDON’. YOU DON’T NEED TO THINK SO HARD FOR LOTS ANSWERS AND THE
LANGUAGE YOU NEED TO USE IS OFTEN SIMPLER."
FURTHER READING
ANDERSON, L. W., KRATHWOHL, D. R., AIRASIAN, P. W., CRUIKSHANK, K. A.,
MAYER, R. E., PINTRICH, P. R., RATHS, J., WITTROCK, M. C. (2000). A
TAXONOMY FOR LEARNING, TEACHING, AND ASSESSING: A REVISION OF
BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES. NEW YORK: PEARSON,
ALLYN & BACON.
BIGGS, J. B. AND COLLIS, K. (1982). EVALUATING THE QUALITY OF LEARNING:
THE SOLO TAXONOMY. NEW YORK, ACADEMIC PRESS.
BLOOM B. S. (1956). TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES, HANDBOOK
I: THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN. NEW YORK: DAVID MCKAY CO INC.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.NWLINK.COM/~DONCLARK/HRD/BLOOM.HTML
HTTP://STROBERTWIKI.WIKISPACES.COM/HOTS+VS+LOTS
MTOP
MAIN CLAUSE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

A MAIN CLAUSE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS A FINITE VERB (SEE FINITE
VERB) AND IS ABLE TO BE USED INDEPENDENTLY I.E. BY ITSELF BECAUSE
IT MAKES SENSE BY ITSELF.
A SUBORDINATE CLAUSE IS A CLAUSE OF TIME, RESULT, REASON,
CONCESSION, ETC WHICH QUALIFIES A MAIN CLAUSE AND CANNOT STAND
BY ITSELF (IN WRITING) AS ITS MEANING IS INCOMPLETE.
EXAMPLE
IN THIS SENTENCE THE PART IN BOLD IS THE MAIN CLAUSE AND THE PARTS
IN ITALICS ARE SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
EVEN THOUGH SHE THOUGHT THE BOOK WAS VERY EXPENSIVE SHE DECIDED
TO BUY IT SO THAT SHE COULD STUDY IT EASILY AT HOME
FURTHER READING
2ND EDITION. CAMBRIDGE:
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/SUBORDIN
ATE-CLAUSE
HTTP://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/ENGLISH-GRAMMAR/CLAUS
E-PHRASE-AND-SENTENCE
MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
THIS IS THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE ‘IN A SUBORDINATE CLAUSE THAT
FOLLOWS AN EXPRESSION OF COMMAND, DEMAND, OR RECOMMENDATION’
(HTTP://GRAMMAR.ABOUT.COM/OD/MO/G/MANDATIVE-SUBJUNCTIVE.HTM) ,
FOR EXAMPLE: THEY RECOMMENDED THAT HE GET SOME WORK
EXPERIENCE /SHE SUGGESTED HE DRESS MORE SMARTLY. IT IS FORMAL IN
USE AND CONTRASTS WITH THE FORMULAIC SUBJUNCTIVE IN WHICH THE
SUBJUNCTIVE IS USED IN A CHUNK AS PART OF A FIXED EXPRESSION E.G.
HEAVEN FORBID, SO BE IT, COME RAIN COME SHINE.
EXAMPLE
THE MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IS RARE IN ENGLISH, BUT NOT IN SOME
OTHER LANGUAGES. YOU REALLY NEED TO GET A FEEL FOR WHEN TO USE IT
– IN ROMANCE LANGUAGES IT’S OFTEN USED TO EXPRESS DOUBT, WISHES
OR COMMANDS. IS IT USED IN YOUR LANGUAGE? WHEN?
FURTHER READING
CHALKER, S. (1995).DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
LEECH, G. AND SVARTVIK, J. (2003). A COMMUNICATIVE GRAMMAR OF
ENGLISH, 3RD EDITION. OXFORD:ROUTLEDGE.
HTTP://GRAMMAR.ABOUT.COM/OD/MO/G/MANDATIVE-SUBJUNCTIVE.HTM )
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2011/06/12/S-IS-FOR-
SUBJUNCTIVE/
MEDIATION
A PROCESS IN WHICH A PARTICIPANT IN AN INTERACTION IS NOT
CONCERNED WITH EXPRESSING THEIR OWN VIEWS, OPINIONS ETC., BUT
ACCEPTS THE ROLE OF FACILITATOR, HELPING TO FACILITATE THE
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN INTERLOCUTORS WHO ARE HAVING
DIFFICULTIES, FOR WHATEVER REASON, IN COMMUNICATING WITH ONE
ANOTHER. IN ELT, MEDIATION CAN REFER TO AIDING COMMUNICATION
BETWEEN LEARNERS, TO LEARNERS HELPING OTHER LEARNERS TO
COMMUNICATE, TO FOCUSSING ON THE ROLE OF MEDIATION INVOLVED IN
CERTAIN JOBS (E.G. RELAYING MESSAGES) OR TO THE TEACHER ADAPTING
IMPORTED CULTURAL TEACHING TECHNIQUES AND METHODS TO THE
CULTURE OF THE LEARNERS. IN 2001, THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK
OF LANGUAGES INCLUDED MEDIATION AS A COMPONENT OF
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE, AND THIS WAS EXTENSIVELY DEVELOPED IN
THE 2018 COMPANION VOLUME.
EXAMPLE
"WHEN I WENT ON A TRAINING COURSE IN THE UK, THERE WERE THINGS
ABOUT EVERYDAY LIVING THERE THAT WERE DIFFERENT FROM WHAT WE DO
BACK HOME. OUR TEACHER WAS ALWAYS WILLING TO ANSWER QUESTIONS
ABOUT CULTURAL DIFFERENCES WE’D NOTICED. SHE ACTED AS A BRIDGE
BETWEEN US AND THE CULTURE, MEDIATING BETWEEN THE TWO."
FURTHER READING
COOK, V. IN ODLIN, T. (ED.) (1994). PERSPECTIVES ON PEDAGOGICAL
GRAMMAR. NEW YORK: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
COUNCIL OF EUROPE. (2001). COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF
REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES. LEARNING, TEACHING,
ASSESSMENT. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
COUNCIL OF EUROPE (2018) COMPANION VOLUME TO THE
CEFR. HTTPS://RM.COE.INT/CEFR-COMPANION-VOLUME-WITH-NEW-
DESCRIPTORS-2018/1680787989
ELLIS, G. (1996). HOW CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE IS THE COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACH? ELT JOURNAL 50/3.
KIDDLE, T. (2019) TEACHING MEDIATION ONESTOPENGLISH ADVANCING
LEARNING BLOG HTTPS://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/PROFESSIONAL-
DEVELOPMENT/ADVANCING-LEARNING-TEACHING-MEDIATION/557522.ARTICLE
HTTPS://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2017/04/23/M-IS-FOR-
MEDIATION/
METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES
THESE ARE THE LEARNING AND THINKING STRATEGIES WE USE IN ORDER TO
CHOOSE WHICH LOWER LEVEL STRATEGIES TO USE TO ACHIEVE SOMETHING.
A VISUAL LEARNER MIGHT, FOR EXAMPLE, DECIDE THAT THEY WOULD
LEARN MUCH BETTER FROM LOOKING AT A DIAGRAM ABOUT A PROCESS
RATHER THAN BY READING THE ACCOMPANYING TEXT ABOUT THE PROCESS.
IN THIS EXAMPLE, LOOKING AT THE DIAGRAM IS A COMPREHENSION
STRATEGY, WHEREAS CHOOSING TO LOOK AT THE DIAGRAM IS A
METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY, I.E. THINKING ABOUT THE BEST WAY TO
LEARN. THE MAIN METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES ARE PLANNING,
PRIORITISING, SETTING GOALS, AND SELF-MANAGEMENT.
EXAMPLE
WHEN TEACHERS TEACH METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES THEY NEED TO BE
AWARE THAT LEARNERS HAVE DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES, SO WHAT IS
THE BEST STRATEGY FOR ONE STUDENT TO LEARN MAY NOT BE BEST FOR
ANOTHER.
FURTHER READING
COHEN, A. D. (1998).STRATEGIES IN LEARNING AND USING A SECOND
LANGUAGE. HARLOW, ENGLAND:LONGMAN.
HISMANOGLU, M. (2000) LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES IN FOREIGN
LANGUAGE LEARNING AND
TEACHING. HTTP://ITESLJ.ORG/ARTICLES/HISMANOGLU-STRATEGIES.HTML
OXFORD, R. L. (1990).LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES: WHAT EVERY

TEACHER SHOULD KNOW. BOSTON: HEINLE & HEINLE.
OXFORD, R. (2003). LANGUAGE LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES: AN
OVERVIEW.
HTTP://HYXY.NANKAI.EDU.CN/JINGPINKE/BUCHONGYUEDU/LEARNING
%20STRATEGIES%20BY%20OXFORD.PDF
SWAN, M. (2008).TALKING SENSE ABOUT LEARNING STRATEGIES. RELC
JOURNAL,39 (2).
METALANGUAGE
THE LANGUAGE AND TERMS THAT WE USE TO TALK ABSTRACTLY ABOUT
LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE LEARNING. THIS COVERS TERMS FOR GRAMMAR,
VOCABULARY, PHONETICS, DISCOURSE AND LEARNING STRATEGIES.
TEACHERS MAY USE SOME METALANGUAGE TO TALK TO THEIR LEARNERS
ABOUT LANGUAGE OR LANGUAGE LEARNING E.G. ‘THIS IS AN INDEFINITE
PRONOUN’, ‘TRY TO WORK OUT WHAT THE BEST VOCABULARY LEARNING
STRATEGIES ARE FOR YOU’. SOME LEARNERS, THOUGH NOT ALL,
APPRECIATE LEARNING SOME METALANGUAGE AS THEY THINK IT HELPS
THEM TO LEARN BETTER.
THE NILE GLOSSARY CONTAINS MANY TERMS WHICH MAKE UP THE
METALANGUAGE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING, AS DOES SCOTT
THORNBURY’S A-Z OF ELT.
EXAMPLE
"HIS LESSONS WERE FULL OF SO MUCH METALANGUAGE THAT I REALLY
DIDN’T HAVE A CLUE WHAT HE WAS TALKING ABOUT."
FURTHER READING
ALLFORD, D. (2013). VYGOTSKY, METALANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE
LEARNING. THE LANGUAGE LEARNING JOURNAL, 41/1.
ANDREWS, S. (2007). TEACHER LANGUAGE AWARENESS. CAMBRIDGE:
METAPHOR
A FIGURATIVE USE OF LANGUAGE IN WHICH ONE THING IS DESCRIBED AS
ANOTHER TO BRING OUT ITS CHARACTERISTICS, E.G. IN HE HAS A REALLY
HOT TEMPER, HOT IS METAPHOR FOR QUICK AND FIERCE. METAPHORS CAN
BE CULTURALLY SPECIFIC AND ARE THEREFORE IMPORTANT FOR LEARNERS
TO BE AWARE OF AND LEARN. SOME EXPERTS MAINTAIN THAT SOME
CULTURAL METAPHORS STRONGLY INFLUENCE THE WAY WE SEE THE
WORLD.
EXAMPLE
"PEOPLE SOMETIMES USE A RANGE OF METAPHORS FOR TALKING ABOUT
LESSON PLANNING, FOR EXAMPLE: A ROUTE MAP, A STRAIGHTJACKET, A
PHOTOGRAPH, A SKETCH, AN INSTRUCTION LEAFLET."
FURTHER READING
HOLME, R. (2004). MIND, METAPHOR AND LANGUAGE TEACHING.
BASINGSTOKE: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN.
LAKOFF, G. AND JOHNSON, M. (2003). METAPHORS WE LIVE BY. CHICAGO,
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS.
LAZAR, G.(2003). MEANINGS AND METAPHORS. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LITTLEMORE, J. AND LOW, G. (2006). METAPHORIC COMPETENCE AND
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE ABILITY. APPLIED LINGUISTICS 27(2).
THORNBURY, S. (1991). METAPHORS WE WORK BY. EFL AND ITS
METAPHORS. ELT JOURNAL, 45/3. OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS. HTTP://WWW.SCOTTTHORNBURY.COM/ARTICLES.HTML
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/EXPLORING-METAPHORS-
CLASSROOM
METHOD
A METHOD IS A RECOGNISED AND ACKNOWLEDGED SET OF TEACHING
TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES THAT PUT INTO PRACTICE A SET OF BELIEFS
ABOUT TEACHING AND LEARNING. THE TERM IS SOMETIMES USED
INTERCHANGEABLY WITH APPROACH, WHILE OTHERS RESERVE APPROACH TO
REFER TO THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING. RICHARDS
AND RODGERS (2001) SAY OF THE TWO ‘A METHOD IS THEORETICALLY
RELATED TO AN APPROACH, IS ORGANISATIONALLY DETERMINED BY A
DESIGN, AND IS PRACTICALLY REALISED IN PROCEDURE’ (P .16). SOME
PROMINENT METHODS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING INCLUDE TOTAL
PHYSICAL RESPONSE, TASK-BASED LEARNING, GRAMMAR TRANSLATION. A
TEACHING METHOD COVERS SYLLABUS, MATERIALS AND CLASSROOM
ACTIVITIES.
EXAMPLE
“SOME TEACHERS PREFER TO TEACH ECLECTICALLY, TAKING TECHNIQUES
AND ACTIVITIES FROM A VARIETY OF METHODS RATHER THAN RIGIDLY
STICKING TO ONE. THIS IS OFTEN BECAUSE THEY THINK THAT DIFFERENT
LEARNERS LEARN LANGUAGE IN DIFFERENT WAYS.”
FURTHER READING
CELCE-MURCIA, MARIANNE, ED. 2001. TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND OR
FOREIGN LANGUAGE, 2ND EDITION. BOSTON, MA: HEINLE AND HEINLE.
PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (2006). AN A-Z OF ELT. LONDON: MACMILLAN.
METHODOLOGY
THE TYPICAL PRACTICES, PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES THAT A TEACHER
USES IN THE CLASSROOM, AND THAT MAY OR MAY NOT BE BASED ON A
PARTICULAR METHOD. METHODOLOGY CAN ALSO REFER TO THE STUDY OF
THESE PRACTICES, PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES AND OF THE BELIEFS
AND PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THEY ARE BASED.
EXAMPLE
"THE METHODOLOGY OF THE STRUCTURAL APPROACH CONSISTED MAINLY IN
LISTENING TO AND REPEATING STRICTLY GRADED GRAMMATICAL
STRUCTURES."
FURTHER READING
KRAMSCH, C. AND SULLIVAN, P. (1996) APPROPRIATE PEDAGOGY. ELT
JOURNAL 50/3.
HTTP://WWW.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/SRILANKA-LEARNING-RESOURCES-FOR-
TEACHERS-METHODOLOGY-AND-PRACTICE.HTM
PRESS.
SWAN, M. A CRITICAL LOOK AT THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH (1). ELT
J (1985) 39 (1): 2-12.
WATERS, A. (2012) TRENDS AND ISSUES IN ELT METHODS AND
METHODOLOGY. ELTJ 66 (4): 440-449.
WIDDOWSON, H.G. (1985) AGAINST DOGMA: A REPLY TO MICHAEL SWAN. ELT
J 39 (3): 158-161.
THE TYPICAL PRACTICES, PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES THAT A TEACHER
USES IN THE CLASSROOM, AND THAT MAY OR MAY NOT BE BASED ON A
PARTICULAR METHOD. METHODOLOGY CAN ALSO REFER TO THE STUDY OF
THESE PRACTICES, PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES AND OF THE BELIEFS
AND PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THEY ARE BASED.
EXAMPLE
"THE METHODOLOGY OF THE STRUCTURAL APPROACH CONSISTED MAINLY IN
LISTENING TO AND REPEATING STRICTLY GRADED GRAMMATICAL
STRUCTURES."
FURTHER READING
KRAMSCH, C. AND SULLIVAN, P. (1996) APPROPRIATE PEDAGOGY. ELT
JOURNAL 50/3.
HTTP://WWW.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/SRILANKA-LEARNING-RESOURCES-FOR-
TEACHERS-METHODOLOGY-AND-PRACTICE.HTM
PRESS.
SWAN, M. A CRITICAL LOOK AT THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH (1). ELT
J (1985) 39 (1): 2-12.
WATERS, A. (2012) TRENDS AND ISSUES IN ELT METHODS AND
METHODOLOGY. ELTJ 66 (4): 440-449.
WIDDOWSON, H.G. (1985) AGAINST DOGMA: A REPLY TO MICHAEL SWAN. ELT
J 39 (3): 158-161.
MICROSKILLS
SEE SKILLS
MICRO-TEACHING
MICRO-TEACHING (ALSO KNOWN AS PEER TEACHING), WHICH ORIGINATED
AT STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN THE 1960S, IS A PRACTICE NOW WIDELY USED
IN GENERAL, AS WELL AS ELT, TEACHER TRAINING CONTEXTS WORLDWIDE.
MICRO-TEACHING PRACTICES VARY IN SOME RESPECTS, BUT ESSENTIALLY
THE PROCEDURE CONSISTS OF TEACHERS TRYING OUT SHORT LESSON
SEQUENCES FOR AN AUDIENCE OF THEIR PEERS, SOME OF WHOM ADOPT THE
ROLES OF LEARNERS. THESE LESSON SEQUENCES MAY BE VIDEO-RECORDED,
AND THE TEACHERS RECEIVE ORAL FEEDBACK FROM PEERS AND / OR A
SUPERVISOR, AND WRITTEN FEEDBACK FROM THE SUPERVISOR. IN SOME
VERSIONS OF MICRO-TEACHING, TEACHERS ARE GIVEN THE OPPORTUNITY
TO ADDRESS THE ISSUES HIGHLIGHTED IN THE FEEDBACK STAGE BY RE-
TEACHING THE SAME LESSON SEQUENCE.
[ALAN PULVERNESS]
EXAMPLE
“I’M FINDING THAT, ON MY PRESENT COURSE, THE SESSIONS IN WHICH WE
‘WORKSHOP’ LESSONS AS A GROUP IN A MICRO-TEACHING FORMAT, WITH
THE TRAINEES TEACHING THEIR COLLEAGUES AND ME INTERVENING AS
THEY DO SO, ARE BOTH LESS STRESSFUL FOR THE TRAINEES AND (I THINK)
MORE PRODUCTIVE IN TERMS OF THEIR DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES.”
FROM AN A-Z OF ELT, SCOTT THORNBURY’S
BLOG HTTPS://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2011/07/10/P-IS-FOR-
PRACTICUM/

FURTHER READING
BAILEY, K.M. 2006. LANGUAGE TEACHER SUPERVISION: A CASE-BASED
APPROACH.CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
BROWN, G. 1975. MICRO-TEACHING: A PROGRAMME OF TEACHING SKILLS.
LONDON: METHUEN.
GEDDES, M. & H. RAZ. 1979. “PUPIL-TEACHER INTERACTION”. IN HOLDEN, S.
[ED] TEACHER TRAINING. LONDON: MODERN ENGLISH PUBLICATIONS.
GOWER, R., D. PHILLIPS & S. WALTERS. 1998. TEACHING PRACTICE
HANDBOOK. OXFORD: HEINEMANN.
MOORE, A. 1979. “MICROTEACHING WITHOUT VIDEO”. IN HOLDEN, S.
[ED] TEACHER TRAINING. LONDON: MODERN ENGLISH PUBLICATIONS.
RICHARDS, J. 1998. BEYOND TRAINING. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
ROBERTS, J. 1998. LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION. LONDON: ARNOLD.
TANNER, R. & C. GREEN. 1998.TASKS FOR TEACHER EDUCATION: A
REFLECTIVE APPROACH. HARLOW: LONGMAN.
WALLACE, M.J. 1979. “MICROTEACHING: SKILLS AND STRATEGIES”. IN
HOLDEN, S. [ED] TEACHER TRAINING. LONDON: MODERN ENGLISH
PUBLICATIONS.
MINGLE / A MINGLING ACTIVITY

IN THIS ACTIVITY SEVERAL/ALL THE MEMBERS OF A CLASS GET UP AND GO
TO A FREE SPACE IN THE CLASSROOM. THEY THEN CARRY OUT A
COMMUNICATIVE TASK (E.G. A SURVEY, FIND SOMEONE WHO) WHICH
REQUIRES THEM TO TALK TO ALL OTHER MEMBERS OF THE GROUP, AND
OFTEN TO NOTE DOWN ANSWERS.
EXAMPLE
"ON THE FIRST DAY OF OUR COURSE THE TEACHER GAVE US A WORKSHEET
THEN ASKED US TO ALL GET UP AND COMPLETE IT. WE HAD TO GO ROUND
TALKING TO EVERY OTHER STUDENT TO GET PERSONAL INFORMATION ABOUT
THEM. IT WAS A GREAT ICE-BREAKER."
FURTHER READING
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/MINGLE
HTTP://WWW.TEACHERS.CAMBRIDGEESOL.ORG/TS/DIGITALASSETS/110970_TK
T_GLOSSARY_AUGUST_2009_FINAL.PDF
MISTAKE
SEE ERROR/MISTAKE/SLIP
MODAL VERB
A MODAL VERB IS A VERB WHICH EXPRESSES AN ATTITUDE OR WISHES
ABOUT THE MEANING IN THE MAIN VERB, OR A STATEMENT OF ITS
LIKELIHOOD OR POSSIBILITY. THE MODAL VERBS IN ENGLISH ARE: MAY,
MIGHT, CAN, COULD, MUST, SHOULD, WILL, WOULD. THESE MODAL VERBS
HAVE DISTINCTIVE FORMS, TOO: NOT TAKING ‘S’ IN THE 3RD PERSON
SINGULAR OF THE PRESENT SIMPLE, NOT HAVING AN INFINITIVE OR A
PARTICIPLE, AND FORMING THE QUESTION FORM OF THE PRESENT AND PAST
SIMPLE THROUGH INVERSION OF THE SUBJECT AND VERB, AND THE
NEGATIVE SIMPLY BY ADDING ‘NOT’.
EXAMPLE
THE UNDERLINED VERBS IN THIS SENTENCE ARE MODAL VERBS:
WE HAD TO MOVE COUNTRY EVEN THOUGH IT SEEMED THE
FUTURE WOULD BE DIFFICULT. BUT WE COULDN’T STAY WHERE WE WERE.
NOW WE CAN’T GO BACK HOME BUT WE MAY BE ABLE TO AT SOME POINT IN
THE FUTURE.
FURTHER READING
MODALITY
THIS IS THE WAY IN WHICH WE EXPRESS OUR ATTITUDE TO WHAT WE ARE
SAYING. WE OFTEN ASSOCIATE MODALITY WITH VERBS (OBLIGATION,
POSSIBILITY, ABILITY, NECESSITY ETC) BUT MODALITY CAN ALSO BE
EXPRESSED THROUGH ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS AND NOUNS. THIS LATTER IS
CALLED LEXICAL MODALITY.
EXAMPLE
IN THE SENTENCE HE MAY COME TOMORROW WE SEE MODALITY EXPRESSED
IN THE MODAL VERB MAY. WE CAN USE LEXICAL MODALITY TO EXPRESS
THIS TOO E.G. PERHAPS HE WILL COME TOMORROW (MODAL ADVERB),
THERE’S A CHANCE HE WILL COME TOMORROW (MODAL NOUN), IT’S POSSIBLE
HE’LL COME TOMORROW (MODAL ADJECTIVE).
FURTHER READING
FACHINETTI, R., KRUG, M.G/ PALMER, F.R. (2003) MODALITY IN
CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH. BERLIN: WALTER DE GRUYTER.
MONITOR/MONITORING
THIS TERM HAS TWO DISTINCT MEANINGS IN ELT. THE FIRST COMES FROM
ONE OF THE FIVE HYPOTHESES THAT MAKE UP KRASHEN’S INPUT
HYPOTHESIS, A THEORY OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN WHICH HE
MAINTAINED THAT WHEN A LEARNER IS MONITORING THEIR USE OF
LANGUAGE, THEY ARE FOCUSING ON ACCURACY AND INHIBITING
ACQUISITION. IN THIS USE MONITORING MEANS THE LEARNER CHECKING
AND EVALUATING THEIR OWN LANGUAGE OUTPUT, AS THEY PRODUCE IT,
WHETHER IT BE SPEAKING OR WRITING.
THE OTHER MEANING OF MONITORING REFERS TO THE TEACHER OBSERVING
AND ASSESSING LEARNERS IN CLASS.
EXAMPLE
"I FIND THAT WHEN I MONITOR MY OWN LANGUAGE USE AS I SPEAK, IT
REALLY SLOWS ME DOWN AND MAKES ME HESITATE AND MAKE MISTAKES."
FURTHER READING
PRESS.
O’MALLEY AND CHAMOT, A. (1990). LEARNING STRATEGIES IN SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MONOLINGUAL LEARNER DICTIONARY

