AES Pipes - Engineering Basis.12890711

Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
______________________________________________________________________________
Engineering Design Basis
Piping Design Program
Copyright 1998 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. All rights reserved.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 15

Piping Systems and Networks

Piping systems can be open or closed. An open system is affected by atmospheric pressure. The
flow in open condensate return and plumbing drainage systems is gravitational. The flow in an
open cooling tower water system is forced. The pipe sections of an open network system are
either all supply or all return. A closed network system includes both supply and return sections.
A closed network system begins with a first supply section and ends with a last return section.
Open Network Systems
Pumps and static heads are used to force circulation in Open Systems except as noted
 Steam supply
 Open steam condensate return (gravitational)
 Closed condensate return
 Cooling tower water (partially gravitational)
 Fuel oil supply
 Fuel oil return
 Gasoline supply
 Fuel gas supply
 Domestic cold water supply
 Domestic hot water supply
 Storm sewer return (gravitational)
 Sanitary sewer return (gravitational)
 Sanitary vents (gravitational)
Closed Network Systems
Closed systems apply mainly to liquids. Examples of closed network systems include
 Chilled water
 HVAC hot water
 High temperature hot water
 Glycols
 Brines
Supply-Return Systems
The flow arrangements in closed piping networks can be:

 Two-pipes, direct-return
 Two-pipes, reverse-return
 Primary-secondary

Primary-Secondary Systems
Network arrangements can be combinations of direct return and reverse return loops.
Piping Design Data

Properties of Fluids
Fluid types used in HVAC include water, brine, glycol, diesel oil, steam and fuel gas. Water
systems can be temperatures (40 F to 210 F) at standard pressure; temperatures (210 F to 250 F)
at medium pressure; and temperatures (up to 400 F) at high pressure. Properties include
kinematic viscosity, density and specific heat at different temperatures. In the case of steam, the
properties are saturation temperature, saturation pressure, specific volume and latent heat at
different pressures.
Pipe Materials
Pipe materials used in HVAC, Plumbing and Fire Protection include:

 Steel: schedule 40, schedule 80, standard weight, and extra strength
 Cast Iron: 125, 175 and 250 psi
 Copper: types K, L and M
 Plastic: Schedule 40 PVC and CPVC thermoplastics
 Concrete, Clay
Properties for each nominal pipe size include inner and outer diameters, weight per unit length,
and pipe wall thickness. Other pipe properties include thermal conductivity, inside roughness
factors,
roughness correction factors for the age of the pipe.
Pipe Insulation
Pipe insulations include fibrous glass, urethane, elastomerics, phenolic foam, calcium silicate and
magnesia. Properties include density and thermal conductivity at different temperatures.
Pipe Fittings and Valves
Fittings are piping components that create dynamic pressure losses in the network. Loss
calculations are based on the Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data Book, 1979. A list of fitting
types is shown in Fittings and Valves in this engineering basis. Fitting data include K values for
different pipe diameters, velocities, radius bends and contraction/expansion angles. An
alternative to the K value method, is the use of equivalent straight pipe lengths (L/D) values for
fittings and valves.

HVAC Piping Design Criteria
Design standards include maximum velocity, pressure loss per unit length and flow for different
types of fluids, pipe materials, pipe sizes and applications. Cross-reference tables are included to
check that the appropriate pipe material is used for a given application, fluid type and insulation
type
Plumbing Drainage Design Criteria
The plumbing drainage design criteria consist of tables for analyzing and sizing roof drains and
leaders, horizontal rain water pipes, building drains and sewers, horizontal fixture branches and
stacks, and horizontal and vertical vents. Fixture units values for fittings are also included in the
library. Sizing criteria and tables are provided by ASPE.
Piping System
Piping System consists of:

Pipe Sections
Pipe Circuits
Equipment Components
A piping system must be analyzed for:

Pressures
Temperatures
Critical Circuits (for pressures and temperatures)
Equipment in the piping system network must be analyzed and designed for:
Entering and Leaving Pressures,
Pressure loss,
Entering and Leaving Temperatures
Temperature Change.
Network Identification
Pipe Sections: A piping system is made up of linked pipe sections. The physical properties of the
pipe and the properties of the fluid flow inside the pipe section are unique to the section. By
definition a pipe section occurs under one or more of these conditions:
 there is a change in the fluid flow rate through the pipe

 there is a change in the fluid velocity in the pipe
 there is a change in pipe insulation or material

 the pipe section contains fluid handling equipment; (a new section must begin
downstream of such equipment)
Supply Sections: Pipe sections from the discharge side of the primary pumping station node to
the section with the terminal equipment are defined as supply sections.
Return Sections : Pipe sections on the downstream side of the terminal equipment to the
suction side of the primary pump are defined as return sections.
Exclude Sections (or independent sections): These are defined as pipes that are not part of the
supply or return tree networks. Examples of such pipe sections are bypass piping at terminal
equipment, parallel piping at pump stations & primary equipment, and piping to compression
tanks.
Pipe Circuit is a series of pipe sections from the pump to the terminal equipment (heat
exchanging equipment, plumbing fixture, etc.) for open systems and back to the pump for closed
systems.
Exception: In the case of cooling tower and condenser water systems, the piping from the
cooling tower to the condenser is Supply, and from the condenser and pumps to the cooling
tower is Return.
Terminal equipment (unit heaters, fan coil units, etc.) is not usually connected in series within a
section of the piping network system. Therefore, the number of pipe circuits in a piping system is
equal to the number of terminal equipment units.
Piping Network
A piping network consists of several circuits. A supply network begins with a single pipe section
that is common to all the circuits. This section is referred to as the first section in the supply side
of the network. Similarly, a return network ends with a last section.
The first section of the network must have enough pressure to drive the fluid through all the
circuits in the network. This starting pressure is the highest circuit pressure loss. In the case of
steam and fuel gas, the starting design pressure is determined by the application’s requirements.
For steam, initial pressure can also be calculated from the initial temperature that you specify.
Plumbing drainage and steam condensate return systems are based on gravitational flow. Sizing
is based on tables provided by ASPE.
The source of network pressure in the first supply section for liquid systems is typically a pump or
group of pumps referred to as the primary pumping station. In addition to this primary source of
pressure, the pressure in any secondary circuit ca be boosted using a booster pump.

Use only one booster pump in series with the primary pump in any one circuit. A piping network
may consist of a primary system and one or more secondary systems arranged in a series with
the primary system
Example of Piping Systems & Networks
Fig. 1-3 shows a primary-secondary system. The primary pumping station consists of six pumps
arranged in a 3-parallel x 2-series system. All the pumps in the pumping station are identical in
type and size. This is recommended design. The flow in each pump is, therefore, one-third or
the total system flow and the pressure head for each pump is one-half of the required system
head.
The entire pumping station is treated as a single pressure source with a first supply (S) section
(101) leaving the system and a last return (R) section (201) entering the system. All the other
sections in the pumping station are identified as X sections that must be excluded from the
network analysis.
Fig. 1-3 : Primary-Secondary System
The piping network identification information from Fig. 1-3 is shown in tabular form in Fig. 1-4.
This information is rearranged and presented in Fig. 1-5 through Fig. 1-9 as circuits with the
sections in each circuit arranged in flow sequence.
Fig. 1-5 shows complete circuits starting from the primary pumping station, passing through a
terminal equipment and back to the pumping station. This is the typical circuit arrangement
when there are no booster pumps.

Section ID Upstream Downstream Section Terminal Booster Primary

No. Section ID. Section ID. Type Equipment Pump Equipment
20 103 - S - BP-1 -
21 20 - S - - -
22 21 - S TE-1 - -
23 21 - S ─ - -
24 23 - S TE-2 - -
25 23 - S TE-3 - -
26 - 28 R - - -
27
30 -
10 28
- RS -- -
BP-2 --
31 30 - S - - -
32 31 - S TE-4 - -
33 31 - S TE-5 - -
34 - 36 R - - -
35 - 36 R - - -
36 - 205 R - - -
40 105 0 S TE-6 - -
41 - 204 R - - -
50 106 - S - - -
51 50 - S - - -
52 51 - S TE-7 - -
53 51 - S TE-8 - -
54 - 56 R - - -
55 - 56 R - - -
56 - 203 R - - -
71 - - X - - -
72 - - X - - -
81 - - X - - -
82 - - X - - -
83 - - X - - -
84 - - X - - -
85 - - X - - -
91 - - X - - -
101 Pump - S - - PE-1
102 101 - S - - -
103 102 - S - - -
104 103 - S - - -
105 104 - S - - -
106 105 - S - - -
201 Pump R - - -
203 201 R - - -
204 - 203 R - - -
205 - 204 R - - -
206 - 205 R - - -
-
Fig. 1-4: Piping Network Identification Information

Fig. 1-6 is the primary system and Fig. 1-7, Fig. 1-8 and Fig. 1-9 are the secondary systems. Note
that the circuit that passes through the terminal equipment having the label TE-6 does not have a
booster pump. That entire circuit becomes a part of the primary system.
Ckt # of
Sections in Each Circuit Arranged in Flow Sequence
No. Sect
1 20
4 101 102 103
BP-1
30
2 5 101 102 103 104
BP-2
40 201
3 10 101 102 103 104 105 41 204 203
TE-6 BP-2
50
4 7 101 102 103 104 105 106
BP-3
Fig. 1-6: Primary System Identification
Ckt # of
No. Sect
1 8 21 22 29 206 205 204 203 201

TE-1
2 10 21 23 24 27 28 206 205 204 203 201
TE-2
3 10 21 23 25 26 28 206 205 204 203 201
TE-3
Fig. 1-7: Secondary System from Booster Pump BP-1
Ckt # of
No. Sect
1 8 31 32 35 36 205 204 203 201

TE-4
2 8 31 33 34 36 205 204 203 201
TE-5
Fig 1-8: Secondary System from Booster Pump BP-2

Ckt # of Sections in Each Circuit Arranged in Flow

No. Sect Sequence
1 6 51 52 55 56 293 201
TE-7
2 6 51 53 54 56 203 201
Fig. 1-9: Secondary System from Booster Pump BP-3
Ckt # of
No. Sect
20 22
1 12 101 102 103
BP-1
21
TE-1
29 206 205 204 203 201
20 24
2 14 101 102 103
BP-1
21 23
TE-2
27 28 206 205 204 203 201
20 25
3 14 101 102 103
BP-1
21 23
TE-3
26 28 206 205 204 203 201
30 32
4 13 101 102 103 104
BP-2
31
TE-4
35 36 205 204 203 201
30 33
5 13 101 102 103 104
BP-2
31
TE-5
34 36 205 204 203 201
40
6 10 101 102 103 104 105
TE-6
41 204 203 201
50 52
7 13 101 102 103 104 105 106
BP-3
51
TE-7
55 56 203 201
50 53
8 13 101 102 103 104 105 106
BP-3
51
TE-8
54 56 203 201
Fig. 1-5: Complete System Identification
TE-<number> = Terminal Equipment No. BP-<number> = Booster Pump No.

