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EPGCOSCM 13
Sample Population
Summary
Summary
(Statistic/Estimator Inference
(Parameter)
)
Population
Distribution
Sampling
(Binomial,
Distribution
Poisson,
(Z, t, chi-square, F) Inference
Normal)
EPGCOSCM 13
Example
EPGCOSCM 13
Concept of sampling distribution
EPGCOSCM 13
Car Mileage Case
Hybrid and electric cars are a vital part in reducing US’s gasoline consumption.
Most effective way to conserve gasoline is to design gasoline powered cars that are
more fuel efficient. Virtually every gasoline powered midsize cars equipped with
automatic transmission has an EPA combined city and highway mileage estimate of
26miles/gallon or less. Suppose that government has decided to offer tax credit to
any automaker selling midsize model which achieves an EPA of at least 31mpg.
Consider an automaker has recently introduced a new midsized model that this
qualifies for the tax credit. Consider the population of all cars of this type that will
or could be potentially be produced. The automaker will choose a sample of 50 of
these cars. The manufacturers production operation runs 8 hour-shifts, with 100
midsized cars produced on each shift. When all start up problems have been
corrected, automaker select 1 car at random from each of 50 shifts and they are
subjected to EPA test.
EPGCOSCM 13
Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean
EPGCOSCM 13
The Population of Sample Means
EPGCOSCM 13
Example: A Graph of the Probability
Distribution
EPGCOSCM 13
Standard Error
EPGCOSCM 13
Sampling Distribution of Mean
E ( x) =
ˆ = x
s.e( x ) =
n
EPGCOSCM 13
Result
2 𝜎2
𝐼𝑓 𝑋~𝑁 𝜇, 𝜎 , 𝑥~𝑁(𝜇,
ҧ )
𝑛
EPGCOSCM 13
Central Limit Theorem (CLT)
EPGCOSCM 13
How Large?
EPGCOSCM 13
Data Analysis
Mean 31.56
Standard Error 0.112812
Median 31.55
Mode 31.4
Standard Deviation 0.797701
Sample Variance 0.636327
Kurtosis -0.51125
Skewness -0.03422
Range 3.5
Minimum 29.8
Maximum 33.3
Sum 1578
Count 50
EPGCOSCM 13
How to estimate parameters?
EPGCOSCM 13
How to estimate population Standard
deviation σ?
1 2
𝜎ො = 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑑 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ
𝑛−1
EPGCOSCM 13
Confidence Intervals
Interval Estimate =
Point Estimate ± Margin of Error
EPGCOSCM 13
Confidence Intervals for a Mean: σ Known
EPGCOSCM 13
Elements of Interval Estimation
EPGCOSCM 13
The Car Mileage Case
EPGCOSCM 13
The Car Mileage Case
EPGCOSCM 13
The Car Mileage Case
x 1.96 x = x 1.96
n
EPGCOSCM 13
What is happening?
S ampling Dis tribution of the Me an
0.4
95%
0.3
f(x) 0.2
0.1
2.5% 2.5%
0.0
x
x + 1.96
x − 1.96 n
n
x
2.5% fall below
the interval x
x
x
x 2.5% fall above
the interval
x
x
x
EPGCOSCM 13
General Confidence Interval
x z 2 x
= x z 2
n
• The normal point zα/2 gives a right hand tail area under
the standard normal curve equal to α/2
• The normal point -zα/2 gives a left hand tail area under
the standard normal curve equal to a/2
• The area under the standard normal curve between zα/2
and zα/2 is 1 – α
EPGCOSCM 13
General Confidence Interval
x z 2 = x − z 2 , x + z 2
n n n
EPGCOSCM 13
95% Confidence Interval
x z 0.025 x = x 1.96
n
= x − 1.96 , x + 1.96
n n
EPGCOSCM 13
99% Confidence Interval
x z 0.025 x = x 2.575
n
= x − 2.575 , x + 2.575
n n
EPGCOSCM 13
The Effect of α on Confidence Interval Width
EPGCOSCM 13
t-Based Confidence Intervals for a Mean:
σ Unknown
x −
t=
s n
• If the population is normal, then for any sample size n, this sampling
distribution is called the t distribution
EPGCOSCM 13
The t Distribution
EPGCOSCM 13
Degrees of Freedom and the
t-Distribution
EPGCOSCM 13
t and Right Hand Tail Areas
EPGCOSCM 13
t and Right Hand Tail Areas
EPGCOSCM 13
t-Based Confidence Intervals for a Mean:
σ Unknown
s
x t 2
n
EPGCOSCM 13
Car Mileage estimation:
• Recall from the previous example, 𝑥ҧ = 31.56 mpg
for a sample of size n=50 and s= 0.8
0 .8
x = = = 0.113
n 50
t 0.025, 49 = 2.010
EPGCOSCM 13
Car Mileage: 95% Confidence interval of
mean mileage
s
x t 2; n −1
n
= 31.56 ( 2.010 * 0.113)
= 31.56 0.22713
95% CI of
[31.33,31.79]
EPGCOSCM 13
Practice Problem 1:
• A manufacturer of light bulbs claims that its light bulbs have a mean life hours
with a standard deviation of 85 hours. A random sample of 40 such bulbs is
selected for testing. If the sample produces a mean value of 1505 hours, find out
95% Confidence Interval of .