THIS IS A LEARNER DICTIONARY (A DICTIONARY THAT IS GRADED TO SUIT
THE LEARNERS’ LANGUAGE LEVEL AND NEEDS) IN WHICH THE DICTIONARY
ENTRIES, EXPLANATIONS AND EXAMPLES ARE ALL IN THE TARGET
LANGUAGE.
EXAMPLE
I HAVE TRIED HARD TO ENCOURAGE MY STUDENTS TO USE MONOLINGUAL
LEARNER DICTIONARIES SO THAT THEY JUST THINK IN THE TARGET
LANGUAGE, BUT THEY KEEP USING BILINGUAL DICTIONARIES INSTEAD.
THEY SAY THEY FIND THEM MORE HELPFUL.
FURTHER READING
CHAN, A. (2008).WHY DO LEARNERS PREFER BILINGUALIZED DICTIONARIES
TO MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARIES, OR VICE VERSA? OXFORD UNIVERSITY
RESEARCH ARCHIVE.
COWIE, A.P. (2013). ENGLISH DICTIONARIES FOR FOREIGN LEARNERS,
SCHMITT, N. (ED.) (2010). AN INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS,
2ND EDITION. ABINGDON: ROUTLEDGE.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/USING-DICTIONARIES
MORPHEME
MORPHEMES ARE THE SMALLEST MEANINGFUL AND GRAMMATICAL UNITS IN
A WORD. A MORPHEME ‘CANNOT BE DIVIDED WITHOUT ALTERING OR
DESTROYING ITS MEANING’ (LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF TEACHING AND
APPLIED LINGUISTICS, P.375). FOR EXAMPLE, PHONES CONTAINS TWO
MORPHEMES – PHONE AND S; HELPLESS CONTAINS TWO MORPHEMES
– HELP AND LESS; TABLE CONTAINS ONLY ONE MORPHEME. MANY
MORPHEMES ARE SUFFIXES OR PREFIXES, BUT THERE ARE ALSO
GRAMMATICAL MORPHEMES IN ENGLISH SUCH AS 3RD PERSON SINGULAR S,
PAST TENSE –ED, AND –ING IN A GERUND OR PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
EXAMPLE
IN MANY VOCABULARY BOOKS YOU CAN FIND ACTIVITIES ON WORD
FORMATION THAT IN FACT ARE BASED ON MORPHEMES E.G. DECIDING ON
THE RIGHT PREFIX, MATCHING PARTS OF COMPOUND WORDS, MAKING
OPPOSITES BY ADDING THE CORRECT SUFFIX.
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/MORPHEM
E
MORPHOLOGY
THIS IS THE STUDY OF THE USE OF MORPHEMES (SEE MORPHEME) TO FORM
WORDS. MORPHOLOGY SHOWS US HOW DIFFERENT KINDS OF MORPHEMES
COMBINE OR OPERATE SINGLY TO FORM WORDS.
EXAMPLE
HERE ARE A FEW THINGS WE LEARN FROM MORPHOLOGY:
- WORDS CAN CONTAIN JUST ONE MORPHEME
E.G. DICTATE, BOOK, COMPARE, PERSUADE
- WORDS CAN CONTAIN MORE THAN ONE MORPHEME
E.G. DICTATION, BOOKS, COMPARISON, PERSUADED
- MORPHEMES MAY OR MAY NOT BE ABLE TO STAND ALONE E.G.
THESE MORPHEMES CAN STAND ALONE: ON, NET, CAN; THESE MORPHEMES
CAN’T STAND ALONE : IM-, -TION, -ED
FURTHER READING
CARSTAIRS MCCARTHY, A. (2001) AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH
MORPHOLOGY: WORDS AND THEIR STRUCTURE. EDINBURGH: EDINBURGH
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
CARTER, R. AND MCCARTHY, M. (1988). VOCABULARY AND LANGUAGE
TEACHING. LONDON AND NEW YORK: LONGMAN.
NATION, I.S.P. (2001). LEARNING VOCABULARY IN ANOTHER LANGUAGE.
SCHMITT, N. (2000). VOCABULARY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. CAMBRIDGE:
HTTPS://BUSYTEACHER.ORG/9530-MY-BROTHER-IS-VERY-SUCCESS-
TEACHING-MORPHOLOGY.HTML
HTTP://BLOG.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/2013/05/31/THREE-MYTHS-ABOUT-
ENGLISH-SPELLING/
MULTI-WORD UNIT
A GROUP OF WORDS (E.G. A VERB + ADVERB PARTICLE OR PREPOSITION)
WHICH HAS A MEANING AS A WHOLE AND FOR WHICH THE MEANING OF THE
WHOLE GROUP OF WORDS IS DIFFERENT FROM THE MEANING OF EACH
INDIVIDUAL WORD. MULTI-WORD UNITS ARE OFTEN PHRASAL VERBS,
IDIOMS, COMPOUNDS. EXAMPLES OF MULTI-WORD UNITS ARE FALL IN
LOVE, A HAND-SET, ONCE IN A BLUE MOON, TO LOOK AFTER. IT IS USEFUL
FOR LEARNERS TO LEARN THESE UNITS AS CHUNKS RATHER THAN PIECING
THEM TOGETHER FROM INDIVIDUAL WORDS. MULTI-WORD UNITS ARE
SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS POLYWORDS.
EXAMPLE
"LEARNERS SEEM TO LEARN PHRASAL VERBS MORE EASILY IF THEY SEE EACH
ONE AS A MULTI-WORD UNIT WHICH IS A COMPLETE LEXICAL ITEM IN ITSELF,
RATHER THAN AS A VERB + AN ADVERB OR PREPOSITION."
FURTHER READING
LAUFER, B. (1997). WHAT’S IN A WORD THAT MAKES IT HARD OR EASY:
SOME INTERLEXICAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE LEARNING OF WORDS. IN
N. SCHMITT AND M. MCCARTHY (ED.S) VOCABULARY: DESCRIPTION,
ACQUISITION, PEDAGOGY. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LINDSTROMBERG, S. AND BOERS, F. (2008). TEACHING CHUNKS OF
LANGUAGE. HELBLING LANGUAGES.
NATTINGER, J.R. AND DECARRICO, J.(1992) LEXICAL PHRASES AND LANGUAGE
TEACHING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
NTOP
NEEDS ANALYSIS
NEEDS ANALYSIS IS PRIMARILY A PROCESS OF INVESTIGATING THE
SPECIFIC LINGUISTIC NEEDS OF LEARNERS IN ORDER TO DESIGN OR ADAPT
A COURSE SPECIFICALLY FOR THEM. NEEDS ANALYSIS CAN ALSO BE USED
TO FIND OUT OTHER INFORMATION ABOUT YOUR LEARNERS INCLUDING
MOTIVATION, PREFERENCES, AND LEARNER STYLES WHICH CAN HELP
DESIGN OR TAILOR THE COURSE TO THE PROFILE OF THE LEARNER. DATA
COLLECTION CAN BE DONE THROUGH FORMAL AND INFORMAL INTERVIEWS,
QUESTIONNAIRES AND QUESTIONS WILL OFTEN RELATE WHAT KIND OF
THINGS THE LEARNER WILL ULTIMATELY DO WITH THE LANGUAGE WHICH
CAN HELP FORMULATE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
EXAMPLE
I USED THE RESULTS OF MY NEEDS ANALYSIS TO CREATE MY SPEAKING AND
LISTENING COURSE FROM SCRATCH
FURTHER READING
HARDING K (2007) ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES; OXFORD
JORDAN R.R (1997) ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES; CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
EVANS T AND ST JOHN M (1998) DEVELOPMENTS IN ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC
PURPOSES; CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
NEGOTIATING MEANING
THIS REFERS TO THE PROCESS READERS, WRITERS, SPEAKERS AND
INTERLOCUTORS ENGAGE IN IN ORDER TO MAKE SENSE OF AND CLARIFY
WHAT IS BEING SAID/ WRITTEN. IT CAN INVOLVE ASKING FOR
CLARIFICATION, REPEATING, PARAPHRASING, CHECKING UNDERSTANDING.
EXAMPLE
INFORMATION GAP ACTIVITIES HELP LEARNERS TO LEARN AND PRACTISE
NEGOTIATING MEANING, AS THEY OFTEN FIND THEMSELVES NOT FULLY
UNDERSTANDING WHAT THEIR PARTNER HAS SAID OR NOT BEING ABLE TO
EXPRESS THEMSELVES CLEARLY. AS A RESULT THE LISTENER MAY ASK FOR
CLARIFICATION OR QUESTION WHAT WAS SAID, AND THE SPEAKER MAY
PARAPHRASE OR REPEAT TO GET THEIR MESSAGE ACROSS MORE
SUCCESSFULLY.
FURTHER READING
BYGATE, M. (1987). SPEAKING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PHILP, J., OLIVER, R. , MACKEY, A. (2008). SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
AND THE YOUNGER LEARNER. AMSTERDAM: JOHN BENJAMINS PUBLISHING.
JOHNSON, K. (1995). UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN SECOND LANGUAGE
CLASSROOMS. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
YOUNG, R. (1983). THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING IN CHILDREN'S FOREIGN
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. ELT JOURNAL 37/3.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/NEGOTIATI
ON-MEANING
NOTICING
THIS IS A TERM WHICH REFERS TO THE PROCESS IN WHICH A LEARNER,
CONSCIOUSLY OR UNCONSCIOUSLY, NOTICES OR BECOMES AWARE OF AN
ITEM OR ASPECT OF LANGUAGE IN THE LANGUAGE INPUT THAT SURROUNDS
THEM. THIS MAY INVOLVE NOTICING SPELLING, WORD STRESS, MEANING,
GRAMMAR, COLLOCATION OR OTHER LANGUAGE FEATURES. NOTICING IS
BELIEVED TO BE THE FIRST STAGE IN LANGUAGE LEARNING, SOMETIMES
BUT NOT ALWAYS TRIGGERING FURTHER STAGES OF ACQUISITION.
EXAMPLE
"SHE’S A VISUAL LEARNER AND WHEN WE WENT TO RUSSIA TOGETHER SHE
WAS ALWAYS LOOKING AT RUSSIAN SCRIPT ON SIGNS, NOTICES,
ADVERTISING ETC, TRYING TO WORK OUT WHAT EACH LETTER WAS. I
DIDN’T EVEN SEE THE SCRIPT MYSELF, I JUST DIDN’T NOTICE IT – IT DIDN’T
REGISTER."
FURTHER READING
BATSTONE, R. (1996) KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: NOTICING. ELT JOURNAL 50/3.
LIGHTBOWN, P.-M. AND SPADA, N.(2006). HOW LANGUAGES ARE LEARNED,
4TH EDITION. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
SCHMIDT, R. (1990). 'THE ROLE OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN SECOND LANGUAGE
LEARNING'. APPLIED LINGUISTICS 11.
VAN PATTEN, B. (1990). ATTENDING TO FORM AND CONTENT IN THE
INPUT. STUDIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 12.
HTTP://NFLRC.HAWAII.EDU/PDFS/SCHMIDT%20ATTENTION,%20AWARENESS,
%20AND%20INDIVIDUAL%20DIFFERENCES.PDF
NOTIONAL SYLLABUS
A SYLLABUS THAT IS ORGANISED ACCORDING TO THE GRAMMATICAL
NOTIONS (CONCEPTS) THAT A LEARNER MIGHT NEED TO EXPRESS (E.G.
CAUSE AND EFFECT, FREQUENCY, PASTNESS, AGENCY, DURATION,
QUANTITY) RATHER THAN ACCORDING TO STRUCTURAL OR TASK
PROGRESSION. NOTIONAL SYLLABUSES WERE PARTICULARLY INFLUENTIAL
IN THE 1970S AND WERE OFTEN LINKED WITH FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUSES,
MAKING FOR NOTIONAL-FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUSES, IN WHICH THE
LANGUAGE NEEDED TO EXPRESS PARTICULAR FUNCTIONS WAS FOCUSSED
ON.
EXAMPLE
"BECAUSE OF ITS FOCUS ON ABSTRACT CATEGORIES LIKE PASTNESS,
UNCERTAINTY, COMPARISON, IT IS QUITE HARD TO MAKE A NOTIONAL
SYLLABUS SEEM REAL, ACHIEVABLE AND MOTIVATING TO STUDENTS."
FURTHER READING
ABBS, B. AND FREEBAIRN, I. (1979). BUILDING STRATEGIES. HARLOW:
LONGMAN.
HOWATT, A. P. R. AND WIDDOWSON, H.G. (2004). A HISTORY OF ENGLISH
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
WILKINS, D.A. (1976). NOTIONAL SYLLABUSES. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
NOUN PHRASE
SEE PHRASE
OTOP
OBJECTIVE
THIS TERM HAS TWO MAIN MEANINGS IN ELT, ONE RELATED TO
ASSESSMENT AND THE OTHER TO LESSON PLANNING. IN RELATION TO
ASSESSMENT IT REFERS TO TYPES OF ASSESSMENT FOR WHICH THERE IS
ONLY ONE CORRECT ANSWER AND FOR WHICH THE ASSESSOR DOESN’T
THEREFORE NEED TO USE THEIR JUDGMENT TO DECIDE ON THE VALUE OF
THE ANSWER. EXAMPLES OF OBJECTIVE TEST FORMATS ARE TRUE/ FALSE,
MULTIPLE CHOICE, MATCHING, GAP-FILL.
IN RELATION TO LESSON PLANNING, AN OBJECTIVE IS A SPECIFICATION OF
WHAT A TEACHER INTENDS THE LEARNERS TO HAVE LEARNT, OR BE ABLE
TO DO BETTER, BY THE END OF THE LESSON. IT IS SOMETIMES USED
INTERCHANGEABLY WITH LEARNING OUTCOME IN THIS MEANING.
EXAMPLE
"THE ADVANTAGE OF OBJECTIVE TESTS IS THAT EACH ITEM IS SHORT AND
CLEARLY TARGETED, BUT THEIR DISADVANTAGE IS THAT THEY DON’T REALLY
TEST USE OF THE LANGUAGE."
FURTHER READING
RICHARDS, J. (2013) CURRICULUM APPROACHES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING:
FORWARD, CENTRAL AND BACKWARD DESIGN. RELC JOURNAL, 44/1.
HTTP://ELTNOTEBOOK.BLOGSPOT.COM/2006/11/SETTING-OBJECTIVES-PART-
ONE.HTML
HTTP://ELTNOTEBOOK.BLOGSPOT.COM/2006/11/SETTING-OBJECTIVES-PART-
TWO.HTML
OPEN PAIRS
THIS TERM IS USED TO REFER TO A CLASSROOM INTERACTION PATTERN IN
WHICH TWO STUDENTS TALK TO ONE ANOTHER ACROSS THE CLASS SO THAT
OTHER STUDENTS CAN LISTEN TO WHAT THEY ARE SAYING. THIS PATTERN
IS USED PARTICULARLY TO DEMONSTRATE HOW TO CARRY OUT AN
ACTIVITY OR TASK, OR TO ACT AS FEEDBACK ON AN ACTIVITY OR TASK
JUST COMPLETED.
EXAMPLE
"I OFTEN USE OPEN PAIRS IN MY CLASS BEFORE THE LEARNERS START AN
ACTIVITY. I ASK TWO STUDENTS TO CARRY OUT THE ACTIVITY IN FRONT OF
EVERYONE ELSE. IN THAT WAY THE OTHERS SEE WHAT TO DO AND ALSO HEAR
WHAT LANGUAGE THEY COULD USE."
FURTHER READING
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/OPEN-
PAIRS
PTOP
PARSNIP
THIS IS AN ACRONYM FOR POLITICS, ALCOHOL, RELIGION, SEX, NARCOTICS,
-ISMS AND PORK. IT REFERS TO THE COMMON PRACTICE AMONGST
PUBLISHERS AND EXAM BOARDS OF EXCLUDING SENSITIVE OR TABOO
TOPICS FROM THE CONTENT OF THEIR PRODUCTS SO AS NOT TO GIVE
OFFENCE AND TO FACILITATE THE SALE OF THESE PRODUCTS. SOME
PEOPLE BELIEVE THAT THIS PRACTICE IS ONE FACTOR CONTRIBUTING TO
THE LACK OF REAL MEANING AND RELEVANCE THAT IS SOMETIMES NOTED
IN ELT MATERIALS.
EXAMPLE
WHEN YOU GET TO KNOW A CLASS, YOU BECOME AWARE OF THEIR
SENSITIVITIES AND INTERESTS. YOU’RE THEN IN A GOOD POSITION TO
JUDGE HOW MUCH OR WHAT PARTS OF PARSNIP TO ADOPT OR IGNORE WHEN
CHOOSING MATERIALS OR TOPICS TO USE IN CLASS.
FURTHER READING
GRAY, J. (2002). ‘THE GLOBAL COURSEBOOK IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING’. IN BLOCK, D., AND CAMERON, D. (EDS.) GLOBALIZATION AND
LANGUAGE TEACHING. LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
BLOCK, D. AND CAMERON, D. (2002) . GLOBALIZATION AND LANGUAGE
TEACHING. LONDON:ROUTLEDGE.
HARWOOD, N. (2010). ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING MATERIALS: THEORY
AND PRACTICE. CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MEDDINGS. L. (2006). "EMBRACE THE
PARSNIP" HTTP://WWW.THEGUARDIAN.COM/EDUCATION/2006/JAN/20/TEFL4
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2010/06/27/T-IS-FOR-TABOO/
PART OF SPEECH
A PART OF SPEECH IS THE GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION A WORD OR PHRASE
HAS IN A SENTENCE OR UTTERANCE. PARTS OF SPEECH HAVE DISTINCTIVE
GRAMMATICAL OR MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES. IN ENGLISH, COMMON
PARTS OF SPEECH ARE: NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION,
EXCLAMATION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION. WORDS CAN FUNCTION AS MORE
THAN ONE PART OF SPEECH E.G. A RECORD, TO RECORD. ANOTHER TERM
FOR PART OF SPEECH IS WORD CLASS.
EXAMPLE
"YOU HAVE TO WORK OUT THE PARTS OF SPEECH OF ‘THAT’ IN THIS
SENTENCE BEFORE YOU CAN UNDERSTAND THE SENTENCE: THAT THAT THAT
THAT MAN USED WAS RIGHT." (E. COBHAM BREWER 1810–1897. DICTIONARY
OF PHRASE AND FABLE. 1898.)
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PARTICIPLES
THIS IS A GRAMMATICAL TERM THAT REFERS IN ENGLISH TO TWO PARTS OF
A VERB: THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE(E.G. STUDYING) AND THE PAST
PARTICIPLE (E.G. STUDIED). PARTICIPLES ARE NON-FINITE PARTS OF A
VERB, MEANING THAT THEY DON’T IN THEMSELVES INDICATE TIME.
EXAMPLE
HERE’S AN EXAMPLE OF A MISTAKE MY STUDENTS OFTEN MAKE WITH THE
GRAMMATICAL MEANING OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE: WALKING ALONG THE
BEACH, THE SUN WAS BRIGHT AND HOT.
WITH THE PAST PARTICIPLE THEIR MAIN PROBLEMS SEEM TO BE
REMEMBERING IRREGULAR FORMS, AND THEIR PRONUNCIATION AND
SPELLING TOO.
FURTHER READING
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/PARTICIP
LES
PARTICLE
THIS IS A GRAMMATICAL TERM FOR A WORD WHICH HAS LITTLE MEANING
ATTACHED TO IT AND DOES NOT OBVIOUSLY BELONG TO ANY OF THE PARTS
OF SPEECH BUT PERFORMS A GRAMMATICAL OR FORMAL FUNCTION.
EXAMPLES OF THESE IN ENGLISH ARE NOT AND THE PREPOSITIONS OR
ADVERBS THAT ARE IN PHRASAL VERBS E.G. LOOK UP, LOOK AFTER. WE
CAN SEE THAT IN THIS CONTEXT THEY DON’T PERFORM THEIR USUAL
GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION OR RETAIN THEIR USUAL MEANING.
EXAMPLE
"IN CHINESE THERE ARE PARTICLES THAT SHOW THAT A SENTENCE IS IN THE
PAST OR IS A QUESTION."
FURTHER READING
HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/GRAMMATICAL_PARTICLE
PATTERNS OF INTERACTION
THIS TERM REFERS TO THE PATTERNS OF WHO INTERACTS WITH WHO IN A
CLASSROOM. THE MAIN PATTERNS ARE: STUDENT(S) TO TEACHER, TEACHER
TO STUDENT(S), STUDENT(S) TO STUDENT(S), STUDENT ALONE. A TEACHER
CAN CHOOSE WHICH IS THE MOST APPROPRIATE PATTERN TO USE IN ORDER
TO ACHIEVE THE LEARNING AIMS OF DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES.
EXAMPLE
I STARTED THE CLASS WITH A TEACHER TO STUDENTS INTERACTION
PATTERN AS I GAVE ALL THE STUDENTS SOME INFORMATION. THE
STUDENTS THEN DID SOME PAIR WORK FOLLOWED BY SOME INDIVIDUAL
WORK, AND THEN THE LESSON ENDED WITH THEM DOING SOME GROUP
WORK. SO ACROSS THE LESSON WE USED FOUR DIFFERENT KINDS OF
INTERACTION PATTERN.
FURTHER READING
HARMER, J. (2012). ESSENTIAL TEACHER KNOWLEDGE. HARLOW: PEARSON
EDUCATION.
MCDONOUGH, J. AND SHAW. C. (2003) MATERIALS AND METHODS IN ELT.
OXFORD: BLACKWELL.
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
SEEDHOUSE, P. (1995). CLASSROOM INTERACTION: POSSIBILITIES AND
IMPOSSIBILITIES. ELT JOURNAL
50/1.
MODULES 1, 2 AND 3.
TSUI, A.B.M.(1995). INTRODUCING CLASSROOM INTERACTION. LONDON:
PENGUIN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/INTERACTI
ON-PATTERNS
PEDAGOGICAL THEORY (N.)