Closed and Open Piping Network Systems
Fig 1-10: Closed System
Fig1-11: Open System
Closed systems are made up of two components:
 a supply system that ends at a terminal air conditioning equipment unit

 a return system that starts at the terminal equipment
Fig. 1-10 shows a closed system network. The system shown is a reverse return system with
both supply and return sections. Closed systems are not affected by atmospheric pressure. The
pump head of open systems include atmospheric pressure. Fig. 1-11 illustrates an open supply
system.

Network Analysis
The piping system analysis uses a general tree structure. A pipe network can be either an open
or closed network. To simplify analysis, a closed network can be divided into two open networks,
one supply and one return, with the break between them at the terminal equipment.
An open network can be analyzed as a tree with a single trunk fanning out into branches, sub-
branches, then leaves. Forward network analyses begin with the main pump (tree trunk) and
work down each pipe section (branch, sub-branch) to a terminal equipment (leaf). Reverse
network analysis works from a terminal equipment to the pump.
The tree structure is handled as a number of linear linked lists, one for each junction in the pipe
network. A pipe section is analyzed only once and and the sections are arranged in flow
sequence into complete circuits.
The pipe sections are linked into circuits. A supply section can have only one upstream section
and any number of downstream sections. A return section can have only one downstream
section and any number of upstream sections.
The network analysis to determine the fluid flow in each pipe section starts with each terminal
equipment, a circuit end, and moves backwards, assigning the fluid quantity of the terminal
equipment to all the sections in the circuit.
Thermal analysis begins with the fluid temperature leaving the primary equipment section, and
moves forward through each section in the circuit. The heat gains or losses and the temperature
at the end of each section are calculated.
The temperature at the end of the last section in the circuit is the actual fluid temperature at the
terminal equipment. The pressure analysis also moves forward through the network, starting at
the pump section.
Fig. 1-12 through Fig. 1-16 are examples of basic liquid system. The systems described in the
next few pages use water, although brine and glycol may be substituted in the piping network
system.
Two-Pipe Direct Return Systems
A two-pipe direct return system illustrated in Fig. 1-12 is difficult to balance because the terminal
equipment with the shortest supply line also has the shortest return line. The circuit analysis
report will indicate the balancing requirements of each circuit.

Fig. 1-12:Two-Pipe Direct Return
Two-Pipe Reverse Return Systems
A two-pipe reverse return system illustrated in Fig. 1-13 provides uniform pressure drop through
all the heating units. The length of straight piping through all the circuits is approximately the
same. The unbalanced pressure heads are primarily due to equipment and fitting losses in the
circuits.
Fig. 1-13: Two-Pipe Reverse Return
Primary-Secondary Systems and Loops
By definition, a secondary system is created when a booster pump is located in one of the
sections. Fig. 1-3 shows a primary system with three secondary systems downstream of these
booster pumps.
Fig. 1-14 shows a reverse-return primary loop and direct-retur secondary loops. Since there are
no booster pumps, the entire network is treated as one primary system.

Fig. 1-14: Primary-Secondary

Systems and Loops
Primary loops may be direct-return or reverse-return. They may be combined with one or more
secondary loops that may all be direct-return, reverse-return, or a combination of the two.
From Fig. 1-13 and Fig. 1-14, you can see that secondary systems are also secondary loops, but
secondary loops are not always secondary systems.
Three-Pipe Systems
The three-pipe system illustrated in Fig. 1-15 uses two piping systems to supply the terminal
equipment, one for cold water and the other for hot water, along with a common return.
Fig. 1-15: Three Pipe Systems
The three-pipe system may be terminal mix or return mix. In both types, hot and cold water is
provided at the terminal equipment. In the terminal mix system, hot and cold water are mixed at
the terminal equipment to obtain the required equipment temperature.
In the return mix system, each terminal equipment in the network uses either hot water or cold
water and discharges into a common return system where mixing takes place.

Four-Pipe Systems
The four-pipe system, illustrated in Fig. 1-16, derives its name from the four pipes to and from
each terminal equipment: cold water supply, cold water return, hot water supply and hot water
return. The four-pipe system satisfies the variations in the heating and cooling loads by providing
independent sources of heating and cooling to the room or zone. During the period between
seasons, any unit can be operated at maximum heating or maximum cooling.
Fig. 1-16: Four Pipe Systems
Systems
Systems types are based on the application, fluid type and piping arrangement (open or closed)
System System Fluid Network

System Type System Description
Group Open/Closed Type Type
CW closed water closed chilled water
HW closed water closed hot water heating
C open water closed condenser water
DCW closed water open domestic cold water
DHW closed water open domestic hot water
Liquids GLYCOL closed glycol closed 50% ethylene glycol 25%
BRINE closed brine closed calcium chloride brine
DIESEL closed diesel open diesel fuel oil #2 gasoline
GASOLINE closed gasoline open (petrol) high temperature
HTHW closed water closed hot water
STEAM closed steam open steam supply
Steam CONDENSATE open/closed steam open steam condensate return
FUELGAS closed fuel gas open fuel gas supply
Gas
STORM open water open storm drainage
Other DRAIN open --- open sanitary drainage
VENT open air open sanitary vent
Fig. 1-17: System, Fluid and Network Types

System Engineering Units

Remarks
Group Flow Velocity Pressure
ft of
Liquids gpm ft/sec psia where appropriate
liquid
Steam lb/hr ft/min psi
Gas cfh ft/min psi
Other fixture units or drainage area
Fig. 1-18: System Types and Engineering Units
Density and kinematic viscosity are used in frictional loss calculations. The specific heat is used in
thermal analysis. Default fluids are 50% ethylene glycol, 25% calcium chloride, diesel fuel oil #2,
and gasoline with a specific gravity of 0.72. In Fig. 1-19 and Fig. 1-20, the defaults shown express
kinematic viscosity in 10-6. Glycol may be a different concentration of ethylene glycol or glycerol.
Brine may be a different concentration of sodium chloride or calcium chloride. Diesel fuel oil and
gasoline may represent different blends of these liquids.
Temperature oF
Liquid Properties
-30 0 30 60 100 150 212
Density (lb/cu ft)
62.42 62.37 62.00 61.20 59.81
Kinematic viscosity (sq
WATER 20.0 12.17 7.39 4.76 3.2
ft/sec)
Specific heat (Btu/lb oF) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.005
Density (lb/cu ft)
67.98 67.55 67.11 66.55 65.74 64.68 63.12
GLYCOL 595.0 190.0 85.4 48.6 22.6 12.5 6.4
ft/sec)
Specific heat (Btu/lb oF) 0.70 0.73 0.76 0.78 0.81 0.85 0.88
Density (lb/cu ft)
78.59 78.21 77.71 77.21 76.09
BRINE 171.7 77.5 34.7 21.8 8.9
ft/sec)
Specific heat (Btu/lb oF) 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.71
Density (lb/cu ft)
59.2 57.4 56.1 54.9 53.0 51.1
DIESEL 376.7 161.5 80.7 48.3 29.1 7.5
ft/sec)
Specific heat (Btu/lb oF) 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.51 0.52
Density (lb/cu ft)
46.1 45.5 44.9 44.7 44.3 42.4
GASOLI Kinematic viscosity (sq
11.0 9.8 8.8 7.0 5.5 3.0
NE ft/sec)
Specific heat (Btu/lb oF) 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.51 0.52
Fig. 1-19: Properties of Liquids (Water, Glycol, Brine, Diesel and Gasoline)

High Temperature Hot Water
The temperature range for water in Fig. 1-19 is 32F to 212F. Fig. 1-20 shows the properties of
water for the HTHW system type (high temperature hot water). The temperature range for
HTHW is 212F to 450F. It includes the temperature range defined in the 1987 ASHRAE
Handbook for medium temperature hot water (212 to 350). An additional fluid property,
saturation pressure, is included in this table and is included in the output reports for your
information. The saturation pressures are not used in the calculations.
Saturation Kinematic Specific

Temperat Density
Pressure Viscosity Heat
ure lb/cu ft
PSIG sq ft/sec Btu/lb oF
212 0 59.81 3.2 1.0055
220 2.5 59.63 3.0 1.0068
240 10.3 59.10 2.7 1.0104
260 20.7 58.51 2.5 1.0148
280 34.5 57.94 2.3 1.020
300 52.3 57.31 2.1 1.26
350 119.9 55.59 1.9 1.044
400 232.6 53.65 1.7 1.067
450 407.9 51.55 1.5 1.095
Fig. 1-20: Properties of High Temperature Hot Water
Properties of Steam
Fig. 1-21 and Fig. 1-22, compiled from information published in Flow of Fluids, Crane, pp. A-2, A-
9, A-12 to A-14, show the properties of steam. Portions of this information can also be found in
manufacturers' steam tables. The information in this table is used in the thermal analysis to
determine the quality of steam

Fig. 1-21 & 1-22: Properties of Steam
Enthalpy
Specific Enthalpy Kinematic Isentropic
Pressure o Saturate Specific
Temp. F Volume Evaporatn Viscosity Exponent
PSIG d Liquid Heat Cp
cuft/lb Btu/lb sq ft/sec K = Cp/Cy
Btu/lb
0 212.0 26.80 180.1 970.3 2.34 x 10-4 0.45 1.32

