Government of India Act 1935

Government of India Act was a sort of constitution for India which was enacted by the British
Parliament in August 1935. This Act was a response to the demand of the Indian political leaders for
greater self-government in India. This Act proved to be the last major legislation by the British
government for India as it remained in practice till the independence in August 1947. Through this
Act the affairs of the Aden (a city of Yemen) and Myanmar (then Burma) were separated from India.

The Act of 1935 provided for a federal system in India. The federal parliament was bicameral and
both the houses of the parliament had elected and nominated members from the provinces and the
Princely States. The upper house of the parliament was called ‘Council of State’ and the lower house
was called ‘Federal Assembly’. Princely States were given an opportunity to take part in the
legislation for India. However, the parts of the Act intended to establish the Federation did not come
into operation due to the opposition from the rulers of Princely States.

Two new provinces of Sindh and Orissa were created, while Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (North West
Frontier Province) was recognized as a full province. Sindh was separated from Mumbai (then
Bombay) and Orissa was separated from the province of Bihar & Orissa. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was
already separated from the Punjab in 1901 but it was not given a status of a full-fledged province.
Thus, the total number of provinces was raised to eleven. Federal Court was established.

The Act provided for the elected provincial governments with more autonomy. The earlier system of
diarchy was abolished at the provinces but it was introduced at the Centre. Abolishing diarchy at the
provinces resulted in strengthening of the provincial autonomy. It means that the provincial
governments were free to formulate and execute their programme without the much interference from
the British governors. Still the provincial governors were empowered to manage the protection of
minorities and to veto a bill which they did not like. At federal level, Governor General was
authorized to maintain external affairs, defence, administration of the tribal areas and appointment of
provincial governors. The Act authorized the Governor General in the centre and governors in the
provinces with special rights and privileges; especially at the time of emergency they enjoyed
maximum powers.

The number of voters was increased and women were allowed to vote for the first time in British
India. Though the number of voters was increased yet a great number of adult Indian were deprived
of the right to vote. Under this Act, the elections were to be held under the system of separate
electorates for Muslims and other minorities and the first provincial elections were held in the
beginning of 1937.
Both Indian National Congress (INC) and All India Muslim League (AIML) expressed their
dissatisfaction over the Act, as both the major political parties of India were looking for independent
self-rule. Jawaharlal Nehru called it a ‘Charter of Slavery’. According to M. A. Jinnah, it was
‘thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and totally unacceptable’. Although the Indian leaders did not
approve the Act, still this Act proved to be a great step towards the independence of India and
creation of Pakistan.

Later in 1947, the Indian Independence Act declared this Act to be the interim constitution of both
India and Pakistan after the independence. The Act of 1935 remained the interim constitution of India
till 26th January 1950 and the interim constitution of Pakistan till 23 rd March 1956. India became
republic on 26th January 1950 and Pakistan on 23rd March 1956, as both the countries implemented
their own constitutions on the respective dates. It is noteworthy that most of the provision of the Act
of 1935 were carried forward by the Indian and Pakistani constitution.
 Provincial Elections of 1937

Under the Government of India Act 1935, the provincial elections were held in India in the beginning
of 1937. These elections were significant in the Indian history as it was for the first time that Indians
were allowed to elect their own government at the provincial level. Although Indian National
Congress and All India Muslim League both had disproved the Act of 1935, still both the major
political parties contested the provincial elections held under the Act.

Elections were held in all the eleven provinces of India on the basis of separate electorates. Separate
electorates mean that Indian Muslims were allowed to vote separately for the Muslim candidates. The
performance of Muslim League was not satisfactory in this elections and it was able to win less than a
quarter of seats reserved for the Muslims. Its performance was even worse in the Muslim majority
provinces (the Punjab, Sindh, Bengal and KP). In the Punjab, Muslim League captured only one seat
out of the total 86 Muslim Seats and none in Sindh and KP. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa the Congress-
supported Khudai Khidmatgars (Servants of God) led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan emerged as the
largest political party. In Bengal Muslim League comparatively performed better, where it won 43
seats out of the total 119 seats reserved for Muslims.

In contrast, Muslim League’s performance was good in the Muslim minority provinces (Madras,
United Provinces, Mumbai, etc.). The phenomenon demonstrates that Muslims living in the Hindu
majority provinces were more worried of the Hindu domination than the Muslims of the Muslim
majority provinces.