Solution: Given, n=40 (large), =85 (known), 1-=0.95, =0.05,
x = 1505
z / 2 = z 0.025 = 1.96
95% CI of is given by
85 85
1505 − 1.96 , 1505 + 1.96
40 40
= 1478.66 , 1531.34
EPGCOSCM 13
Practice Problem 2:
• Waiting times (in hours) at a popular restaurant are found to have a mean
waiting time of 1.52 hours with sd 2.25hrs. for a sample of 50 customers.
Construct the 99% confidence interval for the estimate of the population mean.
Solution: Given, n=50 (large), s=2.25 (estimated), 1-=0.99, =0.01,
z / 2 = z 0.005 = 2.58
x = 1.52
Therefore,
99% CI of is given by
2.25 2.25
1.52 − 2.58 , 1.52 + 2.58
50 50
= 1.20 , 2.34
Use t based confidence interval and observe the difference (assuming normal
population). EPGCOSCM 13
Case
mean amount spent=375
[356.57, 393.43]
EPGCOSCM 13
Hypothesis Testing
Null and Alternative Hypotheses and
Errors in Hypothesis Testing
• Null hypothesis, H0, is a statement of the basic
proposition being tested
• Represents the status quo and is not rejected unless there is
convincing sample evidence that it is false
• Alternative hypothesis, Ha, is an alternative accepted
only if there is convincing sample evidence it is true
• One-Sided, “Greater Than” H0: μ μ0 vs. Ha: μ > μ0
• One-Sided, “Less Than” H0 : μ μ0 vs. Ha : μ < μ0
• Two-Sided, “Not Equal” H0 : μ = μ0 vs. Ha : μ μ0
where μ0 is a given constant value (with the appropriate
units) that is a comparative value
EPGCOSCM 13
Car Mileage Case
Hybrid and electric cars are a vital part in reducing US’s gasoline consumption.
Most effective way to conserve gasoline is to design gasoline powered cars that are
more fuel efficient. Virtually every gasoline powered midsize cars equipped with
automatic transmission has an EPA combined city and highway mileage estimate of
26miles/gallon or less. Suppose that government has decided to offer tax credit to
any automaker selling midsize model which achieves an EPA of at least 31mpg.
Consider an automaker has recently introduced a new midsized model that this
qualifies for the tax credit. Consider the population of all cars of this type that will
or could be potentially be produced. The automaker will choose a sample of 50 of
these cars. The manufacturers production operation runs 8 hour-shifts, with 100
midsized cars produced on each shift. When all start up problems have been
corrected, automaker select 1 car at random from each of 50 shifts and they are
subjected to EPA test.
EPGCOSCM 13
Car Mileage Case
• Null hypothesis, H0,
H0: μ 31
• Alternative hypothesis,
Ha: μ > 31
We write:
EPGCOSCM 13
Example
Suppose a bank knows that their customers are waiting in line an average of
10.2 minutes during the lunch hour. The branch manager has decided
to add an additional teller during the 12-2 p.m. period and wishes to test
the hypothesis that the average wait has decreased due to the additional
teller. Set up the null and alternative hypothesis for the bank manager.
H0: μ = 10.2
H1: μ < 10.2
EPGCOSCM 13
Types of Decisions
• As a result of testing H0 vs. Ha, will decide either of the
following decisions for the null hypothesis H0:
• Do not reject H0 or reject H0
EPGCOSCM 13
Typical Values
• Typically, = 0.05
• Strong evidence is required to reject H0
• Usually choose α between 0.01 and 0.05
• = 0.01 requires very strong evidence to reject H0
EPGCOSCM 13
z Tests about a Population Mean: σ
Known
EPGCOSCM 13
Steps in Testing a “Greater Than” Alternative
EPGCOSCM 13
Steps in Testing Car mileage Case
EPGCOSCM 13
Steps in Testing a “Greater Than” Alternative
in car mileage Case
4. Determine the rejection rule for deciding whether or
not to reject H0
• To decide how large the test statistic must be to reject H0 by
setting the probability of a Type I error to α, do the
following:
• The probability α is the area in the right-hand tail of the
standard normal curve
• Use the normal table to find the point zα (called the
rejection or critical point)
• Reject H0 in favor of Ha if the test statistic z is greater than
the rejection point zα
• In the mileage case, the rejection rule is to reject H0 if the
calculated test statistic z is > 1.645
EPGCOSCM 13
Steps in Testing a “Greater Than” Alternative
in car mileage Case
5. Collect the sample data and calculate the value of the
test statistic
• In the mileage case, assume that σ is known and σ =
1.65 mpg
• For a sample of n = 50, x = 31.56 mpg. Then
x − 31 31.56 − 31
z= = = 2.39
n 1.65 50
EPGCOSCM 13
EPGCOSCM 13
Steps in Testing a “Greater Than” Alternative
in car mileage Case
6. Decide whether to reject H0
• Compare the value of the test statistic to the rejection
point according to the rejection rule
• Here, z = 2.39 is greater than z0.05 = 1.645
• Therefore reject H0: μ ≤ 31 in favor of
Ha: μ > 31 at the 0.05 significance level
7. Interpret the statistical results
• Conclude mean mileage of the new make exceeds 31
mpg. The company is eligible to get the benefit.