THIS CAN BE SUMMED UP AS THE PHILOSOPHICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS THAT PROVIDE TEACHERS WITH A SOUND
BASIS FOR THEIR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES.
WELL, SUE IS OK IN THE CLASSROOM BUT I DON’T THINK WE CAN MAKE HER
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT AS SHE HAS NO REAL UNDERSTANDING OF THE
THINKING BEHIND OUR POLICIES AND SYLLABUS.
PEER CORRECTION
IN ELT THIS REFERS TO WHEN ONE LEARNER CORRECTS ANOTHER LEARNER,
MAYBE SPONTANEOUSLY OR AT THE PROMPTING OF THE TEACHER. THE
CORRECTION MAY RELATE TO THE LANGUAGE USED OR TO IDEAS
EXPRESSED. WHEN THE TERM REFERS TO GIVING FEEDBACK ON WRITING
THIS IS SOMETIMES CALLED PEER REVIEW.
EXAMPLE
"SOME TEACHERS ARE A BIT WARY ABOUT USING PAIR PEER CORRECTION AS
THEY’RE NOT SURE IF THE FEEDBACK THE STUDENTS GIVE ONE ANOTHER IS
CORRECT OR NOT."
FURTHER READING
BARTRAM, M. AND WALTON, R. (1991). CORRECTION. BRIGHTON, UK:
LANGUAGE TEACHING PUBLICATIONS.
MACMILLAN.
SHAOFENG LI (2013). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: ORAL CORRECTIVE
FEEDBACK. ELT JOURNAL 67/4. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/PEER-
CORRECTION
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/SUPPORT/METHODOLOGY/CLASSROOM-
MANAGEMENT/CLASSROOM-MANAGEMENT-SPEAKING-CORRECTION-
TECHNIQUES/146455.ARTICLE
PERFECT ASPECT
SEE ASPECT
PERSONALISATION
THIS IS A TEACHING TECHNIQUE WHICH INVOLVES THE TEACHER USING
MATERIALS OR TEACHER TALK THAT MAKES A CLEAR LINK TO STUDENTS’
OWN LIVES, INTERESTS OR ATTITUDES. THE IDEA BEHIND
PERSONALISATION IS THAT STUDENTS WILL BECOME MORE MOTIVATED AND
LEARN BETTER WHEN THEY CAN SEE THAT LANGUAGE HAS RELEVANCE TO
THEMSELVES.
EXAMPLE
"WE READ A TEXT ABOUT SPACE TRAVEL THEN HAD A DISCUSSION ABOUT WHO
AMONGST WOULD LIKE TO DO SPACE TRAVEL, WHY AND WHY NOT.
THIS PERSONALISED THE TOPIC AND MADE IT REAL FOR US."
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/PERSONAL
ISATION
PHONEME
THIS IS THE SMALLEST UNIT OF MEANINGFUL SOUND IN A LANGUAGE. A
PHONEME CAN DISTINGUISH ONE WORD FROM ANOTHER E.G. /BÆD/ VS
/BED/. IN ENGLISH RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION (RP) THERE ARE FORTY-FOUR
PHONEMES, TWENTY-FOUR ARE CONSONANTS AND TWENTY ARE VOWELS.
EXAMPLE
LEARNING THE PHONETIC SCRIPT AND UNDERSTANDING THE PHONEMIC
CHART CAN REALLY HELP YOU TEACH INDIVIDUAL PHONEMES TO
STUDENTS. OFTEN THERE ARE JUST A FEW PHONEMES THAT STUDENTS HAVE
TROUBLE PRONOUNCING - USUALLY BECAUSE THEY DON’T EXIST IN THEIR
L1.
FURTHER READING
ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION IN USE, ELEMENTARY/ INTERMEDIATE/ ADVANCED.
N/
HTTP://WWW.THEPOKE.CO.UK/2011/12/23/ENGLISH-PRONUNCIATION/
HTTPS://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/APPS/SOUNDS-RIGHT
PHONEMIC CHART
A CHART SHOWING THE PHONEMIC SYMBOLS FOR A PARTICULAR LANGUAGE
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO WHETHER THEY ARE VOWELS OR CONSONANTS
AND THEIR PLACE AND MANNER OF ARTICULATION.
EXAMPLE
THE BRITISH COUNCIL’S SOUNDS RIGHT PHONEMIC CHART CAN BE
DOWNLOADED FOR THE IPAD
FROM HTTPS://ITUNES.APPLE.COM/APP/SOUNDS-RIGHT/ID387588128?MT=8
AND FOR THE PC
FROM HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/SITES/TEACHENG/FILES/TEPH
ONEMIC.ZIP
THERE ARE DIFFERENT WAYS IN WHICH THE PHONEMIC CHART CAN BE USED
TO HELP LEARNERS WITH THEIR PRONUNCIATION.
FURTHER READING
LONGMAN.
HTTP://WWW.MACMILLANENGLISH.COM/PHONEMIC-CHART/
HTTP://WWW.PHONEMICCHART.COM/
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/USING-PHONEMIC-CHART
HTTPS://ITUNES.APPLE.COM/GB/APP/SOUNDS-THE-PRONUNCIATION-APP/ID42
8243918?MT=8
MACMILLAN PRONUNCIATION SKILLS VIDEOS WITH ADRIAN UNDERHILL
INTRODUCTION:
THE PHONEMIC CHART, PART 1:
THE PHONEMIC CHART, PART 2:
PHONETICS AND PHONEMICS

PHONETICS IS THE STUDY OF ALL THE SPEECH SOUNDS USED IN ALL HUMAN
LANGUAGES. THE IPA CHART (SEE IPA) REPRESENTS THESE SOUNDS. UNLIKE
PHONEMICS (ALSO KNOWN AS PHONOLOGY - SEE PHONOLOGY), PHONETICS
IS NOT CONCERNED WITH THE SOUNDS OF INDIVIDUAL LANGUAGES. IT
STUDIES THE PRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION OF SPEECH
SOUNDS IN ALL LANGUAGES. PHONEMICS STUDIES THOSE SOUNDS WHICH
ARE MEANINGFUL (I.E. WHICH MAY DISTINGUISH BETWEEN ONE WORD AND
ANOTHER) WITHIN ONE LANGUAGE.
EXAMPLE
WE LEARN FROM PHONETICS THAT THERE IS A SOUND CALLED A GLOTTAL
STOP. BUT WE LEARN FROM PHONEMICS, NOT PHONETICS, THAT THE
GLOTTAL STOP DOES NOT CHANGE MEANING IN STANDARD ENGLISH AND
THAT IT IS THEREFORE NOT A PHONEME IN STANDARD ENGLISH, BUT AN
ALLOPHONE (SEE ALLOPHONE) OF /T/.
FURTHER READING
CARR, PHILIP (2003).ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY: AN
INTRODUCTION. OXFORD: BLACKWELL.
LADEFOGED, PETER. (1982).A COURSE IN PHONETICS (2ND ED.). LONDON:
HARCOURT BRACE JOVANOVICH.
PHONOLOGY
THIS TERM HAS VARIOUS MEANINGS. THE LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF
TEACHING AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS DEFINES IT AS FOLLOWS:
1 ANOTHER TERM FOR PHONEMICS
2 (FOR SOME LINGUISTS) A COVER TERM FOR BOTH PHONETICS AND
PHONEMICS
3 THE ESTABLISHMENT AND DESCRIPTION OF THE DISTINCTIVE SOUND
UNITS OF A LANGUAGE (PHONEMES) BY MEANS OF DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
(THE LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF TEACHING AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS, P.435)
EXAMPLE
AS A TEACHER OF ENGLISH I FOUND IT VERY USEFUL TO STUDY
PHONOLOGY. IT HELPED ME TO UNDERSTAND WHAT SOUNDS THERE ARE IN
ENGLISH AND WHERE AND HOW THEY ARE PRONOUNCED. THIS HELPED ME
DEVELOP IDEAS FOR HOW TO HELP MY LEARNERS WITH THEIR
PRONUNCIATION.
FURTHER READING
CARR, PHILIP (2003).ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY: AN
INTRODUCTION. OXFORD: BLACKWELL.
LADEFOGED, PETER. (1982) A COURSE IN PHONETICS (2ND ED.). LONDON:
HARCOURT BRACE JOVANOVICH.
CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS. HTTPS://LINKINGPHONETICS.FILES.WORDPRESS.COM/2012/11/CAMBRI
DGE_P_ROACH_ENGLISH_PHONETICS_AND_PHONOLOGY_NOPW.PDF
HTTP://WWW.PHON.OX.AC.UK/JCOLEMAN/PHONOLOGY1.HTM
PHRASAL VERB
PHRASAL VERBS ARE ITEMS MADE UP OF A VERB AND ONE OR MORE
PARTICLES (ADVERBS OR PREPOSITIONS). YOU CANNOT ALWAYS WORK OUT
THE MEANING OF PHRASAL VERBS BY LOOKING AT THE INDIVIDUAL WORDS
E.G. LOOK AFTER, HANG IN. IN ENGLISH SOME PHRASAL VERBS ARE
INFORMAL OR NEUTRAL IN REGISTER. THEY MAY HAVE MORE FORMAL
EQUIVALENTS OFTEN COMING FROM LATIN E.G. GET OFF/ALIGHT, MAKE
UP/COMPOSE, LOOK AT/REGARD.
EXAMPLE
"LEARNERS OFTEN THINK PHRASAL VERBS ARE DIFFICULT TO LEARN, BUT IF
THEY LEARN THEM AS LEXICAL ITEMS RATHER THAN AS GRAMMATICAL
ITEMS THEY’RE NOT SO HARD."
FURTHER READING
MCCARTHY, M. AND O’DELL, F. (2004-2007). ENGLISH PHRASAL VERBS IN
USE (ELEMENTARY/INTERMEDIATE/ADVANCED). CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/ENGLISH-GRAMMAR/VERBS/
PHRASAL-VERBS
PHRASE
A PHRASE IS A GROUP OF WORDS MAKING UP A MEANINGFUL UNIT IN A
CLAUSE. THERE ARE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PHRASES SUCH AS A VERB
PHRASE, A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE, AN ADVERBIAL PHRASE, A NOUN
PHRASE. A PHRASE MAY OR MAY NOT CONTAIN A VERB.
EXAMPLE
IN THIS SENTENCE THERE ARE FOUR PHRASES ALL MARKED IN DIFFERENT
COLOURS: NOBODY WEARING SANDALS WILL BE ALLOWED INTO THE
RESTAURANT AFTER 8 O’CLOCK.
FURTHER READING
BATSTONE, R. (1994) GRAMMAR. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PARROTT, M. (2010). GRAMMAR FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS, 2ND
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/ENGLISH-GRAMMAR/CLAUS
E-PHRASE-AND-SENTENCE
PINBOARD PLENARY (N.)

AN ACTIVITY TYPE THAT ALLOWS TASK RESULTS TO BE SHARED AMONGST THE
WHOLE CLASS IN VISUAL FORM. EACH WORKING PAIR OR GROUP PUTS THEIR
POINTS ON TO A SMALL CARD, ONE CARD FOR EACH POINT. THE CARDS ARE
THEN STUCK UP ON A PINBOARD AND READ ALOUD. THE WHOLE CLASS
DECIDES WHICH POINTS ARE SIMILAR AND THOSE CARDS ARE MOVED SO THAT
THEY ARE CLOSE TO EACH OTHER. POINTS CAN ALSO BE EVALUATED IN
PLENARY.
SANDRA DECIDED TO GET HER TRAINEE TEACHERS TO WORK IN PAIRS AND
WRITE WHAT THEY KNEW ABOUT GIVING GOOD INSTRUCTIONS AS A SERIES
OF TIPS ON SMALL CARDS. THEN ALL THE SMALL CARDS WOULD BE PUT UP
IN A PINBOARD PLENARY.
PITCH
PITCH IS USUALLY DEFINED AS “THE RATE OF VIBRATION OF THE VOCAL
FOLDS”, WHICH IS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOUNDS BEING PRODUCED AT HIGHER
OR LOWER FREQUENCIES, OR HIGHER OR LOWER PITCH. PITCH CAN VARY
ACROSS A WORD OR A WHOLE UTTERANCE. VARYING OUR PITCH IN
CONVENTIONALLY AGREED WAYS MAKES IT POSSIBLE FOR MEANING TO BE
EXPRESSED THROUGH INTONATION. FOR EXAMPLE, IN ENGLISH,
IN WH- QUESTIONS THE PITCH OF THE VOICE STARTS HIGHER THEN FALLS.
EXAMPLE
IN ENGLISH WE CHANGE THE DIRECTION OF THE PITCH OF OUR VOICES ON
THE MOST IMPORTANT SYLLABLE IN A WORD OR TONE UNIT. WE CAN SEE
THIS FROM THE CONTOUR LINE IN THIS EXAMPLE:

TAKE THE TRAIN, NOT THE BUS – IT’S MUCH QUICKER.
FURTHER READING
ROACH, P. ENGLISH PHONETICS AND
PHONOLOGY. GLOSSARY: HTTP://WWW.CAMBRIDGE.ORG/SERVLET/FILE/EPP_P
ED_GLOSSARY.PDF?
ITEM_ENT_ID=2491706&ITEM_VERSION=1&COLLSPEC_ENT_ID=7
PLENARY
THIS TERM IS OFTEN USED TO REFER TO A MEETING OR CONFERENCE IN
WHICH ALL MEMBERS ARE PRESENT. IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IT IS
SOMETIMES USED INSTEAD OF WHOLE CLASS TO MEAN THOSE MOMENTS IN A
LESSON DURING WHICH THE TEACHER GETS ALL STUDENTS TO FOCUS ON
HER/HIM SO HE/SHE CAN GIVE THE SAME INPUT TO EVERYONE AT THE SAME
TIME. THIS IS SOMETIMES CALLED TEACHER-FRONTED PLENARY.
EXAMPLE
"THE DANGER OF USING TOO MUCH PLENARY TEACHING IS THAT IT PUTS
LEARNERS IN A PASSIVE ROLE OF LISTENERS ONLY, WHILE THE TEACHER
TALKS OR INPUTS IN SOME WAY."
FURTHER READING
ANDREWS, S. (2007). TEACHER LANGUAGE AWARENESS. CAMBRIDGE:
NUNAN, D. NUNAN, D. (1989) UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS: A
GUIDE FOR TEACHER-INITIATED ACTION. PRENTICE HALL PUBLISHERS.
SCHWAB, G. (2011) FROM DIALOGUE TO MULTILOGUE: A DIFFERENT VIEW ON
PARTICIPATION IN THE ENGLISH FOREIGN ‐LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM. CLASSROOM DISCOURSE VOLUME 2, ISSUE 1.
SCRIVENER, J. (2012) CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES. CAMBRIDGE:
WALSH, S. (2011) EXPLORING CLASSROOM DISCOURSE: LANGUAGE IN
ACTION. ABINGDON: ROUTLEDGE.
HTTP://AKOAOTEAROA.AC.NZ/DOWNLOAD/NG/FILE/GROUP-4/N2433-ESOL-
TEACHING-SKILLS-TASKBOOK-UNIT-1-B---STUDENT-INTERACTION-AND-
TEACHER-ROLES.PDF
PLENARY (N./ADJ.)
PART OF THE LESSON IN WHICH THE WHOLE CLASS WORKS TOGETHER, LED BY
THE TEACHER.
AFTER THE GROUP WORK THE TEACHER BROUGHT THE WHOLE CLASS
TOGETHER FOR PLENARY FEEDBACK.
PLOSIVE
A PLOSIVE IS A TYPE OF SOUND PRODUCED BY AIR POPPING ON ONE OF THE
SPEECH ORGANS AS IT IS RELEASED (SEE SPEECH ORGAN). THE PLOSIVE
SOUNDS IN ENGLISH ARE /P/, /B/, /T/, /D/, /K/, /G/.
EXAMPLE
IN MY EXPERIENCE LEARNERS OF ENGLISH RARELY HAVE PROBLEMS
PRODUCING THE PLOSIVE SOUNDS. IS THAT WHAT YOU HAVE FOUND WITH
YOUR STUDENTS, TOO?
FURTHER READING
LONGMAN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLES/PRONUNCIATION
HTTP://ALLPHONETICS.BLOGSPOT.CO.UK/2008/05/PLOSIVE-STORY-P-B-T-D-K-
G_14.HTML
POLYSEMY
POLYSEMY IS A LEXICAL TERM REFERRING TO THE MANY MEANINGS THAT
SOME WORDS CAN HAVE. THESE MEANINGS USUALLY DERIVE FROM ONE
(POSSIBLY REMOTE) CORE MEANING E.G. TABLE AS IN THE PIECE OF
FURNITURE, A GRID, A GROUP OF PEOPLE SITTING ROUND A TABLE AND THE
VERB MEANING TO PRESENT SOMETHING AT A MEETING.
EXAMPLE
I’M NOT SURE IF POLYSEMY MAKES WORDS EASIER OR HARDER TO LEARN.
YOU COULD ARGUE THAT IT CONFUSES LEARNERS E.G. LEFT AS AN
ADJECTIVE, NOUN, ADVERB V LEFT AS A PAST PARTICIPLE. BUT MAYBE IT
ACTUALLY HELPS LEARNERS BECAUSE THEY’RE ALREADY FAMILIAR WITH
THE SOUND OF THE WORD. I’M NOT SURE AND I DON’T KNOW OF ANY
RESEARCH TELLING US ABOUT THIS.
FURTHER READING
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/POLYSEM
Y
HTTP://TEACHINGENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG.CN/ARTICLE/WORKING-
VOCABULARY
DAVID CRYSTAL’S INTRODUCTION TO
LANGUAGE: HTTP://CW.ROUTLEDGE.COM/TEXTBOOKS/9780415602679/DC-
GLOSSARY.ASP
PORTFOLIO
A PORTFOLIO IS A COLLECTION OF A LEARNER’S WORK SUBMITTED AS A
WHOLE AND SOMETIMES ORGANISED WITH AN INDEX, AGREED ASSIGNMENT
COMPONENTS AND REFLECTION SHEETS. IN ELT, PORTFOLIOS CAN CONTAIN
WRITTEN WORK SUCH AS ESSAYS, EMAILS, REPORTS OR VIDEO AND AUDIO
RECORDINGS, PROJECT WORK AND POWERPOINT SLIDES. PORTFOLIOS ARE
MAINLY USED FOR ASSESSMENT. THEY ARE ALSO SOMETIMES USED IN
TEACHER DEVELOPMENT. A TEACHER PORTFOLIO MIGHT CONTAIN A CV,
SOME LESSON PLANS, A STATEMENT OF BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING, AN
ACTION PLAN, REFLECTIONS.
EXAMPLE
"AN ADVANTAGE OF PORTFOLIOS IS THAT THEY ALLOW THE LEARNER TO
EXPRESS THEMSELVES MORE FULLY AND THE TEACHER TO GET A FULLER IDEA
OF A LEARNER’S PERFORMANCE THAN TESTS CAN REVEAL. A DISADVANTAGE
IS THAT THEY CAN TAKE A LONG TIME TO MARK."
FURTHER READING
EUROPEAN LANGUAGE
PORTFOLIO HTTP://WWW.COE.INT/T/DG4/EDUCATION/ELP/
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/PORTFOLIOS-ELT
HTTP://WWW.PRIMARYLANGUAGES.ORG.UK/RESOURCES/ASSESSMENT_AND_R
ECORDING/EUROPEAN_LANGUAGES_PORTFOLIO.ASPX
HTTP://WWW.CUP.CAM.AC.UK/GB/ELT/CATALOGUE/SUBJECT/PROJECT/CUSTO
M/ITEM7108816/KID'S-BOX-FOR-SPANISH-SPEAKERS-LANGUAGE-
PORTFOLIOS/?SITE_LOCALE=EN_GB&CURRENTSUBJECTID=2562984
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT INVOLVES THE ASSESSMENT OF A PORTFOLIO OF
WORK SUBMITTED BY A LEARNER. THE PORTFOLIO MAY CONTAIN
COMPULSORY COMPONENTS OR BE DECIDED ON BY THE LEARNER. THE
COMPONENTS MAY INCLUDE BOTH ORAL AND WRITTEN WORK AS WELL AS
REFLECTIONS ON THAT WORK. ASSESSMENT CRITERIA ARE USUALLY USED
TO GUIDE THE MARKING OF PORTFOLIOS SO AS TO STOP THE MARKING
BECOMING TOO SUBJECTIVE.
EXAMPLE
"FOR MY SPANISH COURSE WE HAD TO SUBMIT A PORTFOLIO – I PUT IN IT ALL
THE REPORTS I’D WRITTEN AS WELL AS CORRECTED VERSIONS OF THEM,
VIDEOS I’D SHOT AS PART OF MY PROJECT, AND ALL MY PROJECT WORK –
QUESTIONNAIRES, TABLES OF FINDINGS, PHOTOS I’D TAKEN, RECORDINGS OF
INTERVIEWS. I FELT IT GAVE A REALLY ROUNDED VIEW OF WHAT MY SPANISH
IS LIKE."
FURTHER READING
HAMP-LYONS, L. AND CONDON, W. (2000). ASSESSING THE PORTFOLIO. NEW
YORK: HAMPTON PRESS.
HUGHES, A. (2003). TESTING FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS, 2ND EDITION.
O’MALLEY, J. M. AND VALDEZ PIERCE, L. (1996). AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS: PRACTICAL APPROACHES FOR
TEACHERS. BOSTON, MASS.: ADDISON-WESLEY.
HTTPS://EDUCATION.STATEUNIVERSITY.COM/PAGES/1769/ASSESSMENT-
PORTFOLIO-ASSESSMENT.HTML
POSSESSIVE
SEE PRONOUN
PPP
THIS ACRONYM STANDS FOR PRESENTATION-PRACTICE-PRODUCTION. PPP IS
AN APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING THAT WAS VERY POPULAR IN THE
1980S. THE APPROACH INVOLVES FIRST THE TEACHER PRESENTING THE
FORM AND MEANING OF NEW TARGET LANGUAGE TO STUDENTS IN A
MEANINGFUL CONTEXT (PRESENTATION), THEN GIVING LEARNERS THE
OPPORTUNITY TO DO CONTROLLED PRACTICE OF THE TARGET LANGUAGE
(PRACTICE), THEN FINALLY LETTING STUDENTS USE THE TARGET
LANGUAGE IN FREER, LESS CONTROLLED ACTIVITIES (PRODUCTION). THE
RATIONALE FOR PPP IS THAT LEARNERS NEED AN ACCURACY-FOCUSSED
STAGE IN WHICH TO PRACTISE THE LANGUAGE IN RELATIVELY ERROR-FREE
CONDITIONS BEFORE USING IT IN LESS GUIDED CONDITIONS. THIS IS SO AS
TO GIVE THEM THE OPPORTUNITY TO BUILD UP GOOD HABITS AND AVOID
ERRORS, A PLATFORM FROM WHICH THEY CAN THEN ENGAGE IN MORE
FLUENCY-BASED ACTIVITIES. THE APPROACH HAS BEEN CRITICISED FOR
BEING TOO RESTRICTIVE AND RATHER ARTIFICIAL, BUT ATTEMPTS HAVE
BEEN MADE TO RESPOND TO THESE CRITICISMS BY MAKING ITS ACTIVITIES
MORE MEANINGFUL AND COMMUNICATIVE. IT CURRENTLY SURVIVES IN
MORE SUBTLE FORMS IN MANY ELT CLASSROOMS AND MATERIALS.
EXAMPLE
"SOME OF MY STUDENTS REALLY LIKE PPP-TYPE LESSONS – I THINK THEY
LIKE TO BE GUIDED BEFORE JUMPING INTO USING THE LANGUAGE WITHOUT
SUPPORT. OTHER STUDENTS I HAVE CLEARLY FIND IT LIMITING AND A BIT
MEANINGLESS. IT DEPENDS ON THEIR LEARNING STYLES, SO I TRY TO VARY
THE APPROACHES I USE ACROSS MY LESSONS."
FURTHER READING
BURNS, A. AND RICHARDS, J. (2012) PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE IN SECOND
TEACHING. HARLOW: PEARSON.
MACMILLAN.
PRAGMATICS
THIS IS THE STUDY OF THE MEANING OF LANGUAGE IN CONTEXT. IT LOOKS
AT HOW LANGUAGE IS INTERPRETED IN PARTICULAR SITUATIONS. ITS
FOCUS IS NOT SEMANTIC MEANING BUT CONTEXTUAL MEANING, AS
CONTAINED IN E.G. SETTING, THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPEAKERS, AND
KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD.
EXAMPLE
IN THIS DIALOGUE, THE RESPONSE ‘EXCELLENT NEWS’ SEEMS TO INDICATE
THAT THE WOMAN IS PLEASED THAT HELEN IS SICK. ANOTHER POSSIBLE
INTERPRETATION IS THAT IN FACT THE WOMAN IS PLEASED FOR ANOTHER
REASON – THAT HELEN HAS FINALLY DECIDED TO TAKE DAYS OFF WHEN
SHE’S ILL. PRAGMATICS WOULD STUDY THE SITUATION IN WHICH THIS
DIALOGUE TOOK PLACE TO EXPLORE POSSIBLE INTERPRETATIONS.
MAN: HELEN’S SICK. SHE’S HAVING THE DAY OFF.
WOMAN: EXCELLENT NEWS – ABOUT TIME TOO.
FURTHER READING
BAHTIA, V., FLOWERDEW, J., JONES, R. (2007). ADVANCES IN DISCOURSE
STUDIES, OXFORD: ROUTLEDGE.
GRUNDY, P. (2008). DOING PRAGMATICS. OXFORD: ROUTLEDGE.
HOUCK, N.R. AND TATSUKI, D.H. (EDS.) (2011). PRAGMATICS: TEACHING
NATURAL CONVERSATION. VIRGINIA: TESOL.
ROSE K.R. AND KASPER, G. (2001) PRAGMATICS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
TAN, P. (1994). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: PRAGMATICS. ELT JOURNAL 48/1.
THORNBURY, S., SLADE, D. (2006). CONVERSATION: FROM DESCRIPTION TO
PEDAGOGY. CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PRAISE
THIS IS WHEN WE EXPRESS APPROVAL OR ADMIRATION OF SOMETHING, FOR
EXAMPLE, THIS MEAL IS ABSOLUTELY DELICIOUS. WELL DONE,
COOK! TEACHERS ARE OFTEN ENCOURAGED TO PRAISE THEIR STUDENTS
BUT THERE IS QUITE A LOT OF DEBATE ABOUT WHAT IS THE MOST
PRODUCTIVE AND EFFECTIVE TYPE OF PRAISE.
EXAMPLE
"MY TEACHER ALWAYS USED TO PRAISE US, SAYING THINGS LIKE VERY
GOOD OR WELL DONE, EVEN TO STUDENTS WHO GAVE THE WRONG ANSWER – I
FOUND IT RATHER CONFUSING."
FURTHER READING
CHAUDRON, C. (1988) SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS. CAMBRIDGE:
GEBHARD, J. AND OPRANDY, R. (1999). LANGUAGE TEACHING AWARENESS.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://CAROLREAD.WORDPRESS.COM/2010/09/28/P-IS-FOR-PRAISE/
PREFIX
SEE AFFIXATION
PREPOSITION
PREPOSITION IS A GRAMMATICAL TERM FOR A WORD THAT SHOWS A
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EVENTS, PEOPLE OR THINGS SUCH AS TIME,
PROXIMITY, PLACE. PREPOSITIONS REPRESENT A WORD CLASS/ PART OF
SPEECH. IN ENGLISH THEY ARE NUMEROUS, USUALLY COME BEFORE NOUNS
OR PRONOUNS AND CAN BE USED LITERALLY OR FIGURATIVELY.
EXAMPLE
PREPOSITIONS CAN BE EASIER TO LEARN IF THEY ARE TAUGHT AS PART OF
A CHUNK E,G, ON TIME, AT HOME, IN PAIRS, LOOK FORWARD TO, BUT
UNFORTUNATELY THEY ARE NOT ALL OR ALWAYS USED IN COMMON
CHUNKS OR COLLOCATIONS.
FURTHER READING
LINDSTROMBERG, S. (2010). ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS EXPLAINED.
AMSTERDAM: JOHN BENJAMINS PUBLISHING.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/PREPOSITI
ON
HTTP://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/GRAMMAR-REFERENCE/VER
BS-PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
SEE PHRASE
PRESCRIPTIVE
PRESCRIPTIVE IS A WORD USED TO DESCRIBE AN ATTITUDE TO GRAMMAR
THAT SAYS WHAT GRAMMAR SHOULD BE USED. PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMARS
ARE BASED ON AN IDEA OF WHAT GRAMMAR SHOULD BE USED RATHER
THAN WHAT GRAMMAR IS ACTUALLY USED. ‘PRESCRIPTIVE’ IS OFTEN
CONTRASTED WITH ‘DESCRIPTIVE’. DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMARS DESCRIBE HOW
GRAMMAR IS ACTUALLY USED.
EXAMPLE
PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMARS OF ENGLISH USED TO TELL US THINGS LIKE: YOU
CAN’T USE VERBS OF FEELING IN THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS, YOU CAN’T
PUT A PREPOSITION AT THE END OF A SENTENCE, YOU CAN’T USE THAT AS A
RELATIVE PRONOUN TO REFER TO PEOPLE. IN FACT, WHEN YOU HEAR
PEOPLE TALKING THEY DO THINGS LIKE THAT ALL THE TIME E.G. I’M
LOVING IT, I DON’T KNOW WHICH CLASS SHE’S IN, THE STUDENT THAT I NEED
TO TALK TO IS….….
FURTHER READING
CAMERON, D. (1995).VERBAL HYGIENE. LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
HUDDLESTON, R. (1984). INTRODUCTION TO THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH.