1 215.5 25.13 183.6 968.1 2.19 x 10-4 0.45 1.32
2 218.7 23.72 186.8 966.0 2.07 x 10-4 0.45 1.32
3 221.7 22.47 189.8 964.1 1.96 x 10-4 0.45 1.32
4 224.5 21.35 192.7 962.3 1.87 x 10-4 0.45 1.32
5 227.3 20.34 195.5 960.5 1.78 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
6 229.9 19.42 198.2 958.8 1.70 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
7 232.4 18.58 200.7 957.2 1.62 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
8 234.9 17.81 203.2 955.6 1.56 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
9 237.2 17.11 205.6 954.1 1.49 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
10 239.5 16.46 207.9 952.5 1.44 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
11 241.7 15.86 210.1 951.1 1.39 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
12 243.8 15.31 212.2 949.7 1.34 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
13 245.9 14.79 214.3 948.3 1.29 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
14 247.9 14.31 216.4 946.9 1.25 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
15 249.8 13.86 218.3 945.6 1.30 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
16 251.7 13.43 220.3 944.3 1.26 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
17 253.6 13.03 222.2 943.0 1.22 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
18 255.4 12.66 224.0 941.8 1.19 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
19 257.1 12.31 225.7 940.6 1.16 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
20 258.8 11.98 227.5 939.5 1.13 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
21 260.5 11.67 229.2 938.3 1.10 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
22 262.2 11.37 230.9 937.2 1.07 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
23 263.8 11.08 232.5 936.1 1.04 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
24 265.4 10.82 234.1 935.0 1.02 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
25 266.9 10.56 235.6 934.0 0.99 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
30 274.1 9.45 243.0 928.9 0.89 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
35 280.7 8.56 249.8 924.2 0.86 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
40 286.8 7.83 256.0 919.8 0.79 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
45 292.4 7.20 261.8 915.7 0.73 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
50 297.7 6.68 267.2 911.8 0.67 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
55 302.7 6.23 272.4 908.1 0.66 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
60 307.3 5.83 277.2 904.6 0.62 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
65 311.8 5.49 281.8 901.3 0.59 x 10-4 0.47 1.31

Enthalpy
Specific Enthalpy Kinematic Isentropic
Pressure o Saturate Specific
Temp. F Volume Evaporatn Viscosity Exponent
PSIG d Liquid Heat Cp
cuft/lb Btu/lb sq ft/sec K = Cp/Cy
Btu/lb
70 316.4 5.18 286.2 898.0 0.55 x 10-4 0.47 1.31

75 320.1 4.91 290.4 894.8 0.53 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
80 323.9 4.66 294.4 891.9 0.50 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
85 327.6 4.44 298.2 899.0 0.48 x 10-4 0.47 1.31
90 331.2 4.24 301.9 886.1 0.46 x 10-4 0.48 1.30
95 334.6 4.06 305.5 883.3 0.44 x 10-4 0.48 1.30
100 337.9 3.89 308.9 880.7 0.42 x 10-4 0.48 1.30
105 341.1 3.74 312.3 878.1 4.27 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
110 344.2 3.59 315.5 875.5 4.10 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
115 347.2 3.46 318.7 873.0 3.95 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
120 350.1 3.34 321.7 870.7 3.82 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
125 352.9 3.23 324.7 868.3 3.69 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
130 355.6 3.12 327.6 865.9 3.56 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
135 358.3 3.02 330.4 863.7 3.45 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
140 360.9 2.93 333.1 861.5 3.35 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
145 363.4 2.84 335.8 859.3 3.30 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
150 365.9 2.76 338.4 857.2 3.33 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
155 368.3 2.68 340.9 855.0 3.24 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
160 370.6 2.61 343.4 853.0 3.14 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
165 372.9 2.54 345.9 850.9 3.06 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
170 375.2 2.47 348.3 848.9 2.98 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
175 377.4 2.41 350.7 846.9 2.90 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
180 379.5 2.35 353.0 845.0 2.83 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
185 381.6 2.30 355.2 843.1 2.77 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
190 383.7 2.24 357.4 841.2 2.70 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
195 385.8 2.19 359.6 839.2 2.64 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
200 387.8 2.13 361.9 837.4 2.57 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
210 391.7 2.04 366.0 833.8 2.46 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
220 395.5 1.95 370.1 830.3 2.35 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
230 399.1 1.88 374.1 826.8 2.27 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
240 402.7 1.81 377.8 823.4 2.18 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
250 406.1 1.74 381.6 820.1 2.10 x 10-6 0.48 1.30
Fig. 1-21 & 1-22: Properties of Steam

Pipe Materials
Materi Material
Description Description
al Code Code
S40 Schedule 40 steel CI 250 250 psi cast iron
S80 Schedule 80 steel CK Type K copper
ST Standard weight steel CL Type L copper
XS Extra strength steel CM Type M copper
CI 125 125 psi cast iron PVC PVC schedule 40 plastic
CI 175 175 psi cast iron CPVC CPVC schedule 40 plastic
Fig. 1-23: Pipe Materials
The default information in the pipe materials library was compiled from the Hydraulic Institute
Engineering Data Book and the Hydraulic Handbook, Colt Industries. It can vary slightly with
manufacturer. Density (lb/cu ft) is used to calculate the weight of a pipe section. Conductivity
(btu/hr.oF.sp ft. in) is used in the thermal analysis. Inside roughness factors (ft) for open and
closed piping systems are used in the Colebrook equation to calculate the frictional loss in the
pipe .
Pipe Nominal
Roughness Factor Conduc
Materi Description Diameter Density
t-ivity
al Minim Maxim Closed Open
S40 Steel: Schedule 40 .250" 24" .00015 .0018 489.02 2.5
S80 Steel: Schedule 80 .250" 24" .00015 .0018 489.02 2.5
Steel: Standard
ST .250" 36" .00015 .0018 489.02 2.5
Weight
XS Steel: Extra Strength .250" 36" .00015 .0018 489.02 2.5
Cl 125 Cast Iron: 125 psi 3" 48" .00085 .0018 483.84 0.767
Cl 175 Cast Iron: 175 psi 3" 48" .00085 .0018 483.84 0.767
Cl 250 Cast Iron: 250 psi 6" 36" .00085 .0018 483.84 0.767
.00000 .00000
CK Copper: Type K .250" 12" 558.14 16.33
5 5
.00000 .00000
CL Copper: Type L .250" 12" 558.14 16.33
5 5
.00000 .00000
CM Copper: Type M .375" 12" 558.14 16.33
5 5
.00000 .00000
PVC Plastic: PVC .500" 12" 94.7 0.1
5 5
.00000 .00000
CPVC Plastic: CPVC .500" 6" 105.7 0.079
5 5
Fig. 1-24: Pipe Material Properties

The minimum and maximum nominal diameter limits shown in Fig. 1-24 indicate the range of
sizes in Fig. 1-24, Fig. 1-26, Fig. 1-27, and Fig. 1-28. These figures contain inside and outside
diameters for each pipe material and each nominal size. A blank in these tables indicates that
the nominal size for that particular pipe material is not available.
Roughness Factors
Roughness factors shown in Fig. 1-24 for closed pipe systems were obtained from ASHRAE
Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals, Table 2, p. 2-10. Piping for open systems such as cooling tower
water systems is subject to corrosion and scaling over a period of time. Open system roughness
factors are included in the library, even though they are not a property of the pipe material but a
function of the usage and age of the pipes. The value shown in Fig. 1-24 for Schedule 40 steel is
based on Handbook of Air-Conditioning System Design, Chart 4, p. 3-23. The Colebrook-White
equation shown as equation 20 in Pipe Sizing was applied using trial values for the friction factor
f until results approximated those of that chart.
Values for other steel pipes and for cast iron pipes are assumed to be the same as those for the
Schedule 40 steel pipes with the same age and usage. The effect of corrosion on copper pipes is
assumed to be negligible. Plastic pipes are not affected by corrosion. The values shown in Fig. 1-
24 are identical for both closed and open systems.
Physical Dimensions
Schedule 40 Schedule 80 Stand Weight Extra Strong

Nomin
steel Steel Steel Steel
al Pipe
Diameter (in.) Diameter (in.) Diameter (in.) Diameter (in.)
Size
Outsid Outsid Outsid Outsid
In. Inside Inside Inside Inside
e e e e
1/4 .540 .364 .540 .302 .540 .364 .540 .302
3/8 .675 .493 .675 .423 .675 .493 .675 .423
1/2 .840 .622 .840 .546 .840 .622 .840 .546
3/4 1.050 .824 1.050 .742 1.050 .824 1.050 .742
1 1.315 1.049 1.315 .957 1.315 1.049 1.315 .957
1 1/4 1.660 1.380 1.660 1.278 1.660 1.380 1.660 1.278
1 1/2 1.900 1.610 1.900 1.500 1.900 1.610 1.900 1.500
2 2.375 2.067 2.375 1.939 2.375 2.067 2.375 1.939
2 1/2 2.875 2.469 2.875 2.323 2.875 2.469 2.875 2.323
3 3.500 3.068 3.500 2.900 3.500 3.068 3.500 2.900
4 4.500 4.026 4.500 3.826 4.500 4.026 4.500 3.826
5 5.563 5.047 5.563 4.813 5.563 5.047 5.563 4.813
6 6.625 6.065 6.625 5.761 6.625 6.065 6.625 5.761
8 8.625 7.981 8.625 7.625 8.625 7.981 8.625 7.625

10 10.750 10.020 10.750 9.562 10.750 10.020 10.750 9.750

12 12.750 11.938 12.750 11.374 12.750 12.000 12.750 11.750
14 14.000 12.500 14.000 13.250 14.000 13.000
16 16.000 15.000 16.000 14.312 16.000 15.250 16.000 15.000
18 18.000 16.876 18.000 16.124 18.000 17.250 18.000 17.000
20 20.000 18.812 20.000 17.938 20.000 19.250 20.000 19.000
22 22.000 19.750 22.000 21.250 22.000 21.000
24 24.000 22.624 24.000 21.562 24.000 23.250 24.000 23.000
26 26.000 25.250 26.000 25.000
28 28.000 27.250 28.000 27.000
30 30.000 29.250 30.000 29.000
32 32.000 31.250 32.000 31.000
34 34.000 33.250 34.000 33.000
36 36.000 35.250 36.000 35.000
Fig. 1-25: Pipes Material Physical Dimensions - Steel