It does not mean that most of the seats reserved for Muslims were won by Congress. Congress won
only few seats reserved for Muslims. Most of the Muslims seats were captured by the independent
candidates and local parties in the Punjab, Sindh and Bengal.

On the other hand, Indian National Congress won a considerable number of General Seats and it was
able to form government in eight out of the eleven provinces. Seven of them were the Hindu majority
provinces while one (i.e. KP) was the Muslim majority province. Congress failed to form government
in the Punjab, Sindh and Bengal (all Muslim majority provinces). One can say that the elections
resulted in the beginning of Congress rule in India.
 Congress Ministries in India 1937-1939

The results of the elections held in 1937 under the Government of India Act 1935 led to the formation
of provincial governments in all the provinces of British India. These governments were responsible
for a wide range of areas, such as education, public health and agriculture.

All India National Congress (INC) emerged as a largest political party in most of the provinces of
India. Therefore, INC was able to form government in eight out of eleven provinces; however, in the
Muslim majority provinces of the Punjab, Bengal and Sindh non-congress ministries were formed.
The performance of All India Muslim League was not satisfactory in these elections and it could not
enter in the government at any province.

The government formed by the INC in the provinces it had won a majority in the elections held in
1937 are known as the Congress ministries in the Indian provinces. The Congress ministries
implemented several progressive measures like land reforms, reforms in education and expansion of
civil liberties. However, the Congress rule was marked by communal tension particular between the
Muslims and Hindus.

After the success in the elections, INC behavior towards Muslim League became even more arrogant
and rigid. INC refused to cooperate with Muslim League even in provinces where Muslim League
had won considerable number of seats. The leadership of Congress put forward dictatorial and
insulting terms for the cooperation with Muslim League. One of such unreasonable conditions was
the resignation of Muslim League members from their party and joining the Congress before entering
the coalition government.

After ruling for less than two and half years, the congress provincial governments came to an end in
October 1939, when the ministries tender resignations over the issue of Indian involvement in the
Second World War by the British viceroy. The Congress rule in eight of the eleven provinces was
extremely crucial in the history of Hindu-Muslim relations. Muslim League blamed INC for adopting
oppressive and tyrannical policies against the Muslims.

Encouraged by the Congress ministries, Hindus came out to impose Hindu nationalistic ideas on
Muslims. Muslim minorities in the provinces under Congress rule were forbidden to eat beef, Hindi
was enforced as the official language in the provinces under the Congress rule, Azan was forbidden,
noisy procession were organized to pass near the mosques at prayer time.

Muslims also felt degraded when a Hindu nationalist anthem called Bande Matram was ordered to
sing at the beginning of meeting in the provincial assemblies. Wardha and Vidia Mander were the
education schemes which were launched to destroy the Muslim culture in India and to popularize the
Gandhi’s ideas of non-violence. Under Vidia Mander scheme the students of educational institutes
were asked to pay respect to the portrait of Mahathma Gandhi. Hindi was declared to be the medium
of instruction. The Congress ministries ordered the hoisting of three-coloured flag of Congress in
order to reduce the anti-Congress political forces. In addition, organized attempts were made against
the life, property and honour of Muslims which resulted in the Hindu-Muslim riots.

Muslim League very actively highlighted the atrocities and anti-Muslim policies of Congress
ministries. Quaid-e-Azam criticized the Congress rule and called it a Hindu Raj which implemented
undemocratic policies. In the anti-Congress drive, a great number of Muslims were convinced that
Quaid-e-Azam was the true leader of Indian Muslims.

On the other hand, Indian National Congress denied the charges leveled by Muslim League with
regard to injustice to Muslims and other minorities were absolutely false.

A prominent leader of the INC and member of the parliamentary board (1937-39) Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad in his book ‘India Wins Freedom’ writes that he being a member of the supervisory
board used to supervise the work of the ministries and give them general guidance on policy. He was
in charge of the parliamentary affairs of the several provinces. Regarding the allegations of Muslim
League he says that “every incident which involved communal issues came up before me. . . . If there
had been an iota of truth in any of these charges, I would have seen to it that the injustice was
rectified. I was even prepared to resign, if necessary, on an issue like this.”