STREVENS, P. (1978).IN HONOUR OF A.S. HORNBY. OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://SCOTTTHORNBURY.WORDPRESS.COM/2011/10/02/P-IS-FOR-
PRESCRIPTIVE/
PRE-TEACHING
THIS IS A STAGE IN A LESSON IN WHICH THE TEACHER INTRODUCES
VOCABULARY THAT THE LEARNERS WILL NEED IN FOLLOWING STAGES OF
THE LESSON. THIS STAGE IS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH READING, LISTENING
OR INTEGRATED SKILLS LESSONS BUT CAN ALSO OCCUR BEFORE SPEAKING
OR WRITING ACTIVITIES. THE TEACHER GENERALLY SETS UP THE CONTEXT
OF THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES THEN INTRODUCES THE NEW VOCABULARY
WITHIN THAT CONTEXT. THE IDEA BEHIND PRE-TEACHING VOCABULARY IS
TO LESSEN THE LOAD OF UNKNOWN WORDS THE LEARNER HAS TO DEAL
WITH LATER ON IN THE LESSON.
EXAMPLE
FOR MANY YEARS TEACHERS WERE RECOMMENDED TO PRE-TEACH
VOCABULARY BEFORE WORKING ON TEXTS. NOWADAYS THOUGH, SOME
QUESTION THIS, SUGGESTING THAT THE CONTEXTS THAT TEACHERS ARE
ABLE TO SET UP FOR PRE-TEACHING ARE RARELY MEANINGFUL AND THAT
PRE-TEACHING IN FACT PREVENTS LEARNERS FROM DEVELOPING THE
ATTACK STRATEGIES THEY NEED FOR DEALING WITH CHALLENGING TEXTS.
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
SCRIVENER, J. (2011). LEARNING TEACHING, 3RD EDITION. LONDON:
MACMILLAN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/PRE-
TEACHING
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/SUPPORT/ASK-THE-EXPERTS/VOCABULA
RY-QUESTIONS/VOCABULARY-PRE-TEACHING-VOCABULARY/146418.ARTICLE
HTTP://ELT-RESOURCEFUL.COM/2012/03/30/SHOULD-WE-PRE-TEACH-
VOCABULARY-BEFORE-READING-AND-IF-SO-HOW/
PRINCIPLED ECLECTICISM
SEE ECLECTICISM
PROCESS WRITING
PROCESS WRITING IS AN APPROACH TO WRITING THAT DELIBERATELY
INCORPORATES A FOCUS ON THE STAGES IN PRODUCING A PIECE OF
WRITING RATHER THAN FOCUSSING JUST ON THE PRODUCT OF THE WRITING
(PRODUCT WRITING). THE STAGES INVOLVED IN WRITING ARE GENERATING
AND DEVELOPING IDEAS, PLANNING AND ORGANISING, DRAFTING, EDITING,
REDRAFTING, PROOF-READING AND PUBLISHING (I.E. MAKING PUBLIC).
MANY EXPERTS BELIEVE THAT BY FOCUSSING LEARNERS ON THE STAGES OF
WRITING, PROCESS WRITING HELPS LEARNERS BECOME AWARE OF WHAT
WRITING DEMANDS OF THEM, AND WHAT ENABLES GOOD WRITING.
EXAMPLE
"ONE OF THE BIG PROBLEMS MY STUDENTS HAVE WITH THEIR WRITING IS NOT
PLANNING PROPERLY AND NOT EDITING OR PROOF-READING. WHEN I
INTRODUCE THEM TO PROCESS WRITING IT REALLY SEEMS TO HELP THEM
WRITE BETTER."
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
HEDGE T. (1988). WRITING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
KROLL B. (1990). SECOND LANGUAGE WRITING: RESEARCH INSIGHTS FOR THE
CLASSROOM. CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
RAIMES A. (1983). TECHNIQUES IN TEACHING WRITING. OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
WHITE, R. AND ARNDT, V. (1991). PROCESS WRITING. HARLOW: LONGMAN.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/APPROACHES-PROCESS-
WRITING
PRODUCT WRITING
SEE PROCESS WRITING
PROFESSIONALISM/PROFESSIONAL/PROFESSIONAL SKILLS (N/ADJ./N.)

THE CONCEPT OF THERE BEING PARTICULAR STRATEGIES AND APPROACHES
THAT HELP TEACHERS TO IMPROVE THEIR OWN WORK AND ALSO TO DEVELOP
THEIR DEPARTMENT, SCHOOL OR THE WHOLE PROFESSION. SOME DEFINITIONS
OF THESE TERMS ALSO INCLUDE SKILLS THAT ARE NOT TEACHING SKILLS BUT
WHICH COULD HELP TEACHERS DO THEIR JOB BETTER, FOR EXAMPLE
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS OR COMPUTER SKILLS, WHILE OTHERS ADD
GENERALLY DESIRABLE EMPLOYEE CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS RELIABILITY,
HONESTY, CONSCIENTIOUSNESS AND A SUITABLY SMART APPEARANCE.
JOHN IS THE MOST PROFESSIONAL TEACHER I HAVE EVER MET. SO CAN YOU
TIMETABLE HIM TO BE TEACHING IN THAT ROOM OPPOSITE THE HEAD’S
OFFICE WHEN THE INSPECTORS COME NEXT WEEK? ‘COS THEY’RE BOUND TO
POP INTO THAT ROOM.
PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
SEE ASPECT
PRONOUN
A PRONOUN IS A WORD THAT IS USED INSTEAD OF A NOUN TO REPRESENT
THAT NOUN. IN ENGLISH, PRONOUNS ARE A WORD CLASS/ PART OF SPEECH
AND THERE ARE SEVERAL KINDS: SUBJECT (E.G. HE, THEY), OBJECT (E.G.
HIM, US), RELATIVE (E.G. THAT, WHICH), REFLEXIVE (E.G. OURSELVES,
ITSELF), INDEFINITE (E.G. NO ONE, NONE), POSSESSIVE (E.G. OUR, THEIR),
INTERROGATIVE (E.G. WHICH, WHAT), DEMONSTRATIVE (E.G. THIS, THOSE),
RECIPROCAL (EACH OTHER, ONE ANOTHER), QUANTIFIERS (E.G. ALL, ONE).
EXAMPLE
STUDENTS OFTEN DON’T REALISE HOW IMPORTANT PRONOUNS ARE TO
UNDERSTANDING SPOKEN OR WRITTEN LANGUAGE OR TO EXPRESSING
THEMSELVES CLEARLY, PARTICULARLY IN WRITING. PRONOUNS ARE
REALLY IMPORTANT IN ESTABLISHING THE COHESION OF A TEXT.
FURTHER READING
THORNBURY, S. (1997).ABOUT LANGUAGE. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.BBC.CO.UK/SKILLSWISE/TOPIC/PRONOUNS
HTTPS://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/ENGLISH-GRAMMAR-
REFERENCE/PRONOUNS
PYRAMID (N.)
A CLASSROOM INTERACTION PATTERN IN WHICH LEARNERS WORK IN TWOS ON
A TASK AND THEN COME TOGETHER WITH ANOTHER PAIR TO COMPARE AND
REACH A CONSENSUS ON THEIR RESULTS. EACH GROUP OF FOUR THEN JOINS
ANOTHER GROUP OF FOUR AND THE GROUP OF EIGHT MUST NEGOTIATE TO
PRODUCE A RESULT THAT REPRESENTS BOTH GROUPS OF FOUR. FINALLY, THE
PRODUCTS OR OUTCOMES OF THE WORK ARE SHARED IN PLENARY.
ROBERT WANTED THEM TO COME TO A DECISION ABOUT THE CLASS OUTING
WHILE PRACTISING THEIR ENGLISH AND DECIDED THAT HE WOULD SET UP A
PYRAMID TASK TO ACHIEVE BOTH AIMS.
QTOP
QUANTIFIERS
SEE PRONOUN
QUESTION TAG/TAG QUESTION

A QUESTION TAG IS A CLAUSE USUALLY CONTAINING AN INVERTED
SUBJECT AND AN AUXILIARY OR MODAL VERB, AND INSERTED AT THE END
OF A STATEMENT. IT TURNS THE STATEMENT INTO A QUESTION OR A
REQUEST FOR CONFIRMATION, DEPENDING ON ITS INTONATION, WITH A
RISING TONE INDICATING A QUESTION AND A FALLING TONE SIGNALLING A
REQUEST FOR CONFIRMATION. A QUESTION FORMED BY ADDING A
QUESTION TAG TO THE END OF A STATEMENT IS CALLED A TAG QUESTION.
EXAMPLE
HERE ARE SOME TAG QUESTIONS THAT USE DIFFERENT QUESTION TAGS:
HE LEFT LAST NIGHT, DIDN’T HE?
SHE CAN’T SWIM, CAN SHE?
NOBODY UNDERSTANDS, DO THEY?
YOU’LL BRING IT TOMORROW, WON’T YOU?
FURTHER READING
PARROTT, M. (2010). GRAMMAR FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHERS, 2ND EDITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
RTOP
RANGE
RANGE IS A TERM USED IN ASSESSMENT CRITERIA AND IN SYLLABUS
DESIGN TO REFER TO THE BREADTH AND VARIETY OF LANGUAGE (GRAMMAR
OR LEXIS) THAT IS APPROPRIATE FOR USE IN A PARTICULAR GENRE. FOR
EXAMPLE, THE RANGE OF LANGUAGE APPROPRIATE FOR USE IN A TEXT
MESSAGE TO A FRIEND ABOUT WHEN AND WHERE TO MEET UP NEXT IS
LIKELY TO BE MUCH NARROWER THAN THE RANGE NEEDED IN A TOURIST
LEAFLET DESCRIBING THE ATTRACTIONS OF AN HISTORIC TOWN. TEACHERS
ARE ALSO OFTEN ENCOURAGED IN SYLLABUSES TO TEACH THEIR STUDENTS
THE FEATURES OF AN APPROPRIATE RANGE OF GENRES.
THE SEMANTIC RANGE OF A WORD REFERS TO ITS OCCURRENCE ACROSS
SEVERAL SUBSECTIONS OF A CORPUS.
EXAMPLE
"I’VE JUST MARKED PEDRO’S ESSAY – HIS GRAMMATICAL RANGE WAS REALLY
QUITE IMPRESSIVE-HE USED ALL THE TENSES HE NEEDED TO USE, SIMPLE AND
COMPLEX SENTENCES, AND A VARIETY OF CONJUNCTIONS AND DISCOURSE
MARKERS - JUST WHAT WAS NEEDED IN THAT KIND OF FORMAL ESSAY."
FURTHER READING
NATION, P. & WARING, R. “VOCABULARY SIZE, TEXT COVERAGE AND WORD
LISTS” HTTP://WWW.FLTR.UCL.AC.BE/FLTR/GERM/ETAN/BIBS/VOCAB/CUP.HT
ML
REALIA
OBJECTS FROM OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM THAT THE TEACHER OR LEARNERS
BRING INTO THE CLASSROOM IN ORDER TO ILLUSTRATE MEANING OR
PROMPT COMMUNICATION OR LEARNING. THEY INCLUDE ANYTHING
PORTABLE SUCH AS HOUSEHOLD ITEMS, CLOTHING, THINGS RELATED TO
TRAVEL (TICKETS, BROCHURES, CREDIT CARDS, LEAFLETS), TOYS, PHOTOS,
NEWSPAPERS. NOWADAYS IN SOME TEACHING CONTEXTS REALIA ARE OFTEN
REPLACED BY POWERPOINT IMAGES AND VISUALS ON INTERACTIVE WHITE
BOARDS.
EXAMPLE
"PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS ARE OFTEN VERY MOTIVATED BY WORKING
WITH REALIA. THEY LOVE DOING THINGS LIKE COUNTING DIFFERENT FRUITS
OR PUTTING MODELS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ANIMALS INTO DIFFERENT
BASKETS AS A WAY OF CATEGORISING THEM."
FURTHER READING
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/LANGUAGE-ASSISTANT/TEACHING-
TIPS/REALIA
HTTP://ITESLJ.ORG/TECHNIQUES/MUMFORD-RELIA.HTML
HTTP://WWW.USINGENGLISH.COM/WEBLOG/ARCHIVES/000228.HTML
RECALL
TO REMEMBER SOMETHING, OFTEN WITH THE HELP OF PROMPTS OR CLUES.
EXAMPLE
"TO RECALL NEW VOCABULARY I OFTEN TRY TO USE A CLUE – FOR EXAMPLE,
THE ITALIAN FOR ‘BELL’ IS CAMPANA – IF YOU SAY IT SLOWLY HANGING ON
THE ‘N’, TO ME IT SOUNDS JUST LIKE A BIG BELL RINGING. WHEN I HEAR A
BELL RINGING NOW, THE WORD CAMPANA OFTEN AUTOMATICALLY COMES
INTO MY MIND."
FURTHER READING
BILBOROUGH, N. (2011). MEMORY ACTIVITIES FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING.
NATION, I.S.P. (2001). LEARNING VOCABULARY IN ANOTHER LANGUAGE.
TAKAC, V.P. (2008). VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES AND FOREIGN
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. BRISTOL: MULTILINGUAL MATTERS.
RECEPTIVE/PRODUCTIVE
THESE ARE TERMS USED IN RELATION TO THE LANGUAGE SKILLS OF
READING, LISTENING, WRITING AND SPEAKING. THE FIRST TWO ARE SAID
TO BE RECEPTIVE AS THEY INVOLVE ABSORBING LANGUAGE WHILE THE
LATTER TWO ARE KNOWN AS PRODUCTIVE AS THEY INVOLVE PRODUCING
LANGUAGE. RECEPTIVE SKILLS ARE SOMETIMES THOUGHT OF AS BEING
PASSIVE WHILE PRODUCTIVE SKILLS ARE THOUGHT OF AS ACTIVE. IN FACT,
THIS CATEGORISATION IS RATHER MISLEADING, AS A READER OR LISTENER
CAN BE VERY ACTIVE IN THEIR COMPREHENSION AND INTERPRETATION OF
LANGUAGE WHILE READING OR LISTENING, AND OF COURSE, MUCH READING
AND LISTENING TAKES PLACE INTERACTIVELY WITH WRITING AND
SPEAKING.
EXAMPLE
I THINK IT’S RATHER UNHELPFUL TO TALK OF LISTENING OR READING
LESSONS. I PREFER TO THINK OF INTEGRATED SKILLS LESSONS WHERE A
FOCUS ON A RECEPTIVE SKILL OFTEN LEADS INTO AND SUPPORTS THE
LEARNING OF PRODUCTIVE SKILL.
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
MACMILLAN.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
RECIPROCAL
SEE PRONOUN
RECYCLE
TEACHERS RECYCLE LANGUAGE WHEN THEY DELIBERATELY BRING ITEMS
OF LANGUAGE THAT HAVE ALREADY BEEN TAUGHT TO LEARNERS’
ATTENTION OR FOR LEARNERS’ USE A SECOND OR FURTHER TIME. THE
PURPOSE OF RECYCLING IS TO GIVE LEARNERS FURTHER EXPOSURE TO
PARTICULAR LANGUAGE ITEMS. COURSEBOOK DESIGNERS OFTEN BUILD
RECYCLING INTO THEIR MATERIALS, AS DO SYLLABUS WRITERS WHO ADOPT
A SPIRAL APPROACH, DEALING WITH THE SAME ITEM AGAIN BUT IN
GREATER DETAIL.
EXAMPLE
"THAT BOOK IS REALLY GOOD BECAUSE IT RECYCLES THE MAIN LANGUAGE
POINTS, GIVING LEARNERS THE CHANCE TO EXTEND THEIR UNDERSTANDING
AND USE OF WHAT THEY’VE LEARNT BEFORE."
FURTHER READING
HARMER, J. (2012). TEACHER KNOWLEDGE, HARLOW: PEARSON.
REFERENTIAL QUESTION
A REFERENTIAL QUESTION IS A QUESTION A TEACHER OR STUDENT ASKS
BECAUSE THEY GENUINELY WANT TO FIND OUT THE ANSWER TO THE
QUESTION. REFERENTIAL QUESTIONS ARE OFTEN CONTRASTED WITH
DISPLAY QUESTIONS (SEE DISPLAY QUESTIONS), WHICH ARE ASKED SO AS
TO GIVE THE STUDENT AN OPPORTUNITY TO ‘DISPLAY’ THEIR KNOWLEDGE
OR ABILITY. IN LANGUAGE TEACHING, REFERENTIAL QUESTIONS ARE OFTEN
ASSOCIATED WITH THE WARM-UP STAGE OF A LESSON OR WITH FREE
PRACTICE ACTIVITIES. THEY OFTEN LEAD TO A USE OF LANGUAGE THAT
THE TEACHER CANNOT PREDICT, AND TEND TO INVOLVE USE OF HIGHER
ORDER THINKING SKILLS (SEE HOTS).
EXAMPLE
IN THE DIALOGUE BELOW, THE TEACHER’S FIRST QUESTION IS A DISPLAY
QUESTION, ASKED TO CHECK WHETHER THE STUDENT KNOWS THE WORD
‘ARCHITECT’. THE TEACHER KNOWS THE ANSWER TO THIS QUESTION. THE
TEACHER’S SECOND QUESTION IS REFERENTIAL. THE TEACHER IS UNLIKELY
TO KNOW THE ANSWER TO IT, AND ANSWERING IT INVOLVES THE STUDENT
IN USING THEIR OWN IDEAS AND UNPREDICTABLE LANGUAGE.
TEACHER: WHAT’S THE NAME OF THE PERSON WHO DRAWS PLANS FOR
DESIGNING AND BUILDING HOUSES?
STUDENT: ARCHITECT.
TEACHER. THAT’S RIGHT. DO YOU THINK THAT’S AN INTERESTING JOB?
WHY?
STUDENT: I’D LOVE TO BE AN ARCHITECT. TO CREATE NEW BUILDINGS
MUST BE WONDERFUL.
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
TSUI, A.B.M. (1995). INTRODUCING CLASSROOM INTERACTION. LONDON:
PENGUIN
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/REFEREN
TIAL-QUESTIONS
REFLECTION GRID
THIS IS A GRID OR TABLE OFTEN CONTAINING COLUMNS WITH THESE
HEADINGS: NAME, DESCRIPTION, AIMS, COMMENTS. IT CAN BE USED BY
LEARNERS OR TEACHERS TO RECORD AND COMMENT ON POINTS IN A
LESSON. IT IS DESIGNED TO AID REFLECTION AND EVALUATION ON
LEARNING / TEACHING, WITH A VIEW TO POSSIBLY INTRODUCING CHANGES.
EXAMPLE
"THE TEACHER GAVE US A REFLECTION GRID AND DURING THE LESSON WE
JOTTED DOWN OUR FEELINGS AND OPINIONS ON THE DIFFERENT THINGS WE
HAD DONE. THEN AT THE END OF THE LESSON WE DISCUSSED WHAT WE HAD
WRITTEN. IT WAS A GOOD WAY OF GETTING SOLID FEEDBACK AND THINKING
ABOUT WHAT HELPS YOU TO LEARN BEST."
FURTHER READING
MURRAY, D. AND CHRISTISON, M.A. (2011). WHAT ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHERS NEED TO KNOW, VOLUME 11. ABINGDON: OXON: ROUTLEDGE.
RICHARDS, J. AND LOCKHART, C. (1994). REFLECTIVE TEACHING.
HTTP://WWW.TES.CO.UK/TEACHING-RESOURCE/THE-REFLECTION-GRID-
6266266/
REFLEXIVE
SEE PRONOUN
REGISTER
REGISTER HAS TWO MEANINGS. IT IS SOMETIMES USED TO REFER TO THE
TYPE OF LANGUAGE (PARTICULAR VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR OR DISCOURSE
FEATURES) THAT CHARACTERISES PARTICULAR FIELDS OF LANGUAGE USE
E.G. NUCLEAR PHYSICS, HIP HOP MUSIC, FOOTBALL.
IT IS ALSO USED TO REFER TO THE DEGREE OF FORMALITY OF LANGUAGE
USE, WITH LANGUAGE GENERALLY CLASSIFIED AS FORMAL, NEUTRAL OR
INFORMAL. THE STUDY OF REGISTER IS PART OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS.
EXAMPLE
"ONE OF THE HARDEST THINGS TO LEARN IN A FOREIGN LANGUAGE IS
USING REGISTER I.E. WHAT LANGUAGE IT IS APPROPRIATE TO USE IN WHAT
CONTEXT."
FURTHER READING
GHADESSY, M. (1994) KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT. ELTJ
48/3 HTTP://WWW.OXFORDJOURNALS.ORG/OUR_JOURNALS/ELTJ/KEYCONCEPT
S.HTML
HALLIDAY, M.A.K., MCINTOSH, A., STREVENS, P. (1964). THE LINGUISTIC
SCIENCES AND LANGUAGE TEACHING. BLOOMINGTON, IND.: INDIANA
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LANGUAGE TEACHING. OXFORD:OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
RELATIVE
SEE PRONOUN
REVIEW CIRCLES (N.)