(adapted from Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data Book, pp. 121-127)

Nominal 125 PSI Cast Iron 175 PSI Cast Ironl 250 PSI Cast lron
Pipe Size Diameter (in.) Diameter (in.) Diameter (in.)
In. Outside Inside Outside Inside Outside Inside
2
2 1/2
3 3.96 3.06 3.96 3.00
4 5.00 4.04 5.00 3.96
5
6 7.10 6.08 7.10 6.00 7.22 6.00
8 9.30 8.18 9.30 8.10 9.42 8.00
10 11.40 10.16 11.40 10.04 11.60 10.00
12 13.50 12.14 13.50 12.00 13.78 12.00
14 15.65 14.17 15.65 14.01 15.98 14.00
16 17.80 16.20 17.80 16.02 18.16 16.00
18 19.92 18.18 19.92 18.00 20.34 18.00
20 22.06 20.22 22.06 20.00 22.54 20.00
22
24 26.32 24.22 26.32 24.00 26.90 24.00
26
28
30 32.40 30.00 32.74 30.00 33.46 30.00
32
34
36 38.70 35.98 39.16 36.00 40.04 36.00
42 45.10 42.02 45.58 42.02
48 51.40 47.98 51.98 48.06
Fig. 1-26: Pipes Material Physical Dimensions - Cast Iron

(Hydraulic Handbook, Colt Industries, p. 174)

Nominal Type K Copper Type L Copper Type M Copper

Pipe Size Diameter (in.) Diameter (in.) Diameter (in.)
In. Outside Inside Outside Inside Outside Inside
1/4 .375 .305 .375 .315
3/8 .500 .402 .500 .430 .500 .450
1/2 .625 .527 .625 .545 .625 .569
3/4 .875 .745 .875 .785 .875 .811
1 1.125 .995 1.125 1.025 1.125 1.055
1 1/4 1.375 1.245 1.375 1.265 1.375 1.291
1 1/2 1.625 1.481 1.625 1.505 1.625 1.527
2 2.125 1.959 2.125 1.985 2.125 2.009
2 1/2 2.625 2.435 2.625 2.465 2.625 2.495
3 3.125 2.907 3.125 2.945 3.125 2.981
4 4.125 3.857 4.125 3.905 4.125 3.935
5 5.125 4.805 5.125 4.875 5.125 4.907
6 6.125 5.741 6.125 5.845 6.125 5.881
8 8.125 7.583 8.125 7.725 8.125 7.785
10 10.125 9.449 10.125 9.625 10.125 9.701
12 12.125 11.315 12.125 11.565 12.125 11.617
Fig. 1-27: Pipes Material Physical Dimensions - Copper
(reproduced with permission from ASPE Data Book, P. 10-8, 10-10, 10-12)
Nominal Schedule 40 - PVC Schedule 40 - CPVC

Pipe Size Diameter (in.) Diameter (in.)
(in.) Outside Inside Outside Inside
3/8
1/2 .8400 .6220 .8400 .6200
3/4 1.050 .824 1.050 .824
1 1.315 1.049 1.315 1.049
1 1/4 1.660 1.380 1.660 1.380
1 1/2 1.900 1.610 1.990 1.610
2 2.375 2.067 2.375 2.067
2 1/2 2.875 2.469 2.875 2.469
3 3.500 3.068 3.500 3.068
4 4.500 4.026 4.500 4.026
5
6 6.625 6.065 6.625 6.065
8 8.625 7.981
10 10.750 10.020
12 12.750 11.938
Fig. 1-28: Pipes Material Physical Dimensions – Plastic

Pipe Age
Fig. 1-29 shows the correction factor that can be applied to the frictional loss in order to account
for the age of the pipe. This factor is a function of the pipe size (surface areas to flow area). Fig.
1-29, is based on Hydraulic Handbook, Colt Industries, Table 6, p. 64, has been modified for pipes
used in buildings. Pipe age factors and pipe material roughness factors are closely related. You
can use the correction factor to design closed systems with any pipe material. The roughness
factors for pipes shown in Fig. 1-24 are for new and clean pipes and does not account for the age
of the pipe.
Age of Pipes Small Pipes Medium Pipes Large Pipes

(Years) (1" to 3") (4" to 12") (14" to 48")
0 1.00 1.00 1.00
5 1.40 1.35 1.30
10 2.20 1.90 1.60
15 3.60 2.70 1.80
20 5.00 3.50 2.00
25 6.30 4.20 2.10
30 7.25 4.73 2.20
35 8.10 5.20 2.30
40 8.75 5.58 2.40
45 9.25 5.93 2.60
50 9.60 6.23 2.86
Fig. 1-29: Increase in Friction Loss Due to Aging of Pipe

Insulation Types
Fig. 1-30 shows the insulation types used for piping in buildings It includes the five insulation
classes with typical insulation types within each class. For information on applications for each
insulation type, turn to the ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, Fundamentals of Plumbing Design, 1983-
1984, p. 12-1. Insulation density is used to determine the weight of the insulation for the pipe
section. Conductivity is used in the thermal analysis.
Code Densit Thermal Conductivity BTU / (hr  ft2  oF per inch)

Nam Description y
e Lbs/ft3 0 30 75 100 200 300 400
Elastomeric 0.2
EL 2.0 0.23 0.27 0.28 0.37 0.50
Class A 2
Fibrous Glass 0.2
FG 5.0 0.22 0.25 0.26 0.33 0.40 0.50
Class B 0
Urethane Foam 0.1
UF 2.0 0.16 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.30
Class C 5
Phenolic Foam 0.1
PF 4.0 0.20 0.22 0.28 0.35 0.50
Class D 9
Calcium Silicate
CS 13.0 0.38 0.41 0.44 0.48
Class E
85% Magnesia
MG 12.0 0.35 0.38 0.42 0.46
Class E
Fig. 1-30: Properties of Insulation
Fig. 1-31 shows an alternative way to enter the insulation thickness for each pipe section. It uses
the recommended thickness for insulation code MG and pipe material code S40 as an example

Pipe Size Temperature Range (oF)

(in) 110 160 210 250 300 400 500
1/2 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2.5
3/4 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2.5
1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2.5
1 1/4 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2.5
1 1/2 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2.5
2 1 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2.5
2 1/2 1 1 1 2 2 2.5 3
3 1 1 1 2 2 2.5 3
4 1 1 1 2 2 2.5 3
5 1 1 1 2 2 2.5 3
6 1 1 1 2 2 3 3.5
8 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 2 3 3.5
10 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3 3.5
12 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3 3.5
14 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
16 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
18 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
20 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
22 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
24 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
26 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
28 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
30 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
32 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
34 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
36 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
42 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
48 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 4
Fig. 1-31: Insulation Thickness vs. Pipe Size and Temperature

Insulation Type: 85% Magnesia / Class E.

Cross-Checking Tables
Fig. 1-32 shows the various types of pipe materials used for different types of piping systems.
Pipe S40 S80 ST XS Cl 125 CK CL CM PVC CPVC

Material
Sched Sched X 125 psi
Std Wt Type K Type L Type M Sched Sched
40 80 Strong Cast
Steel Copper Copper Copper 40 PVC 40 CPVC
System Steel Steel Steel Iron
Chilled
X X
Water
Condenser
X X
Water
Hot Water
X X X
(HVAC)
Domestic
X X X X
Cold Water
Domestic
X X X X
Hot Water
Glycol X
Brine X
Diesel X X X
Gasoline
Storm
X X X X
Drainage
Sanitary
X X X X
Drainage
Sanitary
Vents
Fuel Gas X
High Temp.
X X X
Hot Water
Steam X X X
Condensat
X X X
e
Fig. 1-32: System vs. Pipe Material
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings

23 & Merrill, LLP 23
EL FG UF PF CS MG
SYSTEMS
INSULATION Elasto- Fibrous Uretha
ne
85%
Phenoli Calcium Magnes
meric Glass Foam c Foam Silicate ia
CW Chilled Water X X X X
C Condensed Water X
HW Hot Water HVAC X
DCW Domestic Cold Water X X X X
DHW Domestic Hot Water X X X
GLYCOL Glycol X X X
BRINE Brine X X X
DIESEL Diesel
GASOL Gasoline
STORM Storm Drainage
DRAIN Sanitary Drainage
VENT Sanitary Vents
FUELGAS Fuel Gas
HTHW High Temp. Hot X X X
Water
STEAM Steam X X X
COND Condensate X X X
Fig. 1-33: System vs. Insulation

Fixture Unit Data:
Fixture units are used to estimate the flow quantities in domestic water supply and sanitary
drainage systems. Fixture units are quantitative values associated with the fixture to account for
the diversity of usage (not all fixtures are in use at the same time)
The total fixture unit data is used to calculate the flow rate in the main section. If a diversity
factor is also entered for the main section, then first calculate the flow based on the sum of all
total fixture units in the system, and multiply this flow by the diversity factor.
The remaining system analysis and design procedures are described in earlier sections of this
engineering basis and are summarized below.
 A flow rate is assigned to all sections in the network based on the required flow rate at
the fixtures. See Network Analysis.
 Pipe sizing options can be based on pressure drop per unit length, velocity or maximum
flow. See Sizing Criteria.
 The Colebrook-White and Darcy-Weisbach equations are used to calculate the pressure
losses through pipe sections. See Pipe Sizing.
 Fitting and valve loss calculations can be based on velocity pressure factors, K, or
equivalent lengths, L/D. See Fittings and Valves.
 Heat gains and losses and temperature changes in the system are based on the thermal
data that you can specify in the input forms. See Thermal Analysis.
 Static and dynamic heads are calculated for all nodes in the pipe network. See Circuit
Pressure Analysis.
 The system can be designed to provide the minimum pressure required at fixtures and
maintain the maximum pressure limit at the water main. See Circuit Balancing.
 The primary pump station is analyzed if a primary pump is used to develop the pressure
in the main pipe section. See Pump Performance Based on System Requirements.
 Booster pumps can be located in any supply pipe circuit to increase the pressure in the
circuit. See Network Analysis.
 Pressurization tanks can be located on the discharge side of the pump, on the suction
side of the pump, or at the high point of the pipe system. See Pressurization Tanks.

