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Course Structure
Power system Planning and operation

EE 467
Planning
Power System Planning & Operation
• Long-term load
forecasting
Automatic Generation Control • Generation expansion
• Transmission expansion
Prof. Mohamed Abido
• Maintenance scheduling
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Operational planning Operation
• Automatic generation
• Short-term load control
forecasting
• Optimal power flow
• Unit commitment
• System security
• Economic dispatch
• State estimation
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Load-Frequency Control Stimulating Questions

• 50/60 Hz frequency! Which one? Why?

• Why do we need constant frequency?

What are the consequences?

• What causes frequency change? What is

the solution?

• What are the methods of regulating the

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system frequency 4

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Objectives Load-Frequency Control

• Basic Functions of AGC
• Power System Modeling
• Generator
• Load
• Turbine
• Governor
• Governor Droop Characteristics
• Load Reference Set Point
• Tie-Line Model
• Model of Interconnected Control Areas
• Frequency Response to Load Change
• Supplementary Control
• Area Control Error 5
Frequency is a global variable 6

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Load-Frequency Control
• Frequency control was not a critical issue before because there
used to be a large enough fleet of traditional synchronous
machines.
• Frequency becomes a critical issue due to possible shortfall of
inertia associated with inverter-based generation (renewables).
• PV and Wind generations are not contributing much to the
system inertia.
• Some solutions are based on virtual inertia using grid-forming
converters.
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Load-Frequency Control
• Consequences of a significant rise in frequency:
̶ tripping on overspeed of synchronous generators and
motors
̶ errors developing in equipment utilizing electric timers
(“electric clocks go fast”)
̶ increase in the reactances of circuit elements which
leads to change in voltage drop and real system and
reactive losses.
̶ loss of blocks of demand through over-frequency.
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Generation Control System
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Load-Frequency Control
• Consequences of a significant drop in frequency:
̶ stalling of generators and motors,
̶ high magnetizing currents in induction motors and
transformers,
̶ loss of auxiliary motor drives in power stations,
̶ development of errors in equipment that utilize electric
timers (“electric clocks go slow”),
̶ reduction in the values of the reactances of circuit elements,
̶ loss of blocks of demand through underfrequency load
shedding (frequency dependent load-tripping relays).
Load-Frequency Control
• Methods of regulating the system frequency:
̶ Speed governor system that regulates the frequency
by adjusting the power output of the generator
through the prime-mover (turbine) control.
̶ In wind turbines and solar PV systems, regulation of
the local frequency is achieved by purely electronic
means which has now been made technologically
possible
̶ large batteries and high voltage direct current (HVDC)
links
Generation Control System
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Automatic Generation Control (AGC) Basic Turbine-Generator

Objectives:
• Restore system frequency when it deviates from
the nominal value 50 or 60 Hz.
• Frequency directly related to speed of rotation
• Reallocate generation to keep it at economic – Constant frequency = constant speed of rotation
dispatch
• If mechanical energy in = electrical energy out
• Keep interchange with other control areas at the – Mechanical torque = Electrical torque
scheduled MW – Speed remains constant
• Monitor and control generators as they ramp up and • Electrical load changes are uncontrolled, so we must
down control mechanical energy input to match
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Mathematical analysis of generation control Automatic Generation Control

𝑑𝜔 𝑑2 𝛿
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ − 𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 = 𝑀𝛼 = 𝑀 =𝑀 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 = rotational speed (rad/sec)
 = rotational acceleration Generator Model
 = phase angle of a rotating machine
Pnet = net accelerating power
Pmech = mechanical power input
Pelec = electrical power output
M = angular momentum (inertia) of the machine 15
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Generator Model Automatic Generation Control

Load Model

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Load Model Automatic Generation Control

Prime Mover Model

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Turbine-Generator System Prime Mover Model

The simplest prime-mover model, the non-reheat turbine, is

TCH = “Charging time” time constant

∆Pvalve = per unit change in valve position from nominal
Combined prime-mover and generator model