AN ACTIVITY TYPE IN WHICH THE CLASS STANDS IN TWO CONCENTRIC CIRCLES
OF EQUAL NUMBERS OF LEARNERS. THE INNER CIRCLE FACE OUTWARDS AND
THE OUTER CIRCLE FACE INWARDS SO THAT EACH LEARNER IS FACING ONE OF
THEIR COLLEAGUES. THE TEACHER OR TEACHER TRAINER REMAINS OUTSIDE
THE CIRCLES AND GIVES THE CLASS A TOPIC OR WORD TO DISCUSS OR DEFINE
WITH THEIR PARTNER. AT A SIGNAL THE INNER CIRCLE MEMBERS MOVE ONE
PLACE TO THE RIGHT SO THAT EVERYBODY HAS A NEW PARTNER. THE TEACHER
DECIDES IF THEY WILL DISCUSS OR DEFINE THE SAME TOPIC OR WORD, OR A
NEW ONE.
TIM FREQUENTLY GETS HIS CLASSES TO REVISE THE VOCABULARY FROM
THE LAST LESSON BY MEANS OF A 10-MINUTE REVIEW CIRCLES ACTIVITY.
RHYTHM
THE REGULAR BEAT AT WHICH A LANGUAGE IS SPOKEN, AND WHICH IN
ENGLISH IS ACHIEVED THROUGH THE USE OF STRESS AND WEAK OR NO
STRESS.
EXAMPLE
TRY SAYING THESE SENTENCES, FOLLOWING THE STRESS MARKS* GIVEN
(ˈ = PRIMARY STRESS; ˌ = SECONDARY STRESS)
THIS SHOULD HELP YOU FEEL THEIR RHYTHM:
|BREAKFAST
HE HAD |BREAKFAST
THE |NEWS |PAPER
HE |READ THE |NEWS |PAPER
|AFTER HE HAD |BREAKFAST HE |READ THE |NEWS |PAPER
FURTHER READING
PRONUNCIATION. CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
COUPER-KUHLEN, E. (1993). ENGLISH SPEECH RHYTHM:FORM AND FUNCTION
IN EVERYDAY VERBAL INTERACTION. AMSTERDAM: JOHN BENJAMINS
PUBLISHING.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/RHYTHM
ROLE PLAY
THIS IS AN ACTIVITY IN WHICH LEARNERS TAKE ON ROLES (CHARACTERS)
AND ACT THEM OUT IN A SITUATION. IT IS USED TO PRACTISE LANGUAGE,
OFTEN AS A FREE PRACTICE ACTIVITY. IT IS ALSO USED TO HELP STUDENTS
TO EXPLORE IDEAS AND ISSUES. A ROLE PLAY IS DIFFERENT FROM A
SIMULATION. IN A SIMULATION, LEARNERS ARE PUT IN A SITUATION IN
WHICH THERE IS SOME PROBLEM TO RESOLVE. THEY ARE NOT GIVEN
SPECIFIC ROLES.
IN ROLE PLAYS, LEARNERS ARE OFTEN GIVEN ROLE CARDS TO GUIDE WHAT
THEY NEED TO SAY, DO OR DISCUSS. AN EXAMPLE OF A ROLE PLAY WOULD
BE PUTTING STUDENTS INTO GROUPS OF FOUR WITH ONE OF THEM EACH AS
HEAD TEACHER, PARENT, LOCAL SHOPKEEPER OR STUDENT
REPRESENTATIVE, AND THEN TO HOLD A GROUP DISCUSSION IN THEIR
ROLES ON DESIGN PLANS FOR REBUILDING THE SCHOOL. ROLE PLAYS CAN
ALSO BE USED TO PROMPT WRITING, READING AND LISTENING, FOR
EXAMPLE, WHEN LEARNERS ARE GIVEN DIFFERENT ROLES IN WHICH TO
RECEIVE AND REACT TO INFORMATION FROM A TEXT.
EXAMPLE
"SOME OF MY STUDENTS REALLY ENJOY DOING ROLE PLAYS – THEY LIKE THE
FREEDOM THAT COMES WITH PRETENDING TO BE SOMEONE ELSE, BUT OTHERS
JUST GET SHY AND EMBARRASSED, SO I HAVE TO THINK CAREFULLY ABOUT
HOW OFTEN I DO ROLE PLAYS AND WHETHER THEY CAN BE DONE AS PAIR
WORK RATHER THAN IN FRONT OF LOTS OF OTHER STUDENTS."
FURTHER READING
CROOKALL, D. & OXFORD, R.L. (EDS.) (1990). SIMULATION, GAMING, AND
LANGUAGE LEARNING. NEW YORK: NEWBURY HOUSE.
LADOUSSE, G. P. (1987). ROLE PLAY. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MACMILLAN.
SKEHAN, P. (1998B). TASK BASED INSTRUCTION. IN GRAHE, W.
(ED.), ANNUAL REVIEW OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://ITESLJ.ORG/TECHNIQUES/TOMPKINS-ROLEPLAYING.HTML
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/ELT-GUIDE-2-
SIMULATIONS
RP
THIS STANDS FOR RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION. IT REFERS TO THE STANDARD
PRONUNCIATION OF BRITISH ENGLISH THAT SHOWS NO REGIONAL
FEATURES. RP IS SOMETIMES KNOWN AS BBC ENGLISH. ALTHOUGH RP IS
SUBJECT TO CHANGE AND IS SPOKEN BY A SMALL MINORITY OF BRITISH
PEOPLE, IT IS WIDELY USED IN RECORDING FOR ELT MATERIALS.
EXAMPLE
THERE IS NOT FULL AGREEMENT ON WHAT RP IS. SOME SAY IT IS
‘EDUCATED ENGLISH’, SOME THAT IT IS ‘UPPER CLASS ENGLISH’. IS THE
QUEEN’S ACCENT RP OR NOT, FOR EXAMPLE?
FURTHER READING
CRYSTAL, D. (2005). THE STORIES OF ENGLISH. LONDON: PENGUIN.
MCARTHUR, T. (2002). THE OXFORD GUIDE TO WORLD ENGLISH. OXFORD:
ROACH, P. (2004), "BRITISH ENGLISH: RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION", JOURNAL
OF THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ASSOCIATION 34/2.
TRUDGILL, PETER (1999). THE DIALECTS OF ENGLAND. OXFORD: BLACKWELL.
WHATEVER HAPPENED TO RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION? J.C.
WELLS: HTTP://WWW.PHON.UCL.AC.UK/HOME/WELLS/RPHAPPENED.HTM
ACADEMIC ENGLISH – PROFESSOR DAVID CRYSTAL ON STANDARD VS. NON-
STANDARD ENGLISH
HTTP://WWW.BBC.CO.UK/VOICES/YOURVOICE/FEATURE2_4.SHTML
RUNNING DICTATION
IN A RUNNING DICTATION THE TEACHER DIVIDES THE CLASS INTO GROUPS
OF E.G. 3-5 STUDENTS, THEN PLACES ON THE WALL COPIES OF A TEXT.
MEMBERS OF EACH GROUP THEN TAKE IT IN TURNS TO GO (RUN) TO THE
TEXT AND MEMORISE A PIECE OF IT, THEN RUN BACK TO THEIR GROUP AND
DICTATE IT TO THEM. GROUP MEMBERS MUST WRITE IT DOWN CORRECTLY.
THE ACTIVITY CONTINUES UNTIL ONE GROUP SHOUTS ‘STOP’ AFTER ALL
THE TEXT HAS BEEN DICTATED AND WRITTEN DOWN. THE WINNING GROUP
WILL HAVE WRITTEN DOWN THE TEXT MORE QUICKLY AND MORE
CORRECTLY THAN THE OTHERS. RUNNING DICTATION IS BELIEVED TO
ENCOURAGE SPEED READING, CLEAR ENUNCIATION, CAREFUL LISTENING
AND A FOCUS ON SPELLING AND ACCURACY IN WRITING.
EXAMPLE
YOU MAY NEED TO CONVINCE SOME LEARNERS OF THE VALUE OF RUNNING
DICTATION. SOME SEE IT AS JUST A GAME WITH NO OBVIOUS LEARNING
PURPOSE. OTHERS LOVE IT, OF COURSE!
FURTHER READING
DAVIS, P. & RINVOLUCRI, M. (1988). DICTATION: NEW METHODS, NEW
POSSIBILITIES. CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/RUNNING-DICTATION
OGY-QUESTIONS/METHODOLOGY-USING-DICTATION-IN-ENGLISH-LANGUAGE-
TEACHING/146383.ARTICLE
STOP
SCAFFOLDING
SCAFFOLDING REFERS TO TECHNIQUES THE TEACHER CAN USE TO SUPPORT
LEARNERS IN THEIR LEARNING OF NEW LANGUAGE OR SKILLS. THE
TECHNIQUES INCLUDE BREAKING TASKS DOWN INTO SMALL STEPS,
PROVIDING DEMONSTRATIONS, PROVIDING VISUALS TO SUPPORT TEXTS AND
TALK, PROVIDING LEARNERS WITH DICTIONARIES, GUIDING LEARNERS WITH
TEACHER TALK. THE TERM 'SCAFFOLDING' WAS PUT FORWARD BY BRUNER
AND COLLEAGUES (1976), WHO DEVELOPED THE IDEA AFTER READING
VYGOTSKY ("WHAT LEARNERS CAN DO TODAY WITH SUPPORT, THEY CAN DO
ALONE TOMORROW" (BENTLEY, 2010, P.69)). SCAFFOLDING IS ALSO USED TO
REFER TO THE SUPPORT SPEAKERS GIVE ONE ANOTHER TO KEEP THEIR
COMMUNICATION GOING E.G. MAKING EYE CONTACT, NODDING, ASKING
RELEVANT QUESTIONS.
EXAMPLE
"DRIVING INSTRUCTORS USUALLY GRADUALLY SCALE DOWN THE AMOUNT
OF SCAFFOLDING THEY GIVE LEARNER DRIVERS. AT FIRST THEY MAY USE A
SECOND STEERING WHEEL, TELL THEM WHEN AND HOW TO CHANGE GEAR ETC,
THEN BIT BY BIT THEY TELL THEM AND SHOW THEM LESS AND LESS TILL THEY
ARE ‘ON THEIR OWN’."
FURTHER READING
FOLEY, J. (1993). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT IN ELT: SCAFFOLDING ELT
JOURNAL 48/ 1. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
GIBBONS, P. (2008). CHALLENGING PEDAGOGIES: MORE THAN JUST GOOD
PRACTICE?’ IN NALDIC QUARTERLY
VOL. 6 NO.
2. HTTPS://WWW.NALDIC.ORG.UK/RESOURCES/NALDIC/PROFESSIONAL
%20DEVELOPMENT/DOCUMENTS/NQ6.2.3.PDF
MACMILLAN.
WOOD, D. BRUNER, J.S. & ROSS, G. (1976) THE ROLE OF TUTORING AND
PROBLEM SOLVING. JOURNAL OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHIATRY, 17/2,
PP. 89-100.
SCAFFOLDING CHILDREN’S
LEARNING: HTTPS://WWW.CAROLREAD.COM/DOWNLOAD/SCAFFOLDING-
CHILDRENS-LEARNING-THROUGH-STORY-AND-DRAMA-CATS-AUTUMN-2008/
SCHEMA THEORY
SCHEMA THEORY MAINTAINS THAT WE DEVELOP FRAMEWORKS IN OUR
HEADS FOR MAKING SENSE OF AND ORGANISING INFORMATION ABOUT
DIFFERENT CONCEPTS, TOPICS AND PHENOMENA IN THE WORLD, AND THAT
THESE FRAMEWORKS INFLUENCE HOW WE UNDERSTAND NEW INFORMATION.
IF WE CAN FIND A LINK BETWEEN OUR SCHEMATA AND NEW INFORMATION,
IT HELPS US TO PROCESS IT. FOR THIS REASON, MANY LESSONS INCLUDE A
WARMER ACTIVITY ON THE LESSON’S TOPIC THAT AIMS TO ACTIVATE AND
BRING TO MIND LEARNERS’ KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES TOWARDS, AND
EXPERIENCE OF THE TOPIC.
EXAMPLE
"WE HAD TO DO SOME COMPREHENSION WORK ON A TEXT ABOUT CHARLES
DARWIN. SO, I DID A WARMER ACTIVITY TO HELP ACTIVATE MY
LEARNERS’ SCHEMATA ABOUT HIM. BUT WHAT I FOUND WAS THAT NO ONE HAD
EVER HEARD OF HIM OR WHAT HE DID. THAT MADE THE COMPREHENSION
WORK MUCH MORE DIFFICULT AS THE STUDENTS COULDN’T REALLY RELATE
TO OR SEE THE RELEVANCE OF WHAT WE WERE READING."
FURTHER READING
CARRELL, P.L., DEVINE, J. AND ESKEY, D.E. (EDS) (1988) . INTERACTIVE
APPROACHES TO SECOND LANGUAGE READING. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
COOK, G. (1997). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: SCHEMAS. ELT JOURNAL
51/1. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
WIDDOWSON, H.G. (1983). LEARNING PURPOSE AND LANGUAGE USE. OXFORD:
HTTP://ITESLJ.ORG/ARTICLES/STOTT-SCHEMA.HTML
SCHEMA/SCHEMATA (N. SING/PL)

THE ORGANISATION OF EXPERIENCE AND/OR KNOWLEDGE INTO CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORKS IN THE MIND OR BRAIN. SCHEMATA ALLOW THE BRAIN TO
REFERENCE AND INTEGRATE NEW KNOWLEDGE OR SITUATIONS THROUGH
MAKING CONNECTIONS WITH WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN.
DIFFERENT READERS BRING DIFFERENT SCHEMATA TO A TEXT AND THESE
ARE ALSO OFTEN CULTURE-SPECIFIC.
SCHWA
THIS IS AN ENGLISH VOWEL SOUND, REPRESENTED IN THE PHONEMIC
SCRIPT AS /Ə/. IT IS THE MOST COMMON VOWEL IN SPOKEN ENGLISH AS
MANY OTHER VOWELS ARE SHORTENED TO SCHWA IN CONNECTED SPEECH
(SEE CONNECTED SPEECH). SCHWA PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN
MAINTAINING REGULAR RHYTHM IN SPOKEN ENGLISH.
EXAMPLE
DO YOU THINK THERE WOULD BE 5, 6 OR 7 SCHWA SOUNDS IN THIS
SENTENCE IF IT WAS SPOKEN?
WHAT DO YOU RECKON HAPPENED WHEN THEY ARRIVED AT THE STATION?
I THINK THE ANSWER COULD BE 5, 6 OR 7 DEPENDING ON HOW QUICKLY THE
SPEAKER SPOKE. THIS IS WHERE THE SCHWAS COULD OCCUR:
/WɒT DU JU REKƏN HÆPƏND WEN ΘEɪJƏRAɪVDÆT ΘƏ STEɪƩƏN/
/WɒDƷƏ REKƏN HÆPƏND WEN ΘEɪJƏRAɪVDÆT ΘƏ STEɪƩƏN/
/WɒT DU JU REKƏN HÆPƏND WEN ΘEɪJƏRAɪVDƏT ΘƏ STEɪƩƏN/
/WɒDƷƏ REKƏN HÆPƏND WEN ΘEɪJƏRAɪVDƏT ΘƏ STEɪƩƏN/
FURTHER READING
DALTON, C. AND SEIDLHOFER, B. (2004). PRONUNCIATION. OXFORD: OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LONGMAN.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/TEACHING-SCHWA
HTTP://WWW.PHOTRANSEDIT.COM/ONLINE/TEXT2PHONETICS.ASPX
SEGMENTAL AND SUPRASEGMENTAL

THESE TERMS REFER TO FEATURES OF PRONUNCIATION. THE SEGMENTAL
FEATURES ARE THE PHONEMES OR INDIVIDUAL SOUNDS WHEREAS THE
SUPER-SEGMENTAL ARE RHYTHM, STRESS AND INTONATION.
EXAMPLE
I HAVE A STUDENT WHOSE PRONUNCIATION OF INDIVIDUAL PHONEMES IS
REALLY QUITE GOOD, BUT HE HAS REAL PROBLEMS WITH STRESS, RHYTHM
AND INTONATION. I’D READ THAT LEARNERS USUALLY HAVE PROBLEMS
WITH SEGMENTALS AND NOT WITH SUPRASEGMENTALS, BUT HE’S THE
OTHER WAY ROUND AND I DON’T QUITE KNOW HOW TO HELP HIM.
FURTHER READING
BRAZIL, D., COUTHARD, M. AND JOHNS, C. (1980). DISCOURSE INTONATION
AND LANGUAGE TEACHING: HARLOW: LONGMAN.
PRONUNCIATION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LONGMAN.
HTTP://HANCOCKMCDONALD.COM/TALKS/PRONOUNCING-MEANING-RHYTHM-
AND-STRESS-GAMES
SELF-ASSESSMENT
THIS IS WHEN THE LEARNER ASSESSES THEIR OWN PERFORMANCE, THE
STRATEGIES THEY HAVE EMPLOYED TO DO SOMETHING OR THEIR
ATTITUDES. SELF-ASSESSMENT IS OFTEN A PART OF FORMATIVE
ASSESSMENT AND IS USED TO ENABLE THE LEARNER TO BECOME MORE
AUTONOMOUS IN THEIR LEARNING. SELF-ASSESSMENT IS OFTEN GUIDED BY
CHECKLISTS TO HELP LEARNERS KNOW WHAT CRITERIA TO USE FOR THEIR
EVALUATION.
EXAMPLE
"STUDENTS DON’T ALWAYS LIKE DOING SELF-ASSESSMENT AT THE
BEGINNING., BUT IN MY EXPERIENCE THEY GET USED TO IT BIT BY BIT AND
COME TO SEE THE VALUE OF IT."
FURTHER READING
HARRIS, M. (1997). SELF-ASSESSMENT OF LANGUAGE LEARNING IN FORMAL
SETTINGS. ELT JOURNAL 51/1. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
SCHARLE, Á., AND A. SZABÓ. 2000. LEARNER AUTONOMY. CAMBRIDGE:
TUDOR, I. 1996. LEARNER-CENTREDNESS AS LANGUAGE EDUCATION.
BRITISH COUNCIL. PEER AND SELF
ASSESSMENT HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/PEER-SELF-
ASSESSMENT
SEMANTIC FIELD
A SEMANTIC FIELD, ALSO CALLED A LEXICAL FIELD, IS A SET OF WORDS
ALL RELATED TO THE SAME SUBJECT OR TOPIC AREA. THESE WORDS NEED
NOT NECESSARILY ALL BE THE SAME PART OF SPEECH.
EXAMPLE
WE READ A TEXT IN CLASS THE OTHER DAY ABOUT FOOD BANKS. AFTER
WE’D DONE COMPREHENSION WORK ON THE TEXT I ASKED THE STUDENTS
TO FIND IN THE TEXT ALL THE WORDS RELATED TO THE SEMANTIC FIELD OF
MATERIALS. THEY FOUND: TIN, PAPER, POLYTHENE, WRAPPED, WASTE,
CARDBOARD, PLASTIC, TRAY, LIGHT, WATER-PROOF, UNWRAP, A KILO, RUN
OUT, USE UP, A LOAD OF….THEY FOUND LOTS OF THEM.
FURTHER READING
LEWIS, M. (1993). THE LEXICAL APPROACH. HOVE: LANGUAGE TEACHING
PUBLICATIONS.
MCCARTHY, M. (1990). VOCABULARY. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
SENTENCE
A SENTENCE IS A GROUP OF WORDS WHICH IN ENGLISH CONTAINS AT LEAST
A SUBJECT AND A VERB AND WHICH IS INDEPENDENT AS IT DOES NOT NEED
COMPLETION TO MAKE SENSE. A SENTENCE CONTAINS A MAIN CLAUSE AND
POSSIBLY SUBORDINATE CLAUSES, TOO. IN WRITING, SENTENCES START
WITH A CAPITAL LETTER AND END WITH A FULL STOP.
EXAMPLE
THESE PHRASES DON’T MAKE SENSE BY THEMSELVES SO THEY’RE NOT
SENTENCES: IN THE PARK, ARRIVING LATE, WHILE THEY WERE WAITING,
WHOSE GLASSES ARE BLACK, SHE PUT HER…
THESE ARE SENTENCES: THEY PLAYED IN THE PARK. TTHE BELL RANG WHILE
THEY WERE WAITING. THE WOMAN WHOSE GLASSES ARE BLACK NEVER SPEAKS.
SHE PUT HER HAND UP.
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTPS://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/EN/ENGLISH-GRAMMAR/CLAU
SE-PHRASE-AND-SENTENCE/SENTENCE-STRUCTURE
SENTENCE STEM LECTURE OR READING (N.)

A WAY OF ENCOURAGING PARTICIPANTS TO LISTEN OR READ CAREFULLY AND
OF CHECKING THEIR RETENTION OF INPUT. IN THIS TECHNIQUE
PARTICIPANTS ARE REQUIRED TO COMPLETE SENTENCE BEGINNINGS (STEMS)
WITH SELECTED PARTS OF THE INPUT CONTENTS.
MARIELLA WAS A SKILLED LECTURER WHO OFTEN GAVE HER STUDENTS A
SENTENCE STEM LECTURE TO ENSURE THEY STAYED AWAKE THROUGHOUT
THE HOUR.
SENTENCE STEMS
A SENTENCE STEM IS A TERM USED IN THE DESIGN OF TESTS OR
CLASSROOM PRACTICE MATERIALS TO INDICATE THE FIRST PART OF A
SENTENCE WHICH STUDENTS ARE THEN GIVEN TO COMPLETE. THE STEM
SCAFFOLDS THE STUDENT’S IDEAS AND LANGUAGE PRODUCTION IN
WRITING OR SPEAKING.
ANOTHER USE OF THE TERM IS TO DESCRIBE CHUNKS THAT ACT AS
DISCOURSE MARKERS TO INTRODUCE WHAT WILL BE SAID NEXT. SOME
EXAMPLES ARE ‘I WOULD JUST LIKE TO SAY…..’, ‘WHAT I’D LIKE TO
DISCUSS NOW IS ……..’, ‘IN THIS PARAGRAPH I WILL……’. THE STEMS NEED
COMPLETING TO MAKE SENTENCES.
SENTENCE STEMS FORM THE BASIS OF LANGUAGE FRAMES IN CLIL, WHERE
THEY ARE SOMETIMES CALLED SENTENCE STARTERS.
EXAMPLE
WHEN I’M TEACHING ESSAY WRITING TO MY INTERMEDIATE OR ADVANCED
CLASSES I OFTEN GIVE THEM SENTENCE STEMS TO HELP THEM STRUCTURE
THEIR WRITING AND ADOPT THE RIGHT STYLE. I USUALLY INCLUDE CHUNKS
LIKE: IN THIS ESSAY I WILL DISCUSS, MOVING ON TO MY NEXT POINT…., TO
SUM UP, I WOULD LIKE TO CONCLUDE BY …….
FURTHER READING
LEWIS, M. (1997) IMPLEMENTING THE LEXICAL APPROACH. STAMFORD:
CENGAGE.
HTTP://WWW.THETEACHERTOOLKIT.COM/INDEX.PHP/TOOL/SENTENCE-STEMS
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/CLIL/METHODOLOGY/ARTICLES/ARTICL
E-PLANNING-CLIL-LESSONS/500472.ARTICLE
SHORT-/LONG-TERM MEMORY
OUR MEMORY SYSTEM IS ABLE TO STORE MEMORIES FOR SHORTER OR
LONGER PERIODS. OUR SHORT-TERM MEMORY (ALSO CALLED WORKING
MEMORY) IS LIMITED IN CAPACITY AND ONLY RETAINS INFORMATION FOR A
SHORT PERIOD OF TIME, WHILE OUR LONG-TERM MEMORY IS MUCH LARGER
AND RETAINS INFORMATION FOR LONGER.
EXAMPLE
"I HAVE A WONDERFUL SHORT-TERM MEMORY FOR THINGS LIKE THE PRICES
OF ITEMS I BOUGHT YESTERDAY, WHAT MY FAMILY WERE WEARING YESTERDAY
AND HOW LONG IT TOOK ME TO DO THINGS, BUT MY LONG-TERM MEMORY IS
POOR – I HAVE FEW RECOLLECTIONS OF MY CHILDHOOD."
FURTHER READING
BILBOROUGH, N. (2011). MEMORY ACTIVITIES FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING.
GARDNER, H. (1993). MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES: THE THEORY IN
PRACTICE. NEW YORK: BASIC BOOKS.
STEVICK, E. (1976). MEMORY, MEANING AND METHOD. NEW YORK, NY:
NEWBURY HOUSE PUBLISHERS.
SIG
THIS ACRONYM STANDS FOR SPECIAL INTEREST GROUP. THESE GROUPS,
OFTEN SET UP BY PARTICIPANTS, ARE FORMAL OR INFORMAL AND
INTERACT TO FOCUS ON A MUTUAL INTEREST. THERE ARE MANY SIG
GROUPS FOR TEACHERS OF EFL. THEY ALLOW TEACHERS TO PURSUE THEIR
INTERESTS AND ENGAGE IN CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT.
EXAMPLE
IATEFL (SEE IATEFL) HAS A LIST OF SIGS
HERE: HTTPS://WWW.IATEFL.ORG/SPECIAL-INTEREST-GROUPS/SIG-LIST