Sizing Criteria
The values, shown in Fig. 1-34, were obtained by reading points along lines drawn between two
points in ASHRAE Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals, Figure 1, p. 34.3. The criteria is based on the
following points in that figure.
Criteria Point 1 Point 2
Low 3 ft/100 ft for 1/2-in. pipe 10 ft/sec for 24-in. pipe
Design 5 ft/100 ft for 1/2-in. pipe 12 ft/sec for 24-in. pipe
High 7 ft/100 ft for 1/2-in. pipe 15 ft/sec for 24-in. pipe
Maximum 8 ft/100 ft for 1/2-in. pipe 18 ft/sec for 24-in. pipe
Pipe Criteria Low Criteria: Design Criteria: High Criteria: Maxim
Size P.D. / Veloc. Flow P.D. / Veloc. Flow P.D. / Veloc. Flow P.D. / Veloc. Flow
100 ft (ft/sec) (gpm) 100 ft (ft/sec) (gpm) 100 ft (ft/sec) (gpm) 100 ft (ft/sec) (gpm)
3/8 3.3 1.5 0.70 5.5 1.85 0.95 7.5 2.25 1.25 8.5 2.5 1.25
1/2 3.0 1.6 1.5 5.0 2.2 2.0 7.0 2.7 2.5 8.0 2.8 2.75
3/4 2.6 1.9 3.0 4.5 2.5 4.1 6.5 3.0 5.0 7.3 3.3 5.5
1 2.5 2.2 6.0 4.1 2.75 7.5 6.0 3.5 9.0 6.8 3.8 10
1 1/4 2.25 2.5 12 3.8 3.25 15 5.6 3.9 17 6.4 4.5 20
1 1/2 2.2 2.7 17 3.5 3.5 22 5.2 4.2 27 6.3 5.0 30
2 2.0 3.0 32 3.2 3.9 40 4.9 5.0 50 6.0 5.5 55
2 1/2 1.8 3.4 52 3.0 4.5 65 4.6 5.5 80 5.5 5.9 90
3 1.7 3.8 90 2.8 5.0 120 4.3 5.8 130 5.3 6.5 160
4 1.6 4.1 170 2.6 5.5 210 3.9 6.5 260 5.0 7.5 300
5 1.5 5.0 300 2.4 6.0 390 3.7 7.5 480 4.8 8.5 550
6 1.5 5.5 500 2.2 6.5 600 3.4 8.1 750 4.5 9.5 850
8 1.3 6.0 950 2.1 7.5 1200 3.2 9.1 1500 4.2 10.5 1700
10 1.25 7.0 1650 1.80 8.5 2100 3.0 10.0 2500 4.0 12.0 3000
12 1.2 7.5 2500 1.70 9.0 3200 2.8 11.0 4000 3.8 13.2 4600
14 1.1 7.8 3200 1.65 9.5 4000 2.7 11.5 5000 3.7 13.5 6000
16 1.1 8.2 4500 1.60 10.0 5500 2.60 12.0 7000 3.5 14.8 8000
18 1.05 8.8 6000 1.55 10.5 7500 2.50 13.25 9000 3.4 15.5 11000
20 1.02 9.0 8000 1.60 11.5 9700 2.40 13.5 12000 3.3 16.5 14500
22 1.05 9.7 10000 1.55 11.8 12500 2.35 14.4 16000 3.2 17.4 19000
24 1.00 10.0 12000 1.50 12.0 15000 2.30 15.0 19000 3.1 18.0 22000
26 1.00 10.5 14000 1.45 12.3 17000 2.25 15.5 22000 3.1 18.7 26000
28 0.95 11.0 16500 1.45 12.6 20000 2.25 16.0 25000 3.05 19.4 31000
30 0.95 11.5 20000 1.40 13.0 23000 2.20 16.5 29000 3.05 20.0 36000
32 0.93 11.7 24000 1.36 13.2 26000 2.13 16.7 33000 3.03 20.6 41000
34 0.91 11.9 26000 1.33 13.4 30000 2.06 16.9 37000 3.01 21.3 46000
36 0.90 12.0 28000 1.30 13.5 33000 2.00 17.2 42000 3.0 22.0 52000
42 0.85 12.5 36000 1.25 14.5 44000 1.95 18.0 55000 2.95 22.0 65000
48 0.80 13.0 45000 1.20 15.0 52000 1.85 18.0 65000 2.80 22.0 75000
Fig. 1-34: Pipe Sizing Criteria

Fittings and Valves
Dynamic Pressure Losses
Dynamic pressure losses are a function of the geometry of the fitting or valve, and the flow
velocity. There are two methods for determining the dynamic pressure losses through valves
and fittings. In the first method, the velocity pressure is multiplied by a resistance factor K. The
K factor is a function of the fitting or valve type and its diameter.
2
V
PD (fitting / valve) = K 
2g
where: PD = pressure drop through fitting or valve

K = resistance factor for fitting or valve
V = fluid velocity
2g = gravitational constant
Fig. 1-35 and Fig. 1-36 show the coefficient C and exponent E for the equation that determines
the resistance factor K at varying diameters. The equation is:
K = C  (diameter )E
Default values for C and E are shown in Fig. 1-35 and Fig. 1-36.
Values for water were estimated by reading off points from graphically presented data in the
Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data Book, pp. 58 and 59. That data is reproduced with permis-
sion in Fig. 1-39 and Fig. 1-40 in this engineering basis.
Values for glycol, brine, diesel and gasoline were based on the water K factors using K x 1/specific
gravity + 10%. Apply a contingency factor of 10% to account for the range of available qualities
and types for these liquids.
Another method to estimate pressure losses in valves and fittings is to use equivalent length to
diameter (L/D) ratios for different fluid types. Fig. 1-37 and Fig. 1-38 show default L/D. All values
are approximations.
The pressure loss through the fitting or valve is the frictional loss through an equivalent length of
pipe calculated using the Colebrook and Darcy-Weisbach equations.
L d (diameter)
L (Equivalent Length) = 
D 12

where L = length (ft)

D = diameter (ft)
d = diameter (in.)
The K factor for 90o bends of uniform diameters is shown in Fig. 1-41 (reproduced with
permission from the Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data Book, 1979). The K factor for
enlargement and contractions is obtained from these equations:
Resistance factor K for sudden and gradual enlargements in pipes

If   45 , If 45 <   180 ,

K 1 = 2.6 sin
2

1- 2
2
 
K1= 1 - 
2

2
Resistance factor K for sudden and gradual contractions in pipes.

If   45 , If 45 <   180 ,
K 1 = 0.8 sin

2

1-  2  
K 1 = .5 sin  / 2 1 - 
2

where  = Angle of convergence or divergence in enlargements or contractions in pipes

 = Ratio of smaller to larger pipe diameter

Velocity Pressure Factor K

Fitting Identification
No. Name Coefficient Exponent Description
C E
1 90EL1 1.50 -0.6092 Regular - screwed
90 elbow
Regular - flanged
3 90EL3 0.45 -0.2530
90 elbow
Long radius - flanged
4 90EL4 0.40 -0.4630
90 elbow
Regular - screwed
5 45EL1 0.35 -0.1365
45 elbow
6 45EL2 0.22 -0.1414
45 elbow
7 BEND1 1.35 -0.50 Screwed return bend
Regular - flanged return
8 BEND2 0.425 -0.2550
bend
9 BEND3 0.425 -0.5182
return bend
10 TEE1 (line flow) 0.90 0.0 Screwed tee
TEE1 (branch
11 1.85 -0.3747 Screwed tee
flow)
12 TEE3 (line flow) 0.265 -0.4695 Flanged tee
TEE3 (branch
13 1.00 -0.2851 Flanged tee
flow)
14 STRAIN 2.40 -0.5609 Basket strainer
15 UNION 0.083 -0.6644 Couplings & unions
16 INLET1 0.05 0.0 Inlet - bell mouthed
17 INLET2 0.50 0.0 Inlet - square edged
18 OUTLET 1.0 0.0 Outlet - all types
Fig. 1-35: Typical Fitting K Factors: S40 Pipe and Water (pressure loss calculation)

Velocity Pressure Factor

E
Valve Identification K = C (diameter)
No. Name Valve Description
Coefficient Exponent
C E
1 ANGLE1 4.50 -1.169 Angle Screwed

2 ANGLE2 4.25 -0.6861 Angle Flanged
3 BALANCING 12.50 -0.6438 Balancing
4 BALL 0.240 -0.4499 Ball
5 BFLY 12.50 -0.6438 Butterfly
6 CHECK1 3.50 -0.6374 Check Swing - Screwed
7 CHECK2 2.00 0.0 Check Swing - Flanged
8 GATE1 0.240 -0.4499 Gate - Screwed
9 GATE2 1.00 -1.1714 Gate - Flanged
10 GATE_EM 0.240 -0.4499 EM Gate
11 GATE_AM 0.240 -0.4499 AM Gate
12 GLOBE1 12.50 -0.6438 Globe - Screwed
13 GLOBE2 12.50 -0.3602 Glove - Flanged
14 GLOBE_EM 12.50 -0.6438 EM Globe
15 GLOBE_AM 12.50 -0.6438 AM Globe
16 LCK_SHLD 0.240 -0.4499 Lock shield
17 PLUG 12.50 -0.6438 Plug, cock
18 PRV 0.240 -0.449 Pressure Reducing
19 QUK_OPN 12.50 -0.6438 Quick Open
20 PREG 0.240 -0.449 Pressure Regulating
21 RELIEF 0.0 0.0 Relief (safety)
22 SOLEN 12.50 -0.6438 Solenoid
23 FOOT 0.80 0.0 Foot
24 OTHER 0.0 0.0 Other
Fig. 1-36: Typical Valve K Factors: S40 Pipe and Water (pressure loss calculation)