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Automatic Generation Control Governor Model with Speed Droop

Governor Model with

Speed Droop

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Governor Model with Speed Droop Governor Model with Speed Droop

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Governor Droop Characteristics Governor Droop Characteristics

• R is the speed regulation that determines the change on the unit output Common practice is to set R on each generating unit so that a
for a given change in frequency (i.e., the slope of the characteristic). change from 0 to 100% (i.e., rated) output will result in the same
∆𝜔 frequency change for each unit. As a result, a change in electrical
𝑅= 𝑝𝑢
∆𝑃 load on a system will be compensated by generator unit output
• For instance, 3% regulation for a unit indicates that a 100% (1.0 pu)
change in unit output requires a 3% change in frequency. changes proportional to each unit rated output.

R
3%

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Governor Droop Characteristics Automatic Generation Control

Example:
The two units start at a nominal frequency of f0. When a load increases,
PL, it causes the units to slow down, the governors increase output until
the units seek a new, common operating frequency, f ′. The amount of load
pickup on each unit is proportional to the slope of its droop characteristic.
Load Reference Set
Point

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Load Reference Set Point Load Reference Set Point

• By changing the load reference, the droop characteristic can be set to give reference
frequency at any desired unit output.
• By adjusting this set point on each unit, a desired unit dispatch can be maintained while
holding system frequency close to the desired nominal value.
• This is the boundary between response capability and economic allocation by economic
dispatch.

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Automatic Generation Control Model of Governor, Turbine, and Generator

Integrated Model

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Model of governor, turbine, and generator Model of governor, turbine, and generator
Example: The steady-
Using the block diagram, find the frequency change, ω, state value
for a step increase in load, PL. of ω can
Solution: be found as
The transfer function relating ω and PL is given by
Note that if D were 0, the change in speed would simply be
If several generators were connected to the system, the frequency
change would be
and ,

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Automatic Generation Control Tie-Line Model

The power flowing across a transmission line can be
modeled using the DC load flow method as

Tie-Line Model Then;

Alternatively;

where T = 377 × 1/Xtie (for a 60-Hz system)

T is tie-line stiffness coefficient
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Automatic Generation Control Model of interconnected control areas

Two-area System Model

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Model of Interconnected Control Areas Model of Interconnected Control Areas

For a load change PL1 in area 1, the steady state frequency, after all Substituting
oscillations have damped out, will be constant and equal to the same
value on both areas and can be calculated as follows.

Solving

and

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Model of Interconnected Control Areas Model of Interconnected Control Areas

For a load change PL1 in area 1, the steady state frequency Substituting
without governor action can be calculated as follows.

Solving

Without governor action

Pmech1 = 0 Pmech2 = 0
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Model of Interconnected Control Areas Model of Interconnected Control Areas

Example: Solution:
You are given two system areas connected by a tie line with
the Characteristics shown in the table below. A load change
of 100 MW (0.2 pu) occurs in area 1. What is the new
steady-state frequency and what is the change in tie flow?
Assume both areas were at nominal frequency (60 Hz) to
begin.

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Model of Interconnected Control Areas Frequency Response to Load Change

The change in prime-mover power would be
Observations:
• The figure shows the average
frequency (omitting high
freq. oscillations)
The total changes in generation is 98.814 MW, which is 1.186 MW short of • A step change in load would
the 100 MW load change. always result in a steady
The change in total area load due to frequency drop would be state freq. error
• A supplementary control is
Therefore, the total load change = 1.186 MW, which accounts for the
needed to eliminate the
difference in total generation change and total load change. steady state error in freq.
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Power System Planning & Operation Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

Objectives:
1. To hold system frequency at a specified nominal
Automatic Generation value (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz).
2. To maintain the correct value of interchange
Control (AGC) power between control areas.
3. To maintain each unit’s generation at the most
economic value.

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Supplementary Control Rules of tie line control

Supplementary integral or PID control is necessary to force

the frequency error to 0 by adjustment of the load
reference set point. 51
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Area Control Error

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