FURTHER READING
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/RESEARCH-SPECIAL-INTEREST-
GROUP
HTTP://JALT.ORG/TED/
HTTP://WWW.IATEFL.ORG/SPECIAL-INTEREST-GROUPS/SIG-LIST
HTTP://WWW.IEERA.ORG/SIGS.HTM
HTTP://WWW.TESOL.ORG/CONNECT/INTEREST-SECTIONS
HTTP://WWW.KOREATESOL.ORG/SIGS
HTTP://WWW.BRAZTESOL.ORG.BR/SITE/VIEW.ASP?P=4
SIMULATION
SEE ROLE PLAY
SKEWED INPUT
THIS IS A CHARACTERISTIC OF INPUT LANGUAGE TO WHICH LEARNERS ARE
EXPOSED. SKEWED INPUT REFERS TO PARTICULAR LANGUAGE FEATURES
OCCURRING REGULARLY OR UNUSUALLY OFTEN IN THE INPUT RATHER THAN
THE INPUT BEING VARIED IN THE LANGUAGE FEATURES IT CONTAINS.
RESEARCH IS TRYING TO ESTABLISH WHETHER SKEWED OR MORE BALANCED
INPUT IS MORE BENEFICIAL TO LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.
EXAMPLE
IN MATERIALS FOLLOWING THE STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO LANGUAGE
TEACHING, YOU SEE INAUTHENTIC TEXTS IN WHICH MANY EXAMPLES OF A
PARTICULAR STRUCTURE HAVE BEEN DELIBERATELY INCLUDED SO AS TO
PROVIDE STUDENTS WITH MULTIPLE EXPOSURE TO THAT STRUCTURE. THIS
KIND OF REPETITION OF A STRUCTURE CAN OCCUR IN AUTHENTIC TEXTS
BUT IS LESS COMMON. SOME RESEARCHERS ARE TRYING TO FIND OUT
WHETHER MULTIPLE EXPOSURE TO THE SAME STRUCTURE, I.E. SKEWED
INPUT, HELPS LEARNERS TO ACQUIRE LANGUAGE.
FURTHER READING
DEKEYSER, R. (2003). IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT LEARNING. IN J. AND
DOUGHTY & M. LONG (EDS.),
HANDBOOK OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. OXFORD, MA: BLACKWELL.
GOLDBERG 2006 CONSTRUCTIONS AT WORK: THE NATURE OF
GENERALISATION IN LANGUAGE. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
ROBINSON, P. AND ELLIS, N. (2008). HANDBOOK OF COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS
AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
SKILLS
SKILLS ARE THE WAY IN WHICH LANGUAGE IS USED. THERE ARE FOUR
LANGUAGE SKILLS: READING, LISTENING, WRITING AND SPEAKING, THE
FIRST TWO OF THESE BEING KNOWN AS RECEPTIVE SKILLS AND THE LATTER
TWO AS PRODUCTIVE SKILLS. TO USE THESE SKILLS WE EMPLOY A NUMBER
OF MICROSKILLS. THESE ARE SOMETIMES CALLED SUBSKILLS OR
STRATEGIES. THEY INCLUDE FOR EXAMPLE, READING FOR GIST, SPEAKING
INTELLIGIBLY, WRITING COHERENTLY, LISTENING FOR SPECIFIC
INFORMATION.
EXAMPLE
SOME PEOPLE ARGUE THESE DAYS THAT WE DON’T NEED TO TEACH
LEARNERS THE SUBSKILLS OF LANGUAGE SKILLS AS THEY ALREADY USE
THEM IN THEIR OWN LANGUAGE AND CAN JUST TRANSFER THEM ACROSS.
I’M NOT SURE HOW TRUE THIS IS.
FURTHER READING
JOHNSON, K. (2002). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: LANGUAGE AS SKILL. ELT
JOURNAL 56/2.
JUAN, E.U. AND FLOR, A.M. (2006). CURRENT TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT
AND TEACHING OF THE FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS. BERLIN: WALTER DE
GRUYTER.
TEACHING.HARLOW: PEARSON.
SCRIVENER, J. (2005). LEARNING TEACHING, 2ND EDITION. OXFORD:
MACMILLAN.
THORNBURY, S. AND WATKINS, P. (2007). THE CELTA COURSE. CAMBRIDGE:
SLIP
SEE ERROR/MISTAKE/SLIP
SLOT AND FILLER

THIS TERM REFERS TO A DESCRIPTION OF HOW ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE
CAN BE ORGANISED AND USED TO SUBSTITUTE FOR ONE ANOTHER. THESE
ELEMENTS MAY BE GRAMMATICAL, FUNCTIONAL OR LEXICAL.
THE TERM IS ALSO USED TO REFER TO A TECHNIQUE FOR LAYING-OUT
LANGUAGE ON A PAGE TO PROMPT EXERCISES OR AID GUIDED WRITING OR
SPEAKING.
EXAMPLE
THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF A SLOT AND FILLER TABLE FOR USE IN THE
CLASSROOM.
THERE ARE
THREE
KINDS
TYPES
FORMS
CLASSES
CATEGORIES
OF
…………….
………..
FALL
INTO
THREE
KINDS
TYPES
CLASSES
CATEGORIES
CAN BE
DIVIDED
CLASSIFIED
(LANGUAGE FOR THINKING, JOHN CLEGG)
FURTHER READING
KRASHEN, S., & TERRELL, T. (1983). THE NATURAL APPROACH. OXFORD:
PERGAMON.
LEWIS, M. (1996). THE LEXICAL APPROACH. HOVE: LANGUAGE TEACHING
PUBLICATIONS.
LEWIS, M. (1997). IMPLEMENTING THE LEXICAL APPROACH. BOSTON, MASS.:
THOMSON HEINLE.
THORNBURY, S. (1997). REFORMULATION AND RECONSTRUCTION: TASKS
THAT PROMOTE ‘NOTICING’. ELT JOURNAL 51/4.
WILLIS, J. AND WILLIS, D. (1996). CHALLENGE AND CHANGE IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING. OXFORD:MACMILLAN HEINEMANN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/LEXICAL-APPROACH-1-
WHAT-DOES-LEXICAL-APPROACH-LOOK
COOK, V.J. (1989). THE RELEVANCE OF GRAMMAR IN THE APPLIED
LINGUISTICS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING. TRINITY COLLEGE DUBLIN
OCCASIONAL PAPERS, 22
HTTP://HOMEPAGE.NTLWORLD.COM/VIVIAN.C/WRITINGS/PAPERS/TCD89.HTM
STEM
THE STEM OF A WORD IS THE PART THAT NEVER CHANGES AND TO WHICH
ANY INFLECTIONS OR AFFIXES ARE ADDED. A WORD STEM MAY OR MAY NOT
HAVE THE SAME FORM AS A WORD’S LEMMA. (SEE LEMMA). A LEMMA IS THE
CITATION FORM OF A WORD SO IT ALWAYS LOOKS LIKE A WORD, WHEREAS
A STEM IS THE PART OF THE WORD THAT IS ADDED TO. FOR
EXAMPLE, TAKE IS A LEMMA, BUT TAK- IS THE STEM FOR THIS WORD, BUT
FOR THE WORD RUN BOTH THE LEMMA AND THE STEM ARE RUN.
EXAMPLE
TO HAVE AN IDEA OF WHAT A WORD’S STEM IS CAN BE USEFUL FOR
PRODUCING CORRECT SPELLING. YOU ADD –ING TO TAK, FOR EXAMPLE, NOT
TO TAKE TO MAKE THE –ING FORM OF TAKE.
FURTHER READING
CARSTAIRS MCCARTHY, A. (2002). AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH
MORPHOLOGY: WORDS AND THEIR STRUCTURES. EDINBURGH: EDINBURGH
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MATTHEWS, P. (1991). MORPHOLOGY 2ND EDITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://BLOG.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/2013/05/31/THREE-MYTHS-ABOUT-
ENGLISH-SPELLING/
HTTP://WWW.FB10.UNI-BREMEN.DE/HOMEPAGES/HACKMACK/KIEL/MORPH/WE
B4.PDF
YOU TUBE
VIDEO: HTTP://ENGLISHAGENDA.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/SEMINARS/SPELLING-
MYTHS-AND-ENCHANTMENTS
STRONG/STRESSED AND WEAK/UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES

A SYLLABLE IS A UNIT OF SPEECH WHICH IN ENGLISH CONSISTS OF A
VOWEL SOUND OR OF A VOWEL SOUND AND ONE OR MORE CONSONANTS. A
SYLLABLE CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS: ONSET, NUCLEUS AND
CODA/FINAL. WORD STRESS OPERATES ON THE DIFFERENT SYLLABLES IN A
WORD. IN TERMS OF PRONUNCIATION, SYLLABLES CAN BE STRESSED,
WEAKLY STRESSED OR UNSTRESSED. A STRESSED SYLLABLE CARRIES THE
MAIN OR SECONDARY STRESS IN A WORD AND IS PRONOUNCED WITH
GREATER LOUDNESS AND LENGTH AND HIGHER PITCH. A WEAKLY STRESSED
SYLLABLE HAS LITTLE SOUND PROMINENCE AND AN UNSTRESSED SYLLABLE
RECEIVES NO PROMINENCE. THE AMOUNT OF STRESS GIVEN TO A WORD AND
THE SYLLABLES WITHIN IT DEPENDS ON HOW IMPORTANT IT IS IN
CONVEYING ESSENTIAL INFORMATION.
EXAMPLE
HERE ARE SOME WORDS SHOWING TYPICAL ENGLISH SYLLABLE PATTERNS:
A (INDEFINITE ARTICLE) – A SYLLABLE CONSISTING JUST OF A VOWEL
SOUND
AM – A SYLLABLE CONSISTING OF A VOWEL + A CONSONANT SOUND
JAM – A SYLLABLE CONSISTING OF CONSONANT + VOWEL + CONSONANT
SOUNDS
TRAM – A SYLLABLE CONSISTING OF CONSONANT + CONSONANT + VOWEL +
CONSONANT SOUNDS
AND HERE ARE SOME WORDS SHOWING DIFFERENT DEGREES OF STRESS ON
DIFFERENT SYLLABLES:
|ON|LY – MAIN STRESS ON ‘ON’ AND WEAK STRESS ON ‘LY’
|PHONE – ONE MAIN STRESS
|STATION – MAIN STRESS ON ‘STA’ WITH WEAK OR NO STRESS ON ‘TION’
|UN|NEC|ES|SARI|LY – MAIN STRESS ON 'SAR', WEAK STRESS ON 'UN', 'NEC',
'ESS', 'LY'; WEAK OR NO STRESS ON 'RI'
FURTHER READING
STIRLING, J. (2011). TEACHING SPELLING TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS.
LULU.COM
HTTPS://ELT.OUP.COM/ELT/STUDENTS/OLG/PDF/OLG_STRESS.PDF?
CC=US&SELLANGUAGE=EN
HTTP://WWW.ELGWEB.NET/SPELLING_ARTICLE.HTML
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/WORD-STRESS
SUBJECTIVE
THIS TERM IS USED IN ELT TO REFER TO TYPES OF ASSESSMENT IN WHICH
THE ASSESSOR NEEDS TO USE THEIR JUDGEMENT AS TO HOW CORRECT AN
ANSWER IS, BECAUSE THE ANSWER IS OPEN-ENDED AND CAN BE EVALUATED
ACCORDING TO VARIOUS DIFFERENT CRITERIA. SPEAKING TESTS AND
ESSAYS ARE EXAMPLES OF SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT FORMATS. TWO PEOPLE
LISTENING TO THE SAME STUDENT SPEAKING MIGHT GRADE HIM/HER
DIFFERENTLY BECAUSE THEY ARE LISTENING FOR DIFFERENT THINGS OR
BECAUSE THEY GIVE IMPORTANCE TO DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF SPEAKING.
EXAMPLE
"I WAS WORRIED ABOUT DOING AN INTERVIEW AS PART OF MY TEST BECAUSE I
DIDN’T LIKE MY GRADE DEPENDING ON THE EXAMINER’S JUDGMENT. BUT
THEN THEY EXPLAINED TO ME THAT THE EXAMINER HAD TO WORK WITH
SPECIFIC DEFINED CRITERIA WHEN GRADING, AND THAT ANOTHER EXAMINER
WOULD BE PRESENT TO GRADE AS WELL, SO I REALISED MY GRADE WOULDN’T
BE SUBJECTIVE."
FURTHER READING
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
SEE CLAUSE
SUBSKILLS
SEE SKILLS
SUBSTITUTION
THIS TERM REFERS TO A GRAMMATICAL PROCESS THROUGH WHICH LEXICAL
ITEMS OR GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES ARE REPLACED IN TEXTS BY OTHER
LEXIS OR STRUCTURES IN ORDER TO INCREASE THE COHESION OF THE TEXT,
OR AVOID REPETITION.
EXAMPLE
THE WORDS IN BOLD IN THESE SENTENCES ARE ALL EXAMPLES OF
SUBSTITUTION:
BEN SAW KATE LAST NIGHT. SHE WAS ON THE SAME TRAIN AS HE WAS.
(LEXICAL SUBSTITUTION)
SOME SAY THAT THE EARTH WILL BE DESTROYED BY GLOBAL WARMING. I
FIND THIS SO DIFFICULT TO TAKE ON BOARD. (GRAMMATICAL
SUBSTITUTION).
JAMES LOST HIS JOB AND SO DID I. (GRAMMATICAL SUBSTITUTION).
THE MINISTER’S PRESS SECRETARY ALWAYS WORRIES ABOUT REPORTERS
BUT IT SEEMS THE MINISTER RARELY DOES. (GRAMMATICAL
SUBSTITUTION).
FURTHER READING
ALBERY, D. (2012). THE TKT COURSE: KAL MODULE. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THORNBURY, S. (2005). BEYOND THE SENTENCE – INTRODUCING DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS. OXFORD: MACMILLAN 2005.
(2006). AN A-Z OF ELT. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/COHESION
SUBSTITUTION DRILL
A SUBSTITUTION DRILL IS ONE IN WHICH STUDENTS REPLACE ONE WORD IN
A SENTENCE BY ANOTHER WORD/ OTHER WORDS OF THE SAME PART OF
SPEECH. THE SUBSTITUTE WORD IS GIVEN TO THE STUDENTS AS A PROMPT
BY THE TEACHER. SUBSTITUTION DRILLS FORMED AN IMPORTANT PART OF
THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD. THEY PROVIDE CONTROLLED PRACTICE AND
IT WAS THOUGHT THEY GAVE LEARNERS THE OPPORTUNITY TO LEARN NEW
LANGUAGE BY REPETITION.
EXAMPLE
HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A SUBSTITUTION DRILL:
TEACHER: CAN YOU REPEAT AFTER ME ‘THE GIRL IS WALKING’.
STUDENTS: THE GIRL IS WALKING.
TEACHER: SINGING
STUDENTS: THE GIRL IS SINGING
TEACHER: DOING HER HOMEWORK
STUDENTS: THE GIRL IS DOING HER HOMEWORK
ETC
FURTHER READING
BAKER, J. AND WESTRUP, H. (2003). ESSENTIAL SPEAKING SKILLS. LONDON:
BLOOMSBURY PUBLISHING.
MACMILLAN.
MODULES 1, 2 AND 3.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/SUBSTITUT
ION-DRILL
HTTP://WWW.DEVELOPINGTEACHERS.COM/TIPS/DRILLS.HTM
SUFFIX
SEE AFFIXATION
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
THE ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING THAT TAKES PLACE AT THE END OF A
COURSE OF LEARNING TO SEE HOW MUCH OF THE SYLLABUS COVERED EACH
LEARNER HAS LEARNT.
EXAMPLE
"IT’S QUITE DIFFICULT TO DESIGN SUMMATIVE TESTS – THEY’RE MEANT TO
REFLECT WHAT YOU HAVE TAUGHT FROM THE SYLLABUS, BUT SOME THINGS
ARE REALLY QUITE DIFFICULT TO TEST, SO THE TEST DOESN’T ALWAYS
REFLECT THE SYLLABUS WELL ENOUGH."
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
MONITORING LEARNER PROGRESS THROUGH FORMATIVE
AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT:
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT (N.)

TEACHER ASSESSMENT THAT IS CARRIED OUT AT THE END OF, OR AFTER, A
TRAINING COURSE. ITS PURPOSE IS TO SEE HOW MUCH THE TEACHERS HAVE
LEARNED FROM THE COURSE.
SUE DECIDED TO TEST THE TEACHERS ON THEIR KNOWLEDGE OF LESSON
PLANNING BY GETTING THEM TO FILL IN THE FORMS THEY HAD STUDIED IN
THE COURSE FOR THEIR NEXT LESSONS, AND SHE WOULD GRADE THEM. SHE
THOUGHT THAT WOULD PROVIDE APPROPRIATE SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT.
SUMMATIVE EVALUATION (N.)

EVALUATION OF A TRAINING COURSE AT THE END OF, OR AFTER, THE COURSE.
ITS PURPOSE IS TO FIND OUT HOW EFFECTIVE AND/OR SUCCESSFUL THE
COURSE WAS.
THE MINISTRY CONDUCTED EXHAUSTIVE SUMMATIVE EVALUATION OF THE
NEW TEACHER TRAINING COURSE USING A VARIETY OF INSTRUMENTS, SOME
ON THE LAST COURSE DAY, AND OTHERS BY EMAIL TO THE PARTICIPANTS
THREE MONTHS AFTER THE COURSE.
SUPERORDINATE
A SUPERORDINATE IS A LEXICAL TERM. IT REFERS TO A WORD WHICH IS
THE NAME OF A CATEGORY, FOR EXAMPLE, FRUIT IS THE SUPERORDINATE
FOR ORANGES, APPLES, BANANAS, MELON, STRAWBERRIES ETC. THE THINGS
WHICH MAKE UP THE CATEGORY ARE CALLED HYPONYMS (SEE HYPONYM)
EXAMPLE
LOTS OF GAMES YOU PLAY IN CLASS ARE BASED ON SUPERORDINATES.
THERE IS ONE CALLED CATEGORIES FOR EXAMPLE, WHERE YOU GIVE
STUDENTS A GRID WITH A LIST OF SUPERORDINATES, THEN CALL OUT A
LETTER OF THE ALPHABET. THE FIRST PERSON TO COMPLETE THE GRID
WITH WORDS BEGINNING WITH THAT LETTER IS THE WINNER. HERE’S AN
EXAMPLE OF THE GRID:

FRUIT
FURNITURE
NATIONALITIES
COLOURS

YOU CAN SEE THE SUPERORDINATES AT THE TOP OF THE COLUMNS. MIND
MAPS ARE OFTEN BASED ON SUPERORDINATES TOO.
FURTHER READING
BERRY, R.(2010). TERMINOLOGY IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING: NATURE
AND USE. BERN: PETER LANG.
LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
SUPERVISOR (N.)
A NAME OFTEN FOUND IN THE LITERATURE OF LESSON OBSERVATION FOR A
PERSON WHO KNOWS HOW TO ANALYSE TEACHING AND LEARNING, AND WHO
WORKS IN A PROFESSIONAL WAY WITH A TEACHER, OBSERVING A LESSON OR
LESSONS, AND GIVING FEEDBACK TO THE TEACHER. THE GOAL OF THE
SUPERVISION PROCESS IS TO HELP THE TEACHER REFLECT FRUITFULLY ON
THEIR TEACHING IN ORDER TO MODIFY OR IMPROVE IT.
A TEACHING PRACTICE SUPERVISOR IS SUPPOSED TO BE ABLE TO OBSERVE
AND ASSESS STUDENT TEACHERS OBJECTIVELY.
SUPRASEGMENTAL
SEE SEGMENTAL AND SUPRASEGMENTAL
SYLLABLE
SEE STRONG/STRESSED AND WEAK/UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES
SYLLABUS
THIS TERM IS USED IN TWO DIFFERENT WAYS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHING. SOMETIMES IT REFERS JUST TO A LIST OF THE ITEMS/AREAS
WHICH STUDENTS ARE MEANT TO LEARN AND THE TEACHER TO TEACH OVER
A COURSE OF STUDY E.G. PARTICULAR LANGUAGE SKILLS OR SUBSKILLS,
PARTICULAR LEXIS OR TOPICS, PARTICULAR TASKS OR GRAMMATICAL
STRUCTURES. THIS LIST IS PRESENTED IN THE ORDER IN WHICH THE
ITEMS/AREAS ARE INTENDED TO BE TAUGHT AND IS USUALLY
INCORPORATED INTO AN OFFICIAL SCHOOL OR MINISTRY DOCUMENT AND
OFTEN FORMS THE BASIS OF COURSE BOOKS.
THE TERM IS SOMETIMES ALSO USED SYNONYMOUSLY WITH ‘CURRICULUM’
(SEE CURRICULUM), WHERE IT INCLUDES NOT JUST THE ITEMS/AREAS TO BE
LEARNT BUT ALSO LEARNING OUTCOMES, GENERAL EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES, ASSESSMENT AIMS AND METHODS AND TEACHING
APPROACHES.
EXAMPLE
THE MAP OF THE BOOK AT THE BEGINNING OF A COURSEBOOK CONTAINS
THE SYLLABUS FOR THAT COURSEBOOK.
FURTHER READING
CHRISTISON, M AND MURRAY, D. (2014). WHAT ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TEACHERS NEED TO KNOW,
VOLUME 3. NEW YORK AND LONDON: ROUTLEDGE.
KNAPP, K., SEIDLHOFER, B. H. G. WIDDOWSON, H.G.. (ED.S),
2009. HANDBOOK OF FOREIGN
LANGUAGE COMMUNICATION AND LEARNING. BERLIN: WALTER DE GRUYTER.
NUNAN, D. (1988). SYLLABUS DESIGN. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
CEFR
2001 HTTP://WWW.COE.INT/T/DG4/LINGUISTIC/SOURCE/FRAMEWORK_EN.PDF
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/SYLLABUS-WRITING
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/SYLLABUS
SYNONYM/ANTONYM
A SYNONYM IS A WORD WITH THE SAME OR VERY SIMILAR MEANING TO
ANOTHER WORD E.G. SIMPLE / EASY; QUICKLY / FAST. WORDS ARE RARELY
COMPLETE SYNONYMS OF ONE ANOTHER, DIFFERING IN STYLE OR
COLLOCATION E.G. TO SPEND TIME WITH V TO HANG OUT WITH. AN
ANTONYM IS A WORD WHICH IS THE OPPOSITE IN MEANING TO ANOTHER
WORD E.G. RUDE / CONSIDERATE; GET OFF / GET ON, BUT, ONCE AGAIN,
THERE ARE NOT MANY COMPLETE ANTONYMS BECAUSE OFTEN THEY
CANNOT BE USED AS ALTERNATIVES IN ALL CONTEXTS.
EXAMPLE
THERE ARE LOTS OF GAMES, PUZZLES AND EXERCISES IN ELT BASED
AROUND SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. LEARNING A WORD’S SYNONYMS OR
ANTONYMS DOES GIVE YOU THE IMPRESSION THAT YOU KNOW THAT WORD
BETTER, IN MY OPINION.
FURTHER READING
BURNS, A. AND RICHARDS, J. (2012). PEDAGOGY AND PRACTICE IN SECOND
HARLOW: PEARSON.
MACMILLAN.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/PRESENTING-
VOCABULARY
SYNTAX
THIS IS THE WAY IN WHICH PARTS OF SPEECH ARE ARRANGED IN FIXED
SEQUENCES IN SENTENCES IN ORDER TO MAKE GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES
AND MEANING. WHAT IS ACCEPTABLE SYNTAX VARIES FROM LANGUAGE TO
LANGUAGE. AN EXAMPLE OF SYNTAX IN ENGLISH IS THE INVERSION OF
SUBJECT AND VERB IN QUESTION FORMS, OR THE ORDER IN STATEMENTS,
THE POSITIONING OF ADVERBS OR ADJECTIVES.
EXAMPLE
"THE GRAMMAR OF SOME LANGUAGES RELIES HEAVILY ON MORPHOLOGY TO
SHOW MEANING, WHEREAS OTHER LANGUAGES MAKE GREATER USE
OF SYNTAX TO ACHIEVE THIS."
FURTHER READING
HOWATT, A. P. R. AND WIDDOWSON, H.G. ED.S. (2004). A HISTORY OF
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
SWAN, M. (2005). PRACTICAL ENGLISH USAGE. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
HTTP://TEACH-GRAMMAR.COM/WP-CONTENT/UPLOADS/2012/07/SWAN.PDF
TTOP
TARGET LANGUAGE
THIS TERM IS USED IN TWO DIFFERENT WAYS. ONE USE IS TO IDENTIFY THE
LANGUAGE, E.G. MANDARIN, ARABIC, SPANISH, ENGLISH ETC THAT A
LEARNER IS TRYING TO LEARN.
ANOTHER USE IS TO REFER TO THE PARTICULAR ITEM(S) OF LANGUAGE
THAT A TEACHER SELECTS FOR LEARNERS TO LEARN IN A PARTICULAR
LESSON AND WHICH THE ACTIVITIES AND MATERIALS IN A LESSON AIM TO
TEACH.
EXAMPLE
SOME TARGET LANGUAGE FOR A LESSON FOR ELEMENTARY LEARNERS
MIGHT BE:
THE IRREGULAR PAST TENSES WENT, TOOK, CAME, SOLD, BOUGHT, SAW,
SAID, FOUND IN AFFIRMATIVE, NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE FORMS
OR
EXPONENTS FOR SUGGESTING: WHY DON’T WE../ HOW ABOUT +GERUND/ WE
COULD…./ WHAT ABOUT + GERUND
OR
VOCABULARY FROM THE LEXICAL SET OF CLOTHES: JEANS, TOP, SHOES,
SANDALS, SWEAT-SHIRT, JACKET, SCARF, COAT.
FURTHER READING
BOLTON, K. AND KACHRU, B. (2006). WORLD ENGLISHES, CRITICAL CONCEPTS
IN LINGUISTICS, VOLUME 5.
MACMILLAN.
HTTP://WWW.WILLIS-ELT.CO.UK/TASKBASED.HTML
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/TARGET-
LANGUAGE
HTTPS://WWW.CAMBRIDGE.ORG/ELT/RESOURCES/APPLIEDLINGUISTICS/READI
NG/WORLDENGLISHES_SAMPLE_CH3.PDF
TASK
A TASK IS A CLASSROOM ACTIVITY THAT HAS A ‘REAL-WORLD’ OUTCOME
E.G. A PROBLEM IS SOLVED, GENUINELY WANTED INFORMATION IS
EXCHANGED. TASKS PROVIDE A PURPOSE FOR THE LEARNING AND USE OF
LANGUAGE OTHER THAN SIMPLY LEARNING LANGUAGE ITEMS FOR THEIR
OWN SAKE (RUBDY 1998). GENERALLY, A TASK IS COMPLETED BY USING
LANGUAGE FREELY TO COMMUNICATE IN SPEECH OR WRITING. SOME
BELIEVE THAT TASKS SHOULD NOT FOCUS ON PRACTISING ANY ONE
SPECIFIC PIECE OF LANGUAGE, BUT RATHER BE OPEN-ENDED.
IN THE ELT LITERATURE THE TERM TASK IS SOMETIMES USED TO REFER
TO ACTIVITY, SOMETIMES TO TASKS WITH A SPECIFIC LANGUAGE AIM.
THERE IS CONSIDERABLE DEBATE OVER WHAT A TASK IS, AS THERE IS OVER
TASK-BASED LEARNING, IN WHICH TASKS ARE THE MAIN DRIVERS FOR
LEARNING.
EXAMPLE
"HE ALWAYS LIKED TO GIVE HIS STUDENTS TASKS TO DO AS HE THOUGHT
THEY APPRECIATED THE SENSE OF ACHIEVEMENT TASKS PRODUCE AND THEIR
RELEVANCE TO GETTING THINGS DONE OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM."
FURTHER READING
B. KUMARAVADIVELU (1991). LANGUAGE-LEARNING TASKS: TEACHER
INTENTION AND LEARNER INTERPRETATION. ELT J 45 (2): 98-107.
NUNAN, D. (1989) DESIGNING TASKS FOR THE COMMUNICATIVE CLASSROOM.
RUBDY, R. (1998). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT. ELTJ
S.HTML
WILLIS, D. AND WILLIS, J.( 2007). DOING TASK-BASED TEACHING.
HTTP://WWW.WILLIS-ELT.CO.UK/TASKBASED.HTML
TASK-BASED LEARNING
A WAY OF LEARNING AND A METHOD OF SYLLABUS OR COURSE DESIGN
WHICH IS BASED ON LEARNERS COMPLETING TASKS. THERE IS MUCH
DEBATE OVER WHAT CONSTITUTES TASK-BASED LEARNING, AND
PARTICULARLY OVER WHAT ROLE A FOCUS ON LANGUAGE SHOULD PLAY, IF
ANY. SOME E.G. N.S. PRABHU, MAINTAIN THAT THERE SHOULD BE NO FOCUS
ON LANGUAGE IN TASK-BASED LEARNING I.E. THAT LANGUAGE SHOULD BE
LEARNT PURELY THROUGH EXPOSURE, ACQUISITION AND USE. OTHERS
PREFER TO SEE SOME LANGUAGE INPUT OR FOCUS ON FORM, EITHER AT THE
PRE-TASK STAGE OR POST-TASK OR BOTH.
EXAMPLE
"OUR CLASSES WERE TASK-BASED – WE DID ONE TASK FOLLOWED BY ANOTHER
E.G. COMPARING, PROBLEM-SOLVING, CLASSIFYING, SORTING, SURVEYING. I
ENJOYED THEM AS WE ALWAYS USED LANGUAGE TO DO SOMETHING REAL."
FURTHER READING
FOSTER, P. (1999). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT. ELTJ
S.HTML
HAWKES, M.L. (2012). USING TASK REPETITION TO DIRECT LEARNER
ATTENTION AND FOCUS ON FORM. ELT J 66 (3): 327-336.
LITTLEWOOD, W. (2004). THE TASK-BASED APPROACH: SOME QUESTIONS AND
SUGGESTIONS. ELTJ 58/4.OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
SAMUDA. V. AND BYGATE, M. (2008) TASKS IN SECOND LANGUAGE
LEARNING, BASINGSTOKE: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN.
SKEHAN, P. (1996). A FRAMEWORK FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TASK-
BASED INSTRUCTION. APPLIED LINGUISTICS, 17/1, 38-62.
WILLIS, J. (1996) A FRAMEWORK FOR TASK-BASED LEARNING. HARLOW:
LONGMAN.
TEACHER TALKING TIME (TTT)

THIS IS THE CLASS TIME THE TEACHER TAKES UP TALKING TO THE CLASS,
RATHER THAN ALLOWING THE STUDENTS TO TALK OR DO ACTIVITIES. FOR
MANY YEARS IT WAS RECOMMENDED TO TEACHERS THAT THEY REDUCE
THEIR TTT SO AS TO MAKE THEIR CLASSES MORE LEARNER-CENTRED.
RECENTLY, HOWEVER, IT HAS BEEN RECOGNISED THAT TEACHER TALK CAN
PROVIDE LEARNERS WITH A VALUABLE SOURCE OF EXPOSURE TO
LANGUAGE, LISTENING PRACTICE AND FEEDBACK.
EXAMPLE
I KNOW I USED TO TALK ‘AT’ MY STUDENTS TOO MUCH. I HAVE RECORDED
MYSELF TEACHING AND REALISE FROM DOING SO THAT I USED TO ALMOST
‘LECTURE’ MY STUDENTS. WHEN THEY BEGIN TO GET THAT ‘GLASSY-EYED
LOOK’ YOU KNOW THERE HAS BEEN TOO MUCH TTT. I’VE TRIED TO REDUCE
THOSE MOMENTS AND MY STUDENTS NOW PARTICIPATE MUCH MORE.
FURTHER READING
KUMARAVADIVELU, B. (1993). MAXIMIZING LEARNING POTENTIAL IN THE
COMMUNICATIVE CLASSROOM. ELT JOURNAL 47/1.
NUNAN, D. (1987). COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING: MAKING IT
WORK. ELTJOURNAL 41/2.
SCRIVENER, J. (2012). CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES. OXFORD:
MACMILLAN.
THORNBURY, S. (1996). TEACHERS RESEARCH TEACHER TALK. ELT
JOURNAL 50/4.
VAN LIER, L. (1996) INTERACTION IN THE LANGUAGE CURRICULUM:
AWARENESS, AUTONOMY AND AUTHENTICITY. HARLOW: LONGMAN
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/TEACHER-
TALKING-TIME
TENSE
TENSE IS THE GRAMMATICAL FORM USED IN A VERB TO SHOW THE TIME OF
OCCURRENCE OF AN EVENT OR ACTION.
EXAMPLE
THERE ARE ONLY TWO TENSES IN ENGLISH, PRESENT AND PAST. IN THEY
STUDY ENGLISH, STUDY IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE.
IN THEY STUDIED ENGLISH LAST YEAR, STUDIED IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE
PAST SIMPLE TENSE.
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
TEST TEACH TEST (TTT)

THIS IS A WAY OF TEACHING LANGUAGE WHICH STANDS ON ITS HEAD THE
CLASSIC APPROACH OF PRESENTING STUDENTS WITH NEW LANGUAGE THEN
ASKING THEM TO PRACTISE IT. IN TTT THE TEACHER FIRST OF ALL PUTS
STUDENTS IN A SITUATION WHERE THEY NEED TO USE THE TARGET
LANGUAGE SO HE/SHE CAN JUDGE WHETHER THEY KNOW IT OR NOT, TO
WHAT DEGREE THEY KNOW IT AND TO MAKE THE STUDENTS AWARE OF
THEIR NEED FOR IT. THE TEACHER THEN PRESENTS THE TARGET LANGUAGE
AND GIVES THE STUDENTS ACTIVITIES IN WHICH THEY ARE ENCOURAGED
TO USE IT. THE THINKING BEHIND TTT IS THAT STUDENTS SHOULDN’T BE
SPOON-FED WITH LANGUAGE THEY MAY NOT REALLY NEED OR WANT, AND
THAT CREATING A NEED LEADS TO GREATER MOTIVATION TO LEARN AND
BETTER LANGUAGE LEARNING.
EXAMPLE
I GAVE MY STUDENTS A ROLE PLAY THE OTHER DAY IN WHICH THEY TOOK
ON ROLES AS ENVIRONMENTAL INSPECTORS. THEY THEN WENT ROUND THE
SCHOOL AND SURVEYED ITS ‘GREEN PRACTICES’. AT THE END THEY GOT
INTO GROUPS TO DECIDE ON WHAT MEASURES NEEDED TO BE TAKEN AND IN
WHAT ORDER. I JUST LISTENED AND TOOK NOTES. AFTER, I ASKED MY
STUDENTS IF THERE WAS ANY LANGUAGE THEY THOUGHT THEY’D NEEDED
FOR THE ACTIVITY AND DIDN’T HAVE. WHAT THEY SAID AGREED WITH MY
NOTES. THEY WERE HAVING REAL PROBLEMS WITH THE LANGUAGE OF
SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS, AND ALSO WITH SOME MORE
TECHNICAL VOCABULARY. SO, NEXT LESSON, I PRESENTED THAT LANGUAGE
TO THEM, AND THEN ASKED THEM TO DO THEIR GROUP WORK ON ‘GREEN
PRACTICES’ AGAIN. A COLLEAGUE OF MINE HAD SUGGESTED I TRY THIS TTT
APPROACH. I WAS NERVOUS BEFOREHAND BUT IN FACT IT WORKED WELL AS
THE STUDENTS WERE KEEN TO LEARN THE NEW LANGUAGE.
FURTHER READING
LINDSAY, C. AND KNIGHT, P. (2006). LEARNING AND TEACHING ENGLISH: A
COURSE FOR TEACHERS. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/TEST-
TEACH-TEST
TEXT
A TEXT IS A COLLECTION OF SPOKEN OR WRITTEN SENTENCES OR
UTTERANCES THAT FORM A COHESIVE AND COHERENT WHOLE, WHICH HAVE
THE FEATURES OF A PARTICULAR GENRE AND PERFORM A SPECIFIC
COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION. EXAMPLES OF TEXT TYPES ARE NARRATIVES,
DESCRIPTIONS, PROCESSES.
EXAMPLE
"MUCH LANGUAGE TEACHING USED TO FOCUS ON HELPING LEARNERS
PRODUCE SENTENCES. NOWADAYS, THOUGH, THERE IS GREATER FOCUS ON
THE FEATURES OF TEXTS SUCH AS THEIR FUNCTIONS AND THE GRAMMAR
NEEDED TO EXPRESS THOSE FUNCTIONS. NARRATIVES FOR EXAMPLE OFTEN
FOLLOW CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER AND MAKE EXTENSIVE USE OF PAST
TENSES."
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
THESAURUS
A THESAURUS IS A REFERENCE BOOK OF WORDS ORGANISED ACCORDING TO
THEIR SIMILARITY OF MEANING OR BELONGING TO THE SAME LEXICAL SET.
THE PURPOSE OF A THESAURUS IS TO HELP US FIND THE WORD THAT BEST
EXPRESSES WHAT WE WANT TO SAY. A THESAURUS CAN PROVIDE A VERY
RICH RESOURCE FOR DRAWING A MIND MAP. THIS IS WHY THERE ARE
SEVERAL VISUAL THESAURUS COMPUTER PROGRAMMES.
EXAMPLE
CLICK HERE TO SEE AN EXAMPLE FROM A THESAURUS FOR THE WORD
‘MONEY’.
FURTHER READING
DAVIDSON, G. (2002). ROGET'S THESAURUS OF ENGLISH WORDS AND PHRASES.
LONDON: PENGUIN.
INFORMATION ABOUT ROGET'S THESAURUS ON WIKIPEDIA
HTTP://GRAPHWORDS.COM/
VISUAL MIND MAPS: HTTP://WWW.VISUWORDS.COM/
THRESHOLD LEVEL
THIS TERM IS USED WITH TWO PRINCIPAL MEANINGS IN ELT. THE FIRST IS
TO REFER TO THE WORK BY J.K. VAN EK AND JOHN TRIM ‘THE THRESHOLD
LEVEL’ WHICH WAS FIRST PUBLISHED BY THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE IN 1989.
THIS PUBLICATION WAS AMONGST THE FIRST TO SPECIFY PER LEARNING
LEVEL THE SITUATIONS IN WHICH LEARNERS NEED TO USE ENGLISH, AND
WHAT GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY AND FUNCTIONS THEY REQUIRE TO DO SO.
THE FOCUS OF THE THRESHOLD LEVEL WAS MAINLY ON SURVIVAL
LANGUAGE AND IT WAS VERY INFLUENTIAL IN SYLLABUS AND COURSE
BOOK DESIGN IN THE 1980S AND 1990S. THE THRESHOLD LEVEL WAS
CONSIDERED TO BE THE MINIMAL LEVEL AT WHICH LEARNERS ACHIEVED
FUNCTIONAL ABILITY IN THE LANGUAGE.
THE OTHER MEANING FOR THRESHOLD LEVEL IS THE MINIMAL LEVEL THAT
LEARNERS NEED TO BE AT IN ORDER TO DO SOMETHING E.G. AN IELTS BAND
5.5 IS OFTEN GIVEN AS THE THRESHOLD LEVEL FOR UNIVERSITY STUDY
THROUGH THE MEDIUM OF ENGLISH.
EXAMPLE
"SOME PEOPLE SAY THAT TO START LEARNING THROUGH CLIL LEARNERS MUST
HAVE REACHED THRESHOLD LEVEL IN THEIR OWN LANGUAGE FIRST."
FURTHER READING
BIALYSTOK, E. (2001. BILINGUALISM IN DEVELOPMENT: LANGUAGE, LITERACY
AND COGNITION. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
CUMMINS, J. (1984) BILINGUALISM AND SPECIAL EDUCATION. CLEVEDON:
MULTILINGUAL MATTERS.
CUMMINS, J. (2000) LANGUAGE, POWER AND PEGAGOGY. CLEVEDON:
MULTILINGUAL MATTERS.
RAMPTON, B. (1990) DISPLACING THE "NATIVE SPEAKER": EXPERTISE,
AFFILIATION AND INHERITANCE IN ELT JOURNAL 44/2.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.ENGLISHPROFILE.ORG/INDEX.PHP/RESOURCES/T-SERIES
TONES AND TONE GROUPS

A TONE GROUP IS A WORD OR GROUP OF WORDS BELONGING TOGETHER IN
SENSE AND ACROSS WHICH ONE TONE OPERATES. A TONE GROUP IS
SOMETIMES KNOWN AS A TONE UNIT OR AS AN INTONATION CONTOUR.
A TONE IS A MOVEMENT IN PITCH ACROSS A TONE GROUP AND WHICH
INDICATES MEANING. IN ENGLISH THERE ARE FOUR MAIN TONES: RISE,
FALL, FALL-RISE AND RISE-FALL. A TONE HAS DIFFERENT PARTS WHICH
OCCUR IN A FIXED SEQUENCE: HEAD →NUCLEUS →TAIL
EXAMPLE
CAN YOU SAY THESE TONE GROUPS FOLLOWING THE TONES GIVEN IN THE
INTONATION CONTOURS?