L/D Ratio = Equivalent Length / Diameter Fitting Description

Fitting Identification
No. Name Stea
Water Glycol Brine diesel Gasol Gas
m
90EL1 regular - screwed

1 45 53 61 45 36 30 35
90 elbow
long radius -
2 90EL2 25 29 34 25 20 15 20
screwed 90 elbow
regular - flanged
3 90EL3 45 53 61 45 36 30 35
90 elbow
long radius - flanged
4 90EL4 25 29 34 25 20 15 20
90 elbow
regular - screwed
5 45EL1 25 29 34 25 20 20 25
45 elbow
6 45EL2 15 18 20 15 12 15 20
45 elbow
screwed
7 BEND1 90 105 123 90 72 70 75
return bend
regular - flanged
8 BEND2 90 105 123 90 72 70 75
return bend
9 BEND3 50 59 68 50 40 45 45
return bend
10 TEE1 line 20 24 27 20 16 20 25 screwed tee
11 TEE1 branch 65 76 89 65 52 65 70 screwed tee
12 TEE3 line 20 24 27 20 16 20 25 flanged tee
13 TEE3 branch 65 76 89 65 52 65 70 flanged tee
14 STRAINER 90 105 123 90 72 70 75 basket strainer
15 UNION 45 53 61 45 36 30 35 couplings & unions
16 INLET1 20 24 27 20 16 20 25 inlet bell-mouthed
17 INLET2 45 53 61 45 36 30 35 inlet square edged
18 OUTLET 65 76 89 65 52 65 70 outlet all types
Fig. 1-37: Typical Fitting Equivalent Length Data ( L/D Factors)

Valve Identif. L/D Ratio = Equivalent Length / Diameter Valve

No. Name Description
Water Glycol Brine Diesel Gasol. Steam Gas
1 ANGLE1 175 205 238 175 140 150 200 angle-screwed
2 ANGLE2 175 205 238 175 140 150 200 angle-flanged
3 BALANCING 350 410 477 350 280 30 350 balancing
4 BALL 10 12 14 10 8 10 10 ball
5 BFLY 50 59 68 50 40 0 0 butterfly
check swing -
6 CHECK1 150 176 204 150 120 75 100 screwed
check swing -
7 CHECK2 150 176 204 150 120 75 100 flanged
8 GATE1 10 12 14 10 8 10 10 gate - screwed
9 GATE2 10 12 14 10 8 10 10 gate - flanged
10 GATE_EM 10 12 14 10 8 10 10 EM gate
11 GATE_AM 10 12 14 10 8 10 10 AM gate
12 GLOBE1 350 410 477 350 280 300 350 globe - screwed
13 GLOBE2 350 410 477 350 280 300 350 globe - flanged
14 GLOBE_EM 350 410 477 350 280 300 350 EM globe
15 GLOBE_AM 350 410 477 350 280 300 350 AM globe
16 LCK_SHLD 10 12 14 10 8 10 10 lock shield
17 PLUG 150 176 204 150 120 130 150 plug, cock
18 PRV 10 12 14 10 8 10 10 pressure reducing
19 QUK_OPN 350 410 477 350 280 300 350 quick open
20 PREG 10 12 14 10 8 10 10 pressure regulator
21 RELIEF 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 relief (safety)
22 SOLEN 350 410 477 350 280 300 350 solenoid
23 FOOT 50 59 68 50 40 0 0 foot
24 OTHER 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 other
Fig. 1-38: Typical Valve Equivalent Length Data

Fig. 1-39 & Fig 1-40: Resistance Coefficients of Fittings & Valves
Fig. 1-41: Resistance Coefficients

of 90o Bends
Pressure Drop Through Control Valves

Liquids
Control valves are associated with sections with terminal equipment. The valve flow coefficient
Cv is defined as the flow in U.S. gallons per minute of water at 60F with a pressure drop of 1 psi.
Cv is a measure of the valve flow capacity and is determined by flow tests.
Q = Cv PD (62.4 /  )
where Q = flow (GPM)
Cv = valve flow coefficient
PD = pressure drop through valve at full flow and standard conditions (psi)
 = weight density of fluid (lb/cu ft)
The pressure drop for water and liquids at other temperatures is calculated using the equation:
 l  1 
0.25
PD1 = PD s
 s  s 
where PD = pressure drop through valve (psi)
 = density of liquid (lb/cu ft)
 = kinematic viscosity (sq ft/sec)
l,s = subscripts representing given liquid and standard liquid (water at 60F)
The pressure drop in psi is converted to feet of liquid with the equation:
pd l  144
PD =
l
where PD = pressure drop through valve (liquids)
Steam
The equation for pressure drop for steam at full flow using the valve flow coefficient is:
Q / 3 C v 2
PD st =
P
where PDst = pressure drop through valve (psi)

Q = flow rate through section (lb/hr)
Cv = control valve coefficient
P = leaving pressure at control valve or minimum supply pressure to terminal
equipment (psia)

Note: A minimum supply pressure to the terminal equipment is required for Equation 11. If
you do not specify a valve for this input field, the default value will be assumed.
Domestic Water Fixtures
Terminal equipment definitions for domestic hot and cold water use the data categories shown
in Fig. 1-42. The supply code for flush valve is VALVE and for flush tanks, TANK. If you use these
codes, then the quantity of fixture units for the valve or tank is converted into flow GPM
according to Fig. 1-43. For other fixture types, you can estimate the terminal flow GPM. Supply
pressure must account for the minimum pressure and pipe size connection for the fixture.
Mini Trminl Private Use Public Use Minimum

Supply Fixture Units Fixture Units Connection
Descript. Press Flow
Code
PSIG GPM Cold Hot Tot Cold Hot Tot Cold Hot
Bathroom TANK 8 0 4.5 3 6 4.5 3 6 1/2 1/2

Group
Bathroom VALVE 8 0 6 3 8 4.5 3 6 1/2
1
Group
Water Closet TANK 8 0 3 0 3 5 0 5 3/8 0
Water Closet VALVE 15 0 6 0 6 10 0 10 1 0
Urinal TANK 8 0 3 0 3 3 0 3 3/8 0
Urinal VALVE 8 0 4 0 4 5 0 5 1 0
Shower Head TANK 8 3 2 2 3 4 4 5 1/2 1/2
Bathtub TANK 8 4 7.5 7.5 10 7.5 7.5 10 1/2 1/2
Lavatory TANK 8 2 1 1 1.5 2 2 3 3/8 3/8
Service Sink TANK 8 3 2 2 3 4 4 5 1/2 3/4
Kitchen Sink TANK 8 3 2 2 3 4 4 5 1/2 1/2
Restaurant TANK 8 3 3 3 4 3 3 4 1/2 1/2
Sink
Drinking TANK 8 2 1 0 1 2 0 2 3/8 0
Fountain
Dish Washer TANK 8 3 2 2 3 3 3 4 3/8 3/8
Clothes TANK 8 4 2 2 3 3 3 4 1/2 1/2
Washer
Fig. 1-42: Fixture Data: Domestic Hot and Cold Water

Flow Fixture Units Flow Fixture Units Flow Fixture Units

GPM Tank Valve GPM Tank Valve GPM Tank Valve
1 0 45 107 37 145 611 521
2 1 46 111 39 150 638 559
3 3 47 115 42 155 665 596
4 4 48 119 44 160 692 631
5 6 49 123 46 165 719 666
6 7 50 127 48 170 748 700
7 8 51 130 50 175 778 739
8 10 52 135 52 180 809 775
9 12 53 141 54 185 840 811
10 13 54 146 57 190 874 850
11 15 55 151 60 200 945 931
12 16 56 155 63 210 1018 1009
13 18 57 160 66 220 1091 1091
14 20 58 165 69 230 1173 1173
15 21 59 170 73 240 1254 1254
16 23 60 175 76 250 1335 1335
17 24 62 185 82 260 1418 1418
18 26 64 195 88 270 1500 1500
19 28 66 205 95 280 1583 1583
20 30 68 215 102 290 1668 1668
21 32 70 225 108 300 1755 1755
22 34 5 72 236 116 310 1845 1845
23 36 6 74 245 124 320 1926 1926
24 39 7 76 254 132 330 2018 2018
25 42 8 78 264 140 340 2110 2110
26 44 9 80 275 148 350 2204 2204
27 46 10 82 284 158 360 2298 2298
28 49 11 84 294 168 370 2388 2388
29 51 12 86 305 176 380 2480 2480
30 54 13 88 315 186 390 2575 2575
31 56 14 90 326 195 400 2670 2670
32 58 15 92 337 205 410 2765 2765
33 60 16 94 348 214 420 2862 2862
34 63 18 96 359 223 430 2960 2960
35 66 20 98 370 234 440 3060 3060
36 69 21 100 380 245 450 3150 3150
37 74 23 105 406 270 500 3620 3620
38 78 25 110 431 295 550 4070 4070
39 83 26 115 455 329 600 4480 4480
40 86 28 120 479 365 700 5380 5380
41 90 30 125 506 396 800 6280 6280
42 95 31 130 533 430 900 7280 7280
43 99 33 135 559 460 1000 8300 8300
44 103 35 140 585 490
Fig. 1-43: Conversions: Gallons per Minute to Fixture Units

(reproduced with permission from ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, p. 3-8)