End of the Congress Rule

The Second World War began in 1939 when Britain declared war against Germany in September
1939. The British government in India appealed all the political parties for help and assistance. Indian
National Congress criticized the viceroy’s one-sided announcement of Indian involvement in the
War. Congress demanded the independence for India and the right of constitution making by the
elected legislature in return for the help in the War. Viceroy promised that a dominion status (partial
independence) would be granted to India after the War was over, however, Congress did not believe
in the promises of the viceroy. Congress refused to extend co-operation in the War and announced
resignation from the ministries against the decision of the government.
Day of Deliverance

Quaid-e-Azam appealed the Indian Muslims to observe the Day of Deliverance on 22 nd December
1939 over the end of the Congress rule. The Muslims celebrated the day peacefully and thanksgiving
prayers were offered over the end of the Congress tyranny, oppression and injustice. The Muslims
hold public meetings over the relief from the oppressive Congress rule.
 Lahore Resolution March 1940

Lahore Resolution is the landmark political event that changed the shape of Indian politics. In this
resolution the Muslim League demanded for separate homeland for the Indian Muslims. The
resolution was passed at the 27th annual session of All India Muslim League in March 1940. The
venue of the session was Minto Park (now Iqbal Park) near Badshahi Masjid Lahore.

The two years Congress rule compelled the Muslim leaders to get rid of the Hindu majority
permanently. The outbreak of the Second World War at international level and the momentum in the
freedom movement at national level firmed the realization that British rule would soon come to an
end. Keeping in mind the demographic setup of India, it was more likely that Hindus, by the virtue of
their majority would be the ruling class in united India forever.

Idea of a separate State

The idea of a separate state for Indian Muslims had been advocated by some farsighted persons in the
past but it was Sir Muhammad Iqbal who is generally credited with initiating the idea of separation.
The scheme of Allama Muhammad Iqbal forwarded in his famous Allahabad Address 1930 became
popular among the political circles. Later, Chaudhary Rehmat Ali and his three other fellows issued a
pamphlet entitled “Now or Never”, in 1933 from Cambridge. In this pamphlet they not only
demanded separate Muslim State but they gave it a name ‘Pakistan’ to this projected Muslim State.

The Lahore Resolution

After the provincial elections of 1937, Jinnah tried to transform Muslim League into a mass party. As
a result the number of membership grown dramatically and the chief ministers of Asam, Bengal and
Punjab formally joined Muslim League.

The annual session of All India Muslim League held at Lahore from 22 nd to 24th March 1940. At this
session the League for the first time adopted the ideas of partition as its final goal. On the first day of
the session, Jinnah in his presidential address said that Muslims of India are a separate nation
according to any definition of a nation and they must have their homelands. The Muslims of India
could not accept any constitution which would necessarily result in a permanent rule of a permanent
majority. The only course open to all was to permit the major nations to establish separate homelands
by dividing India into sovereign States.

On 23rd March, the Chief Minister of Bengal Maulvi Fazal-ul-Haq introduced the main resolution
stated the Indian Muslims were a separate nation with a distinct cultural, social, economic and
political identity. The resolution demanding that “regions in which the Muslims are numerically a
majority, as in the north-western and eastern zone of India, should be grouped to constitute
independent states in which the constitutional units shall be autonomous and sovereign”. The purpose
of separate states where they could live according to their own traditions and values.

The resolution, called Lahore Resolution was passed unanimously by the leaders of the Muslim
League on 24th March 1940. The entire text of Lahore Resolution does not mention the word
‘Pakistan’. However, the Hindu press began referring to it as the Pakistan Resolution and this title got
popular and since then the resolution is oftenly called as Pakistan Resolution.

Next year, All India Muslim League made the demands raised at the Lahore Resolution as the part of
its constitution. This important event changed to course of Indian history, because the Muslim League
changed its demand from separate electorates to “separate State” and from federation to the
autonomous homeland.

The Lahore Resolution is a landmark as it set the future target for the Indian Muslims. Therefore,
Muslim League started its struggle under the leadership of the Quaid-e-Azam to work for the
homeland to become a reality. Indian Muslims struggled continuously for the achievement of the
target and finally they achieved a separate homeland in August 1947 in shape of Pakistan. The
struggle for Pakistan is known as the Pakistan Movement in history.

Later in April 1946, the text of Lahore Resolution was amended and a demand for one State i.e.
Pakistan instead of many States was inserted. It was the Lahore Resolution that provided the
ideological basis for the creation of Pakistan.

To commemorate the Lahore Resolution a tower called “Minar-e-Pakistan” was built in 1960s on the
spot where the Muslim League annual session in 1940 took place. It is noteworthy, that the mover of
Lahore Resolution, Maulvi Fazal-ul-Haq, the chief minister of Bengal was expelled from Muslim
League in 1941.