TOMORROW

LAST NIGHT

ONLY LAST NIGHT

JUST A FEW MINUTES AGO

FURTHER READING
BRAZIL, D., COUTHARD, M. AND JOHNS, C. (1980). DISCOURSE INTONATION
AND LANGUAGE TEACHING. HARLOW: LONGMAN.
DE LACY, P. (ED.) (2012). THE CAMBRIDGE HANDBOOK OF PHONOLOGY.
GUSSENHOVEN, C. (2004). THE PHONOLOGY OF TONE AND INTONATION.
CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. UNDERHILL, A. (2005) SOUND
FOUNDATIONS. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.
WELLS, J.C. (2006) ENGLISH INTONATION: AN INTRODUCTION. CAMBRIDGE:
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. ROACH, P. ENGLISH PHONETICS AND
PHONOLOGY.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/INTONATION
TOP DOWN/BOTTOM UP
THESE TERMS ARE USED TO REFER TO STRATEGIES WE USE WHEN LISTENING
AND READING IN ORDER TO GET MEANING FROM A TEXT. TOP DOWN SKILLS
INVOLVE USING OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD, SUCH AS TOPIC
KNOWLEDGE, FAMILIARITY WITH THE SPEAKER, FAMILIARITY WITH THE
GENRE, TO MAKE SENSE OF WHAT WE ARE HEARING OR READING. BOTTOM
UP SKILLS INVOLVE USING THE LANGUAGE IN THE TEXT, SUCH AS THE
MEANING OF WORDS OR THE GRAMMAR OF A SENTENCE, TO MAKE SENSE OF
WHAT WE ARE HEARING OR READING. GOOD READERS OR LISTENERS ARE
BELIEVED TO MAKE USE OF THE TWO STRATEGIES INTERACTIVELY.
EXAMPLE
WHEN WE READ A TEXT IN CLASS I ALWAYS DO A WARMER TO FIND OUT
WHAT THE LEARNERS KNOW ABOUT THE TOPIC AND GET THEM TO PREDICT
ITS CONTENT. IN THAT WAY THEY MAKE USE OF THEIR TOP DOWN
STRATEGIES. THEN I OFTEN DO READING FOR DETAIL AS WELL, AS THIS
KIND OF READING REALLY REQUIRES THEM TO READ THE LANGUAGE IN THE
TEXT TO SUCK OUT ITS MEANING. THIS GIVES THEM PRACTICE IN USING
THEIR BOTTOM UP STRATEGIES.
FURTHER READING
BROWN, S. (2006). TEACHING LISTENING. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
FIELD, J. (1999). KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: ‘BOTTOM UP’ AND ‘TOP
DOWN’. ELTJOURNAL 53/4.
HEDGE, TRICIA. (2003): TEACHING & LEARNING IN THE LANGUAGE
CLASSROOM. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
MCDONOUGH J. AND SHAW, C. (2003). MATERIALS AND METHODS IN ELT.
OXFORD: BLACKWELL.
MACMILLAN.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/LISTENING-TOP-DOWN-
BOTTOM
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/BOTTOM
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/TOP-
DOWN
TPR
TPR STANDS FOR TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE, AND IS A WAY OF TEACHING
LANGUAGE DEVELOPED BY JAMES ASHER. IT INVOLVES LEARNERS IN
RESPONDING PHYSICALLY TO INSTRUCTIONS SPOKEN OR STORIES TOLD BY
THE TEACHER. LEARNERS ARE NOT EXPECTED TO SPEAK UNTIL THEY FEEL
READY TO DO SO. TPR IS OFTEN USED FOR TEACHING YOUNGER CHILDREN.
EXAMPLE
LAST LESSON I TOLD MY CLASS THE STORY OF GOLDILOCKS AND THE THREE
BEARS. AS I TOLD IT THEY ACTED OUT WHAT THEY HEARD AS I WAS
TELLING IT. THEY LOVED IT, AND SO DID I!
FURTHER READING
ASHER, J. J., "WHAT IS TPR?" IN TPR-WORLD. HTTPS://WWW.TPR-
WORLD.COM/
LONDON: HODDER EDUCATION.
LARSEN-FREEMAN, DIANE (2000).TECHNIQUES AND PRINCIPLES IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING, 2ND EDITION. OXFORD: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
RICHARDS, J. AND RODGERS, T.S. (2001). APPROACHES AND METHODS IN
HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/TOTAL_PHYSICAL_RESPONSE
TRANSFORMATION DRILL
A TRANSFORMATION DRILL IS ONE IN WHICH THE TEACHER PROVIDES THE
STUDENTS WITH A BASE SENTENCE TO REPEAT, THEN GIVES THEM A
PROMPT TO INCORPORATE INTO THE SENTENCE. USING THE PROMPT
REQUIRES LEARNERS TO CHANGE THE GRAMMAR OF THE INITIAL SENTENCE.
TRANSFORMATION DRILLS WERE THOUGHT TO HELP STUDENTS LEARN NEW
STRUCTURES BY PROVIDING CONTROLLED PRACTICE OF A TARGET
STRUCTURE AND UNDERSTANDING OF THE LINGUISTIC CONTEXT IN WHICH
IT OPERATES.
EXAMPLE
HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A TRANSFORMATION DRILL:
TEACHER: REPEAT THIS SENTENCE AFTER ME: THEY BOUGHT AN APPLE
STUDENTS: THEY BOUGHT AN APPLE
TEACHER: EAT
STUDENTS: THEY ATE AN APPLE
TEACHER: SELL
STUDENTS: THEY SOLD AN APPLE
TEACHER: LOSE
STUDENTS: THEY LOST AN APPLE
ETC
FURTHER READING
BAKER, J. AND WESTRUP, H. (2003). ESSENTIAL SPEAKING SKILLS. LONDON:
BLOOMSBURY PUBLISHING.
MACMILLAN.
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/DRILLING-1
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/DRILLING-2
TRANSITIVE / INTRANSITIVE
THESE ARE GRAMMATICAL TERMS USED ABOUT VERBS TO INDICATE
WHETHER OR NOT THEY CAN TAKE AN OBJECT WHEN USED IN THE ACTIVE
VOICE.
TRANSITIVE VERBS CAN TAKE AN OBJECT, AND SOME CAN TAKE MORE THAN
ONE E.G. CALL, GIVE. THEY CAN ALSO BE USED IN THE PASSIVE.
AN INTRANSITIVE VERB CANNOT TAKE AN OBJECT, NOR CAN IT BE USED IN
THE PASSIVE.
IN ENGLISH SOME VERBS CAN BE USED BOTH TRANSITIVELY AND
INTRANSITIVELY E.G. TO ENTER, TO RUN, TO WIN.
EXAMPLE
IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE, THE TRANSITIVE VERBS ARE IN BOLD AND
THE INTRANSITIVE ONES ARE UNDERLINED. SHE GOT UP EARLY, PUT ON HER
SLIPPERS AND DRESSING GOWN, THEN WENT DOWNSTAIRS TO THE DINING
ROOM WHERE BREAKFAST HAD ALREADY BEEN PLACED ON THE TABLE.
FURTHER READING
HARLOW: PEARSON.
HTTP://WWW.BBC.CO.UK/WORLDSERVICE/LEARNINGENGLISH/GRAMMAR/LEA
RNIT/LEARNITV244.SHTML
HTTPS://LEARNENGLISH.BRITISHCOUNCIL.ORG/ENGLISH-GRAMMAR-
REFERENCE/CLAUSE-STRUCTURE-AND-VERB-PATTERNS
TURN
A TURN IS A TERM USED TO DESCRIBE EACH CONTRIBUTION A SPEAKER
MAKES TO A CONVERSATION OR OTHER SPOKEN GENRE. A TURN IS BOUNDED
BY THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF OTHER SPEAKERS I.E. A TURN BEGINS WHEN
ONE SPEAKER BEGINS TO TALK AND ENDS WHEN ANOTHER SPEAKER TAKES
OVER. IN TERMS OF GRAMMAR AND MEANING A TURN MAY OR MAY NOT BE
COMPLETE AND MAY CONSIST OF ONE OR MANY UTTERANCES
(SEE UTTERANCE). THE RULES FOR TURN TAKING CAN VARY BETWEEN
LANGUAGES AND CULTURES. STUDENTS MAY NEED TO BE MADE AWARE OF
THOSE THAT OPERATE IN THE LANGUAGE THEY ARE LEARNING. INTONATION
AND BODY LANGUAGE PLAY AN IMPORTANT PART IN MARKING TURNS.
EXAMPLE
SCIENTISTS HAVE DISCOVERED THAT SOME KINDS OF MONKEYS INCLUDE
TURNS IN THEIR COMMUNICATIONS, WAITING FOR ONE ANOTHER TO
RESPOND BEFORE COMMUNICATING AGAIN THEMSELVES.
FURTHER READING
BYGATE, M. (1987). SPEAKING. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HOUCK, N.R. AND TATSUKI, D.H. (EDS.) (2011). PRAGMATICS: TEACHING
NATURAL CONVERSATION. VIRGINIA: TESOL.
WONG, J. AND WARING, H. (2010). CONVERSATION ANALYSIS AND SECOND
LANGUAGE PEDAGOGY. NEW YORK: ROUTLEDGE.
HTTP://WWW.BBC.CO.UK/NEWS/SCIENCE-ENVIRONMENT-24566083
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/TURN-
TAKING
UTOP
USE / USAGE
THESE TERMS ARE USED IN LINGUISTICS IN CONTRAST TO ONE ANOTHER TO
DESCRIBE WAYS IN WHICH A PERSON KNOWS LANGUAGE. IN USAGE A
PERSON KNOWS ABOUT LANGUAGE OR ITEMS IN LANGUAGE ABSTRACTLY AS
A COMPONENT IN A LANGUAGE SYSTEM. IN USE, A PERSON KNOWS HOW TO
USE LANGUAGE FOR COMMUNICATION. THIS DISTINCTION WHICH FOCUSES
ON THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN KNOWING ABOUT LANGUAGE (USAGE) AND
KNOWING HOW TO USE LANGUAGE (USE) WAS CRITICAL IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE TEACHING, AWAY FROM GRAMMAR
TRANSLATION AND TOWARDS A COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH. HENRY
WIDDOWSON INTRODUCED AND DEVELOPED THIS DISTINCTION IN 1978.
EXAMPLE
SOME PEOPLE USED TO CRITICIZE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION, SAYING THAT
IT WAS TOO USAGE-ORIENTED. NOWADAYS SOME PEOPLE CRITICISE
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING SAYING IT IS TOO USE- ORIENTED.
FURTHER READING
WIDDOWSON, H.G. (1978). TEACHING LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION .
HOWATT, A. P. R. AND WIDDOWSON, H.G. (2004). A HISTORY OF ENGLISH
HTTPS://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/LANGUAG
E-USAGE
UTTERANCE
A WORD OR GROUP OF WORDS, NORMALLY IN SPEECH, THAT MAKE SENSE BY
THEMSELVES BUT DO NOT NECESSARILY CONTAIN THE GRAMMATICAL
REQUIREMENTS OF SENTENCES FOUND IN MORE FORMAL WRITTEN
LANGUAGE. THE LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND
APPLIED LINGUISTICS (2010) SAYS OF AN UTTERANCE: ‘A UNIT OF ANALYSIS
IN SPEECH WHICH HAS BEEN DEFINED IN VARIOUS WAYS BUT MOST
COMMONLY AS A SEQUENCE OF WORDS WITHIN A SINGLE PERSON’S TURN AT
TALK THAT FALLS UNDER A SINGLE INTONATION CONTOUR. UTTERANCES
MAY SOMETIMES CONSIST OF MORE THAN ONE SENTENCE, BUT MORE
COMMONLY CONSIST OF STRETCHES OF SPEECH SHORTER THAN
SENTENCES’. THE TERM UTTERANCE IS OFTEN USED IN CONTRAST
TO SENTENCE IN WRITTEN LANGUAGE.
EXAMPLE
"THIS LITTLE DIALOGUE CONTAINS TWO UTTERANCES:
A: HE DIDN’T REALLY UNDERSTAND WHAT WAS GOING ON.
B: RIGHT."
FURTHER READING
CARTER, R., MCCARTHY, M. (2006). CAMBRIDGE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH.
COADY, J.,HUCKIN, T. (ED.S) (1997). SECOND LANGUAGE VOCABULARY
ACQUISITION: A RATIONALE FOR PEDAGOGY. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
KISSINE, M (2013). FROM UTTERANCES TO SPEECH ACTS. CAMBRIDGE:
LEWIS, M. (2010). THE LEXICAL APPROACH. ANDOVER, HAMPSHIRE: CENGAGE
LEARNING.
PRODROMOU, L. (2008). ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA: A CORPUS - BASED
ANALYSIS. LONDON: CONTINUUM.
TEACHING AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS. HARLOW: PEARSON.
VTOP
VERB PHRASE
SEE PHRASE
VISUAL LITERACY
VISUAL LITERACY IS THE ABILITY TO INTERPRET AND MAKE SENSE OF
INFORMATION PRESENTED IN GRAPHIC OR PICTORIAL FORM E.G. THROUGH
DIAGRAMS, CHARTS, IMAGES. VISUAL LITERACY CAN ACT AS AN AIM IN A
LANGUAGE COURSE OR A MEANS THROUGH WHICH LANGUAGE IS LEARNT.
VISUAL LITERACY IS ALSO IMPORTANT IS CLIL WHERE VISUAL ORGANISERS
PLAY AN IMPORTANT PART IN SCAFFOLDING LEARNING.
EXAMPLE
IN A WORLD IN WHICH WE ARE SURROUNDED BY IMAGES, TEACHERS OFTEN
THINK IT IS IMPORTANT TO INCLUDE WORK ON VISUAL LITERACY IN THEIR
CLASSROOM TO HELP LEARNERS INTERPRET AND EVALUATE THESE IMAGES.
FURTHER READING
GOLSTEIN, B. (2008). WORKING WITH IMAGES. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/JAMIE-KEDDIE-VISUAL-
LITERACY-ELT
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/JAMIE-KEDDIE-VISUAL-
LITERACY-ELT-0
HTTP://WWW.THEGUARDIAN.COM/COMMENTISFREE/2012/DEC/04/HOMELESS-
MAN-NYPD-COP-BOOTS
HTTP://WWW.BENGOLDSTEIN.ES/?PORTFOLIO_ITEM=THE-POWER-OF-IMAGE-
DEVELOPING-A-VISUAL-LITERACY-IN-THE-LANGUAGE-CLASSROOM
VOCAL TRACT
THIS IS HOW THE LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF TEACHING AND APPLIED
LINGUISTICS DEFINES VOCAL TRACT: ‘THE AIR PASSAGES WHICH ARE ABOVE
THE VOCAL CHORDS AND WHICH ARE INVOLVED IN THE PRODUCTION OF
SPEECH SOUNDS. THE VOCAL TRACT CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THE NASAL
CAVITY…. AND THE ORAL CAVITY’ (LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF TEACHING
AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS, P.629).
EXAMPLE
IN THIS DIAGRAM WE CAN SEE THE VOCAL TRACT:

VOCAL CHORDS

FURTHER READING
LONGMAN.
RICHARDS, J. AND SCHMIDT, R. ( 2010). LONGMAN DICTIONARY OF TEACHING
GLOSSARY: HTTP://WWW.CAMBRIDGE.ORG/SERVLET/FILE/EPP_PED_GLOSSAR
Y.PDF?ITEM_ENT_ID=2491706&ITEM_VERSION=1&COLLSPEC_ENT_ID=7
VOICED, VOICELESS/UNVOICED
THESE TERMS REFER TO WHETHER OR NOT SOUNDS ARE PRODUCED BY
VIBRATING OUR VOCAL CORDS. VOICED SOUNDS IN ENGLISH ARE ALL THE
VOWELS AND SOME CONSONANTS E.G. /B/, /D/, /G/, /V/. UNVOICED, OR
VOICELESS SOUNDS ARE PRODUCED WITHOUT VIBRATION OF THE VOCAL
CORDS E.G. /F/, /K/, /T/.
EXAMPLE
TO HEAR AND FEEL THE EFFECT OF USING OR NOT USING THE VOICE WE
CAN SAY PAIRS OF CONSONANTS, THE ONLY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WHICH
IS USE OR NON-USE OF THE VOICE, I.E. WHETHER THEY ARE VOICED OR
VOICELESS. TRY SAYING THESE PAIRS AND FEEL WHAT IS HAPPENING TO
YOUR VOICE BY PLACING YOUR FINGERS ON YOUR THROAT TO FEEL THE
VIBRATION OR LACK OF IT.
/F/ /V/
/T/ /D/
/K/ /G/
/S/ /Z/
/Ʃ/ /Ʒ/
/TƩ/ /DƷ/

FURTHER READING
BAKER, A. (2006). SHIP AND SHEEP. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
N/FEATURES/VOICING/
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/ARTICLE/VOICED-UNVOICED-
CONSONANTS
VOWEL
ONE MEANING OF THIS TERM IS ITS USE IN PHONOLOGY TO REFER TO ONE
OF TWO TYPES OF SPEECH SOUND: VOWELS AND CONSONANTS
(SEE CONSONANT). UNLIKE CONSONANTS, VOWELS ARE PRODUCED WITHOUT
THE SPEECH ORGANS (SEE ARTICULATORS/ SPEECH ORGANS) BLOCKING THE
OUTGOING AIR. THERE ARE 20 VOWELS IN RP ENGLISH INCLUDING BOTH
SINGLE VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. IN THIS MEANING, VOWEL IS SOMETIMES
CALLED VOWEL SOUND.
ANOTHER MEANING IS THE WRITTEN SYMBOL USED TO REPRESENT A
VOWEL. IN ENGLISH THESE ARE: A, E, I, O, U, AND SOMETIMES Y.
EXAMPLE
I THINK IT IS VERY USEFUL TO USE THE PHONEMIC CHART TO TEACH
ENGLISH VOWEL SOUNDS BIT BY BIT. I THINK IT REALLY HELPS LEARNERS,
PARTICULARLY OLDER ONES, TO HEAR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
VOWEL SOUNDS AND GET A FEEL FOR WHERE AND HOW TO PRONOUNCE
THEM.
FURTHER READING
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
LONGMAN.
WTOP
WAIT TIME
THIS IS THE AMOUNT OF TIME TEACHERS GIVE STUDENTS TO ANSWER
QUESTIONS. RESEARCH INDICATES THAT LEAVING MORE TIME LEADS TO
MORE STUDENTS WANTING TO ANSWER, FULLER ANSWERS AND MORE
QUESTIONS FROM OTHER STUDENTS, TOO.
EXAMPLE
I DON’T THINK I GIVE MY STUDENTS ENOUGH WAIT TIME WHEN I ASK
QUESTIONS. I’M GOING TO RECORD MYSELF IN CLASS TO CHECK HOW MUCH
TIME I LEAVE ON AVERAGE, THEN LEAVE MORE TIME AND SEE WHAT
DIFFERENCE, IF ANY, IT MAKES TO THE STUDENTS’ ANSWERING.
FURTHER READING
MCDONOUGH, J. AND SHAW, C. (2003). MATERIALS AND METHODS IN ELT.
OXFORD: BLACKWELL.
NUNAN, D. 1991. LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY. HEMEL HEMPSTEAD:
PRENTICE HALL.
THORNBURY, S. (1996). TEACHERS RESEARCH TEACHER TALK. ELT
JOURNAL 50/4.
HTTP://ELTCHAT.ORG/WORDPRESS/IATEFL/THE-POWER-OF-QUESTIONS-
ELTCHAT-SUMMARY-15052013/
WARMER
A WARMER, OR WARM-UP ACTIVITY, IS AN ACTIVITY WHICH TAKES PLACE
AT THE BEGINNING OF A LESSON AND AIMS TO ‘WARM THE LEARNERS UP’
I.E. TO GET THEM FOCUSSED ON AND ENERGISED FOR A LESSON IN GENERAL
OR ITS SPECIFIC CONTENT.
FURTHER READING
MALDEREZ, A., BODSCZKY, C. (1999) MENTOR COURSES: A RESOURCE BOOK
FOR TRAINER-TRAINERS. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
UR, P. (1992). 5 MINUTE ACTIVITIES. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY
PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/TEENAGERS/SKILLS/WARMERS/
HTTP://WWW.TEACHINGENGLISH.ORG.UK/KNOWLEDGE-DATABASE/WARMER
WASHBACK
THIS IS A TERM (IN THE US MORE COMMONLY REFERRED TO
AS BACKWASH) USED IN TESTING AND ASSESSMENT TO DESCRIBE THE
EFFECT ON THE CLASSROOM OF TESTS THAT THE LEARNERS WILL TAKE.
WASHBACK MAY AFFECT E.G. THE SYLLABUS, METHODOLOGY, INTERACTION
PATTERNS, ATTITUDES TO LEARNING ETC., AND CAN BE POSITIVE OR
NEGATIVE.
EXAMPLE
IN SOME COUNTRIES EDUCATION AUTHORITIES DELIBERATELY INTRODUCE
NEW ELEMENTS INTO TESTS SO THAT THEY WILL BE USED IN THE
CLASSROOM. IN OTHER WORDS THEY ARE RELYING ON THE WASHBACK
EFFECT OF A TEST TO BRING ABOUT CHANGE IN THE CLASSROOM.
EXAMPLES OF THIS MIGHT BE THE INTRODUCTION OF SPEAKING TESTS OR
THE USE OF TASKS IN SPEAKING TESTS. WASHBACK IS SOMETIMES KNOWN
AS ‘BACKWASH’ AND IS CONTRASTED WITH ‘IMPACT’.
FURTHER READING
BACHMAN, L AND PALMER, A (1996) LANGUAGE TESTING IN
PRACTICE. CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HAMP-LYONS, L (1997) WASHBACK, IMPACT AND VALIDITY: ETHICAL
CONCERNS, LANGUAGE TESTING,14/3.
HUGHES, A. (1989) TESTING FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS. CAMBRIDGE:
MESSICK, S. (1996). VALIDITY AND WASHBACK IN LANGUAGE
TESTING. LANGUAGE TESTING 13/4.
TAYLOR, L. (2005) KEY CONCEPTS IN ELT: WASHBACK AND IMPACT. ELT
JOURNAL 59/2.
WORD CLASS
SEE PARTS OF SPEECH
WORD CLOUD
A WORD CLOUD IS A JUMBLE OF WORDS FROM A TEXT PRODUCED BY
COMPUTER BY CALCULATING THE WORDS’ FREQUENCY IN THE TEXT.
TEACHERS CAN MAKE THEIR OWN WORD CLOUDS BY ENTERING TEXTS INTO
A WORD CLOUD PROGRAMME. WORD CLOUDS CAN BE USED IN CLASS TO,
FOR EXAMPLE, AID VOCABULARY LEARNING, REVISE TEXTS, WARM UP TO
READING, LISTENING OR DISCUSSION LESSONS, GENERATE IDEAS FOR
WRITING LESSONS ETC.
EXAMPLE
HERE IS A WORD CLOUD CREATED FROM THE ABOVE DEFINITION OF ‘WORD
CLOUD’:
FURTHER READING
HTTP://WWW.WORDLE.NET/
HTTPS://WWW.JASONDAVIES.COM/WORDCLOUD/#HTTP%3A%2F
%2FWWW.JASONDAVIES.COM%2FWORDTREE%2FCAT-IN-THE-HAT.TXT
HTTP://NIKPEACHEY.BLOGSPOT.CO.UK/2008/09/USING-WORD-CLOUDS-IN-EFL-
ESL.HTML
HTTPS://MARISACONSTANTINIDES.EDUBLOGS.ORG/2010/02/10/USING-WORD-
CLOUDS-IN-CLASS-A-LESSON-PLAN/
HTTP://LESSONSTREAM.ORG/2011/01/10/THE-BLOB-ON-THE-BRIDGE/
WORD FAMILY
THIS WORD IS USED IN TWO DIFFERENT WAYS. IT CAN REFER TO WORDS
WHICH ALL DERIVE FROM THE SAME BASE WORD E.G. PRODUCE,
PRODUCTIVE, PRODUCTION, PRODUCT. MANY TEST ITEMS ARE DESIGNED
ROUND CHANGING A WORD IN A WORD FAMILY TO ANOTHER IN THE SAME
FAMILY.
IT ALSO REFERS TO WORDS THAT SHARE A FORM IN PRONUNCIATION, SUCH
AS THE WORDS IN MANY NURSERY RHYMES.
EXAMPLE
HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A TEST ITEM FOCUSSING ON CHANGES TO BASE
WORDS IN WORD FAMILIES:

HTTPS://ELT.OUP.COM/STUDENT/RESULT/ENGUPP/B_VOCABULARY/UNIT01/1A
?CC=US&SELLANGUAGE=EN
HERE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A NURSERY RHYME BASED ON WORDS WITH
SHARED PRONUNCIATIONS:
HUMPTY DUMPTY SAT ON A WALL,
HUMPTY DUMPTY HAD A GREAT FALL.
ALL THE KING'S HORSES AND ALL THE KING'S MEN
COULDN'T PUT HUMPTY TOGETHER AGAIN
FURTHER READING
HTTPS://WWW.GOOGLE.COM/SEARCH?
Q=WORD+FAMILY&SA=G&TBM=ISCH&TBO=U&SOURCE=UNIV&EI=TKHEU_6TO4
KIO4DGGPGO&VED=0CDAQSAQ&BIW=1280&BIH=899
HTTP://WWW.ENCHANTEDLEARNING.COM/RHYMES/WORDFAMILIES/
HTTPS://ELT.OUP.COM/STUDENT/RESULT/ENGUPP/B_VOCABULARY/UNIT01/1A
?CC=US&SELLANGUAGE=EN
BAUER, L. AND NATION, P. (1993). WORD FAMILIES. INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF LEXICOGRAPHY 6/4: HTTPS://WWW.PDFFILLER.COM/JSFILLER-
DESK16/?
PROJECTID=333956463&EXPID=5487&EXPBRANCH=2#C9A5D00684DD7C93147FD
63EAAA3E449
NATION, P. AND WARING, R. VOCABULARY SIZE, TEXT COVERAGE AND
WORD LISTS IN IN SCHMITT; N.AND MCCARTHY, M. , (1997). VOCABULARY:
DESCRIPTION, ACQUISITION AND PEDAGOGY,CAMBRIDGE: CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
WORD FORM
A WORD FORM IS A LEXICAL TERM REFERRING TO THE DIFFERENT FORMS
THAT DERIVE FROM A BASE WORD (LEMMA) E.G. TAKE, TAKES, TAKING,
TOOK, TAKEN FROM THE BASE WORD ‘TAKE’. WORD FORM REFERS TO FORM
AND NOT TO MEANING.
EXAMPLE
IF YOU WERE TRYING TO WORK OUT HOW MANY VOCABULARY ITEMS A
STUDENT KNOWS, WOULD YOU COUNT JUST THE BASE WORD OR WOULD YOU
COUNT ALL THE DIFFERENT WORD FORMS?
FURTHER READING
CRYSTAL, D (ED.). (1995).THE CAMBRIDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE. CAMBRIDGE:CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HIRSH, D.; NATION, P. (1992), ‘WHAT VOCABULARY SIZE IS NEEDED TO READ
UNSIMPLIFIED TEXTS FOR PLEASURE?’ IN READING IN A FOREIGN
LANGUAGE 8/2.
MCCARTHY, M. (1996). VOCABULARY. OXFORD, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
NATION, P. AND WARING, R. VOCABULARY SIZE, TEXT COVERAGE AND
WORD LISTS:
WORKSHEET
A PIECE OF PAPER, OR ELECTRONIC MATERIAL, WHICH CONTAINS TASKS,
EXERCISES OR PROBLEMS FOR THE LEARNER TO COMPLETE OR SOLVE. THE
TERM IS SOMETIMES USED INTERCHANGEABLY WITH THE TERM HANDOUT,
BUT FOR SOME THERE IS A DIFFERENCE AS A HANDOUT PROVIDES
MATERIALS FOR REFERENCE ONLY RATHER THAN ACTIVITIES.
EXAMPLE
"THE TEACHER ALWAYS GAVE US WORKSHEETS FOR US TO TRY AND APPLY IN
PRACTICE WHAT SHE HAD JUST TOLD US ABOUT BEFORE."
FURTHER READING
HARMER, J. (2012). TEACHER KNOWLEDGE, HARLOW: PEARSON.
UNIVERSITY PRESS.
HTTP://WWW.ONESTOPENGLISH.COM/CLIL/VOCABULARY/VOCABULARY-
WORKSHEETS/
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Glossary: Accuracy

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Copyright:

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Glossary: Accuracy

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Glossary

ACCURACY DESCRIBES THE ABILITY TO WRITE OR SPEAK A FOREIGN

THE WAY IN WHICH LANGUAGES ARE LEARNT UNCONSCIOUSLY OR ‘PICKED

ADVERB; ADVERBIAL PHRASE

ANAPHORIC AND CATAPHORIC REFERENCE

CARTER, R. AND NUNAN, D. (2001). TEACHING ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF

ARTICULATORS (SPEECH ORGANS)

ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING

BLACK, P., HARRISON, C., LEE, C., MARSHALL, B & WILLIAM, D.

UNDERHILL, A. (2005) SOUND FOUNDATIONS. OXFORD: MACMILLAN.

CITATION FORM/DICTIONARY FORM

HOWATT, A.P.R. WITH WIDDOWSON H.G. (2004). A HISTORY OF ENGLISH

CONCORDANCERS CAN BE BASED ON DIFFERENT SIZES AND KINDS OF

"THE CORPUS SHOWS THIS WORD COLLOCATES MORE FREQUENTLY

DISCRETE-ITEM AND INTEGRATIVE TESTS

JENKINS, J. (2000).THE PHONOLOGY OF ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL

FOOT (STRESS / RHYTHM)

HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (HOTS)

HOT / COLD CORRECTION

INTONATION AND INTONATION CONTOUR

INTRINSIC / EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

INTRUSIVE /R/ /W/ /J/

1. GRAMMAR: THIS WOULD BE CONCERNED WITH HOW THE MORPHEMES

MACARO, E. (2003). TEACHING AND LEARNING A SECOND LANGUAGE. NEW

"EXAMPLE LIKERT SCALE" BY NICHOLAS

LOWER ORDER THINKING SKILLS (LOTS)

MAIN CLAUSE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

OXFORD, R. L. (1990).LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES: WHAT EVERY

MINGLE / A MINGLING ACTIVITY

MONOLINGUAL LEARNER DICTIONARY

PEDAGOGICAL THEORY (N.)

THE PHONEMIC CHART, PART 1:

THE PHONEMIC CHART, PART 2:

PHONETICS AND PHONEMICS

PINBOARD PLENARY (N.)

HUDDLESTON, R. (1984). INTRODUCTION TO THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH.

PROFESSIONALISM/PROFESSIONAL/PROFESSIONAL SKILLS (N/ADJ./N.)

QUESTION TAG/TAG QUESTION

REVIEW CIRCLES (N.)

SCHEMA/SCHEMATA (N. SING/PL)

SEGMENTAL AND SUPRASEGMENTAL

SENTENCE STEM LECTURE OR READING (N.)

SLOT AND FILLER

STRONG/STRESSED AND WEAK/UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT (N.)

SUMMATIVE EVALUATION (N.)

TEACHER TALKING TIME (TTT)

TEST TEACH TEST (TTT)

TONES AND TONE GROUPS

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