Gas Appliances
Fig. 1-44 shows the approximate gas demand for common appliances. These default values were
obtained from the ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, Fundamentals of Plumbing Design, 1983-1984, p. 6-8.
The heating value of the gas is used to convert the Btu/hr value into cu ft/hr flow of gas.
Appliance Output
Btu/hr
Commercial kitchen equipment:
Small broiler 30,000
Large broiler 60,000
Combination broiler and roaster 66,000
Coffee maker, 3-burner 18,000
Coffee maker, 4-burner 24,000
Deep fat fryer, 45 lbs of fat 50,000
Deep fat fryer, 75 lbs of fat 75,000
Doughnut fryer, 200 lbs of fat 72,000
2-deck baking and roasting oven 100,000
3-deck baking oven 96,000
Revolving oven, 4 or 5 trays 210,000
Range with hot top and oven 90,000
Range with hot top 45,000
Range with fry top and oven 100,000 Fig. 1-44: Common Appliances:
Range with fry top 50,000 Approximate Gas Demand
Coffee urn, single, 5 gallon 28,000 (reproduced with permission from ASPE
Data Book, Vol. 1, p. 3-8.)
Coffee urn, twin, 10 gallon 56,000
Coffee urn, twin, 15 gallon 84,000
Residential equipment:
Clothes dryer 35,000
Range 65,000
Stove top burners 40,000
Oven 25,000
30-gallon water heater 30,000
40- to 50-gallon water heater 50,000
Log lighter 25,000
Barbecue 50,000
Miscellaneous equipment:
Commercial log lighter 50,000
Bunsen burner 3,000
Gas engine, per horsepower 10,000
Steam boiler, per horsepower 50,000

Thermal Analysis
The heat gain/loss and temperature calculation options apply to liquids and steam only.
You can choose between two options for determining the fluid temperature in each pipe section.
In the first option, you can assume an average supply and return fluid temperature for all supply
and return sections. This data is used to calculate the fluid properties. An example of the use of
average temperatures is 200 oF supply and 160 oF return for a hot water heating system.
In the case of un-insulated pipes and high temperature steam and hot water, the supply
temperature at each terminal must be calculated. This is done by calculating the entering and
leaving temperature of each supply section, beginning with the initial temperature of the first
section. The first section must be identified. In the case of liquids, the first section is the section
downstream of the pump station.
The entering temperature of any supply section is the leaving temperature of the upstream
section. You can reset the leaving section temperature for sections that have primary
equipment.
The following equations are used to calculate liquid and steam heat gains and losses:
T avg - T amb
Qs =
Ro Rs
R s log e R s log e
Ri + Ro + 1 / h
K1 K2
where Qs = rate of heat transfer per square foot of outer surface (Btu/hr sq ft)
Tavg = average temperature of section (F)
Tamb = temperature of ambient air (F)
Ri = inside radius of pipe, (in.)
Ro = outside radius of pipe, (in.)
Rs = outside radius of insulation (in.) - Ro + insulation thickness
K1 = thermal conductivity of pipe (Btu in./hr sq ft F)
K2 = thermal conductivity of insulation (Btu in./hr sq ft F)
1/h = outside surface resistance (hr sq ft F/Btu in. = 0.6)
Equation 12 is based on heat flow Equations 11 and 12 in ASHRAE Handbook: 1981

Fundamentals, p. 23.8. The average temperature of the section is the mean value of the
temperatures entering and leaving the section. Since the leaving temperature is unknown, the
average temperature is calculated iteratively.
Q s = q s  As
where Qs = total rate of heat transfer from pipe section (Btu/hr)
As = outside surface area of pipe (sq ft)

The temperature of the liquid flowing through the pipe section is obtained from Equation 14.
The procedure for determining steam temperature changes is described in Steam Piping.
Q s (Btu / hr)
dT s =
 gal.   cu ft   min .  lb   btu 
Fs    0.13368   x 60   x Df   xCp  lb F 
 min .  gal.   hr   cu ft 
where dTs = change in liquid temperature in section (F)

Fs = flow through section (GPM)
Df = density of liquid (lb/cu ft)
Cp = specific heat of liquid (Btu/lb F)
Tl=Te - d Ts
where Tl = temperature of fluid leaving section (F)
Te = temperature of fluid entering section (F)
T l +T e
T avg =
2
The average temperature Tavg in Equation 12 depends on the leaving section temperature in
Equation 16. The procedure consists of initializing the leaving temperature to the entering
section temperature and then iterating through Equations 12 through 16 until a steady state
value of Tavg occurs.
Pipe Sizing
The general principles of pipe sizing are described in the ASHRAE Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals,
Chapter 34, p. 34.1. The Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equations are used to calculate
the pressure drop in a pipe section due to fluid friction. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is:
L V2 
 h= f   2 g 
D  
where h = head loss due to friction (ft)
f = friction factor, dimensionless
D = inside diameter of pipe (ft)
L = length of pipe section (ft)
V = average velocity (ft/sec)
g = acceleration of gravity (ft/sec2)

The friction factor f is a function of the pipe roughness , inside diameter D and a dimensionless
parameter, the Reynolds number.
Dv
R e=

where  = fluid density at given temperature (lb/cu ft)
 = dynamic viscosity of fluid (lb/ft sec)
The ratio / is the kinematic viscosity in sq ft/sec
Laminar flow exists where Re < 2100. For this condition, the friction factor f is obtained from:
64
f=
Re
Where Re > 2100, the flow is assumed to be turbulent. The Moody diagram that relates the
friction factor f with Reynolds number and the relative roughness /D is shown in ASHRAE
Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals, p. 2.10, fig. 13. The Colebrook-White equation for turbulent
flow, shown in Equation 20, is used for the friction factor f.
1  9.3 
= 1.14 + 2 log 10 (D /  ) - 2 log 10 1 + 
f  R e (  / D ) f 
where  = absolute roughness of inside pipe wall (ft)
For fully rough flow, the value of Reynolds number is high and the last term in Equation 20 can
be neglected. Equation 21 can be used in its place.
1 D
= 1.14 + 2 log10  
f  
Equation 20 is used to calculate the friction factor f for turbulent flow. The Newton-Raphson
iterative method is used to solve for f since f appears on both sides of the equation. The initial
value of f for this iteration is obtained from Equation 21. As Reynolds number increases, the
values from Equation 20 approach those that would be obtained by applying Equation 21 directly
for fully rough flow.
Pipe sizing and the size of each pipe section depend on your criteria (See Sizing Criteria in this
engineering basis). The criteria can be based on the limits for pressure loss per 100 ft, maximum
velocity or maximum flow. The sizing iteration consists of comparing the pressure drop/100 ft,
velocity or flow against the limits you specify. This is done for each standard pipe size, beginning

with the smallest size and continuing until a size is found that meets the criteria. When the
maximum pipe size limit is reached, you must use your engineering judgement to decide whether
to:
 maintain the sizing criteria and increase the pipe size above the maximum limit or
 maintain the pipe size limit and calculate the new criteria for this size.
Steam Piping
Steam distribution network pipe sizing requires flow rates and sizing criteria for the pipe
sections. The flow rate for dry steam or steam with a small amount of water (condensate) is in
accordance with the laws of fluid flow. The flow is a function of these properties:
Steam
Pipe
temperature
length
pressure
diameter
viscosity
pressure drop
density
The Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equations (Equations 17 through 21) are used to size
steam pipes,. These equations are described in Pipe Sizing.
The flow of steam is automatically induced by the volume shrinkage that occurs when steam
gives up its latent heat and condenses. Therefore, steam flow involves the analysis of two-phase
flow. Condensate flows in the same direction as steam and must be trapped at intervals along
the pipe length. Typical pressure classifications of steam in HVAC applications include
Vacuum : less than 0 PSIG

Low pressure : 0 to 15 PSIG
Medium pressure 15 to 100 PSIG
High pressure 100 PSIG and above
The basis of pressure classification is the initial pressure. Default values are shown in Fig. 1-45.
Initial Steam Pressure Maximum Maximum Minimum

Pressure Class
Pressure Drop System Velocity Velocity
Initial PSI
(PSIG) (PSI/100 ft) P.D. (PSIG) (ft/min) (ft/min)
low 3.5 3.5 0.25 1 4000 0.0
low 12 12 0.70 3.4 4000 0.0
medium 30 30 2 7.5 6000 0.0
high 50 50 3 12.5 10000 0.0
high 100 100 4 20 10000 0.0
high 150 150 6 27.5 10000 0.0
Fig. 1-45: Steam Pipe Sizing Criteria

In addition to selecting a pressure classification, you can specify additional sizing criteria and
constraints for the project including
Initial steam pressure (PSIG)

Maximum circuit pressure drop (psi)
Pressure drop per 100 ft (psi)
Maximum velocity (ft/min)
Minimum velocity (ft/min)
The maximum system pressure drop criterion is met by successively reducing the sizes of pipe
sections for circuits that exceed the limit. This procedure is described in Circuit Balancing in this
engineering basis.
Pipe sizing iteration consists of checking the pressure drop/100 ft and the maximum velocity of
each standard pipe size of a given pipe material against your sizing criteria. This sequence begins
with the smallest pipe size and continues until the required size is found or the maximum pipe
size limit for the given material is reached.
The general laws of gas flow can be used in sizing steam pipes. This assumes that the steam
temperature and pressure maintains the steam quality above its saturation level (gas) and the
small amount of condensate in the system flows in the same direction as the steam.
In the program, you can enter graphic and text input to a steam supply system and its
condensate return system simultaneously since they serve the same terminal equipment. The
two systems are analyzed separately. Flow quantities for the terminal equipment are not
automatically transferred from steam supply to condensate return since the quality of steam
downstream of the terminal equipment depends on the equipment type, heat losses, pressure
losses, steam traps, sub-cooling, and other design factors.
Return systems are described in Steam Condensate Return Piping in this engineering basis.
Changes in Steam Conditions

Fig. 1-46 shows steam flow and heat loss conditions for a pipe section.
Fig. 1-46: Changes in Steam Conditions
The changes in steam conditions for a section are due to heat loss and pressure loss. For a given
section,

P1, P2 = entering and leaving pressure (lbf/sq ft absolute)

V1, V2 = entering and leaving specific volume (cu ft/lbm)
T1, T2 = entering and leaving temperatures ( Kelvin)
dQ = heat loss in section (Btu/lbm)
dP = pressure loss in section due to friction and fittings (lbf/sq ft)
P1, V1 and T1 are set equal to the corresponding leaving conditions in the upstream section. The
pressure loss dP is calculated using your sizing criteria. The leaving pressure is calculated using
the equation:
P 2 = P 1 - dP
The amount of steam condensed in the pipe depends on dQ (heat loss) and dP (pressure loss).
Each of these factors by itself produces condensate. Condensation results in an increase in the
specific volume (expansion).
To find the temperature and specific volume due to pressure losses, you should assume
polytropic expansion.
n -1
 P2  n
T 2= T1  
 P1 
where P1 and T1 = the initial pressure and temperature