EPGCOSCM 13
Z Tests about a Population Mean: σ
Unknown
Alternative Reject H0 if: p-value
H a: µ > µ 0 z > z Area under t distribution to
right of z
H a: µ < µ 0 z < –z Area under t distribution to
left of –z
H a: µ µ 0 |z| > z /2 * Twice area under t
distribution to right of |z|
EPGCOSCM 13
The p-Value
EPGCOSCM 13
Steps Using a p-value to Test a “Greater
Than” Alternative
4. Collect the sample data and compute the value of the
test statistic
In the car mileage case, the value of the test statistic
was calculated to be z = 2.39
5. Calculate the p-value by corresponding to the test
statistic value
EPGCOSCM 13
Steps Using a p-value to Test a “Greater
Than” Alternative Continued
5. Continued
• If H0 is true, the probability is 0.0089 of obtaining a sample
whose mean is 31.56 mpg or higher
• This is so low as to be evidence that H0 is false and should be
rejected
6. Reject H0 if the p-value is less than α
• In the mileage case, α was set to 0.05
• The calculated p-value of 0.0089 is < α = 0.05
• This implies that the test statistic z = 2.39 is greater than the
rejection point z0.05 = 1.645
• Therefore reject H0 at the α = 0.05 significance level
EPGCOSCM 13
t Tests about a Population Mean: σ
Unknown
EPGCOSCM 13
Defining the t Statistic: σ Unknown
EPGCOSCM 13
t Tests about a Population Mean: σ
Unknown
Alternative Reject H0 if: p-value
H a: µ > µ 0 t > t Area under t distribution to
right of t
H a: µ < µ 0 t < –t Area under t distribution to
left of –t
H a: µ µ 0 |t| > t /2 * Twice area under t
distribution to right of |t|
tα, tα/2, and p-values are based on n – 1 degrees of freedom
(for a sample of size n)
* either t > tα/2 or t < –tα/2
EPGCOSCM 13
Problem
The manager of a small convenience store does not want her customers
standing in line for too long prior to a purchase. In particular, she is willing to
hire an employee for another cash register if the average wait time of the
customers is more than five minutes. She randomly observes the wait time (in
minutes) of customers during the day as:
a. Set up the null and the alternative hypotheses to determine if the manager needs
to hire another employee.
b. Calculate the value of the test statistic. What assumption regarding the
population is necessary to implement this step?
c. Use the critical value approach to decide whether the manager needs to hire
another employee at α=0.10.
d. Repeat the above analysis with the p-value approach.
EPGCOSCM 13
EPGCOSCM 13
Example
An automatic bottling machine fills cola into two liter (2000 cc) bottles. A consumer
advocate wants to challenge this average amount. A random sample of 40 bottles coming
out of the machine was selected and the exact content of the selected bottles are recorded.
The sample mean was 1999.6 cc. The population standard deviation is known from past
experience to be 1.30 cc.
Test appropriate hypothesis.
Ho : = 2000
H 1 : 2000
EPGCOSCM 13
Test statistic ; p-value
x −
z = 0 = 1999.6 - 2000
obs 1.3
n 40
= −1.95
z = 1.645
0.05
z -1.645
obs
p - value = P(Z -1.95)
= 0.0256 0.05
EPGCOSCM 13
Problem
I believe that on an average a PGP student at IIMK spends
15 hours per week using library resources. A random
sample of 8 students were selected and
the average number of hours they spend in the library came
out to be 16.3 hrs. Assuming reading time to follow normal
distribution with sd 3.6 hrs, test a suitable hypothesis
To test
H0: μ = 15
H1: μ ≠ 15
EPGCOSCM 13
Test statistic ; p-value
x −
z = 0 = 16.3 -15
obs 3.6
n 8
= 1.02
z = 1.96
0.025
z 1.96
obs
p - value = P(Z 1.02) + P(Z −1.02)
= 0.1539* 2 = 0.3078 0.05
EPGCOSCM 13
Example
New software companies that create programs for web applications believe that average
staff age at these companies is 27. A random sample of 18 staff is chosen from these
companies and their age is given as follows: 41, 18, 25, 36, 26, 35, 24, 30, 28,
19, 22, 22, 26, 23, 24, 31, 22, 22. Test appropriate hypothesis.
H0: = 27 n = 18
H1: 27 x = 26.3
n = 18 s = 6.15
For = 0.05 and (18-1) = 17 df , x − 26.3 - 27
critical values of t are ±2.11 t = s 0 = 6.15
obs
x − 0 n 18
The test statistic is: t =
s = − 0.48 Do not reject H
n 0
EPGCOSCM 13