P2 and T2 = the final pressure and temperature
n = index of expansion or compression, = 1.31 (approx.) for steam
1
 P1  n
V 2 =V 1  
 P2 
where V1 and V2 = initial and final specific volumes
If the specific volume V2 is less than the specific volume Vs2 of saturated steam at pressure P2,
then the steam is wet and the dryness fraction q2, due to the pressure drop only, is the ratio
V2/Vs2. The volume of liquid can be neglected.
Steam Condensate Quantity

The amount of steam condensing in the pipe is calculated from the General Energy Equation:
d Q=d U + d W
where dQ = heat gained (+ve) or lost (-ve) (Btu/hr/lbm)
dU = change in internal energy

dW = work done in moving from state 1 (entry) to state 2 (exit) dQ, dU and dW
in heat units
n P 1 V 1 - P 2 V 2 
d Q = H 2 - H 1  +
J (n - 1)
where dQ = heat gained (+ve) or lost (-ve) (Btu/hr/lbm)

H1, H2 = enthalpies at entry and exit (Btu/lbm)
P1, P2 = pressure at entry and exit (lb/sq ft absolute)
V1, V2 = specific volume at entry and exit (cu ft/lbm)
n = index of expansion or compression, = 1.31 (approx.) for steam
J = Joules Mechanical Equivalent of Work (=778)
Equation 26 is based on the general expansion and compression law for gasses (PVn = Constant).
The only unknown quantity in the equation is the enthalpy change (H2 - H1).
Equation 26 can be rearranged as
n P 1 V 1 - P 2 V 2 
H 2= H1+d Q -
J (n - 1)
The dryness fraction of steam at the exit point 2 due to pressure loss and heat loss can be
calculated from
H 2 = h f 2 + x2 h f g 2
H2-hf 2
x2 =
hf g2
where x2 = dryness fraction at exit

hf2 = enthalpy of saturated liquid at exit (Btu/lbm)
hfg2 = enthalpy of evaporation at exit (Btu/lbm)
The steam that condenses when it moves from entry point 1 to exit point 2 is calculated from
C 2 = 1 - x2  M 1
where C2 = condensate (lbm/hr)
M1 = mass flow of steam at entry (lbm/hr)
The procedure assumes that the condensate at the exit point 2 of the pipe section is trapped and
removed from the system. The quantity of steam remaining at point 2 is now the quantity
entering the next section or sections (junction).

If point 2 is a junction, then the remaining quantity of steam is divided between the downstream
sections in proportion to the original required flow of steam through those sections.
Steam Condensate Return Piping

The basis for sizing steam condensate return systems is found in the ASHRAE Handbook: 1985
Fundamentals, Chapter 34, p. 34.15. Steam condensate return piping systems are analyzed as a
separate stand-alone system that is independent of the steam supply systems.
Definitions
Wet Return Systems: The return pipe contains only the liquid. There is no flash vapor. This can
occur when the condensate entering the trap is sufficiently subcooled. It can also occur when
the liquid and vapor are separated and the wet return line is kept below the boiler water so that
only liquid can flow through the line.
Dry Return Systems: The condensate piping contains both saturated liquid and saturated vapor.
This is typical of most condensate return systems.
Open Return Systems: The system can be wet or dry. It is vented to the atmosphere and the
condensate line is essentially at atmospheric pressure. The driving force for returning
condensate is gravitational acceleration and the return line is sloped.
Closed Return Systems: The pressure in the condensate return line is above or below
atmospheric pressure and is not vented to the atmosphere. The driving force for returning the
condensate is pressure loss along the return line.
Condensate Return Systems
Condensate return types can be wet or dry and the system type can be open or closed. Wet
types refer to liquid only and dry types are for vapor only. Given the flow rate and sizing criteria,
the pipe sizes can be determined using the methods described below.
Sizing Methods
Wet Closed Return: The Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equations are used to size the
pipe. The sizing criterion is pressure drop per 100 ft. or maximum velocity. Equation 31 is the
Darcy-Weisbach equation modified for steam condensate return.
f L  V2
 P= x x x
144 D g c 2

where P = pressure drop (lb/in2)

f = friction factor (dimensionless)
L = length of pipe section (ft)
D = inside diameter of pipe (ft)
 = density of saturated liquid or saturated vapor
V = average velocity (ft/sec)
gc = units conversion factor = 32.2
Typical design pressure losses per unit length (P/L) are in the range of 1/16 psi to 1 psi per 100
ft. The velocity for liquid condensate systems should not exceed 150 ft/min. For vapor systems,
the velocity should not exceed 7000 ft/min. The friction factor f is calculated from the
Colebrook-White equation as described in Pipe Sizing in this engineering basis.
Wet Open Return: The pipe is assumed to be filled with liquid. Sizing is based on an equivalency
between horizontal pipe flows and sloped pipe flow as shown in Fig. 1-47. The system is vented
and flow is gravitational.
Pipe Slope 5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4
in. / 10 ft
Pressure Drop 1.805
0.18 0.361 0.540 0.722 1.084 1.44
psi / 100 ft
Fig. 1-47: Equivalency Between Sloped and Horizontal Flows

(reproduced with permission from ASHRAE Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals, Table 18, p. 34.16)
Fig. 1-47 illustrates that for increasing pipe slopes, the pressure drop/100 ft criterion also
increases and you end up with a successively smaller pipe.
Dry Open Return: This method is the same as wet open return. The fluid is assumed to be vapor.
The pipe slope is assumed to be 1 in. per 10 ft and the pressure drop/ 100 ft criterion is set at
0.361 psi. The system is vented and the flow is gravitational.
Fig. 1-48, Fig. 1-49 and Fig. 1-50 are reproduced with permission from ASHRAE Handbook: 1985
Fundamentals, Table 19, p. 34.16. For sizes and pressure losses marked a, the velocity is above
7000 ft/min.

Dry Closed Return: The condensate is assumed to be vapor. Typically, the volume fraction of
vapor in the condensate is between 0.96 and 0.99. The pipe is sized from Fig. 1-48, Fig. 1-49, and
Fig. 1-50, knowing the pressure drop criteria (psi/100 ft), initial supply pressure (PSIG), design
return pressure (PSIG), and amount of condensate flow in the pipe section.
Supply Pressure 5 PSIG Supply Pressure 15 PSIG Supply Pressure 30 PSIG

Return Pressure 0 PSIG Return Pressure 0 PSIG Return Pressure = 0 PSIG
psi/100
1/16 1/4 1 1/16 1/4 1 1/16 1/4 1
’
Diam.
1/2 240 520 1100 95 210 450 60 130 274
3/4 510 1120 2400 210 450 950 130 280 590
1 1000 2150 4540 400 860 1820 250 530 1120
1 1/4 2100 4500 9500 840 1800 3800 520 1110 2350
1 1/2 3170 6780 14,200 1270 2720 5700 780 1670 3510
2 6240 13,300 a 2500 5320 a 1540 3270 a
2 1/2 10,000 21,300 a 4030 8520 a 2480 5250 a
3 18,000 28,000 a 7200 15,200 a 4440 9360 a
4 37,200 78,000 a 14,900 31,300 a 9180 19,200 a
6 110,500 a a 44,300 a a 27,300 a a
8 228,600 a a 91,700 a a 56,400 a a
Fig. 1-48: Flow Rate (lb/hr): Dry Closed Returns
Supply Pressure 50 PSIG Supply Pressure 100 PSIG Supply Pressure 150 PSIG
Return Pressure 0 PSIG Return Pressure 0 PSIG Return Pressure = 0 PSIG
Psi/100
1/16 1/4 1 1/16 1/4 1 1/16 1/4 1
’
Diam.
½ 42 92 200 28 62 133 23 51 109
¾ 91 200 420 62 134 290 50 110 230
1 180 380 800 120 260 544 100 210 450
1 1/4 370 800 1680 250 540 1130 200 440 930
1 1/2 560 1200 2520 380 810 1700 310 660 1400
2 1110 2350 a 750 1590 a 610 1300 a
2 1/2 1780 3780 a 1200 2550 a 980 2100 a
3 3190 6730 a 2160 4550 a 1760 3710 a
4 6660 13,800 a 4460 9340 a 3640 7630 a
6 19,600 a a 13,200 a a 10,800 a a
8 40,500 a a 27,400 a a 22,400 a a
Fig. 1-49: Flow Rate (lb/hr): Dry Closed Returns, cont.

Supply Pressure = 5 PSIG Supply Pressure = 15 PSIG

Return Pressure = 0 PSIG Return Pressure = 0 PSIG
psi/100 ft 1/16 1/4 1 1/16 1/4 1
Diameter
1/2 56 120 260 43 93 200
3/4 120 260 560 93 200 420
1 240 500 1060 180 390 800
1 1/4 500 1060 2200 380 800 1680
1 1/2 750 1600 3320 570 1210 2500
2 1470 3100 6450 1120 2350 4900
2 1/2 2370 5000 10,300 1800 3780 7800
3 4230 8860 a 3200 6710 a
4 8730 18,200 a 6620 13,800 a
6 25,900 53,600 a 19,600 40,600 a
8 3,400 110,300 a 40,500 83,600 a
Fig. 1-50: Flow Rate (lb/hr): Dry Closed Returns, cont.

Gas Piping
To size fuel gas piping, you need to supply specific data such as:
 initial gas supply pressure

 maximum allowable pressure loss from the source to the most remote outlet
 gas consumption of each outlet
 maximum gas consumption (system diversity) at the source
 length of piping and the number and types of fittings in each section
 specific gravity of gas
Diversity in each section is an important factor in determining the correct gas pipe size.
The sizing procedure consists of a preliminary analysis to determine the longest circuit. The
longest circuit is usually the circuit with the longest length of piping but is also dependent on the
number of valves and fittings in the circuit. You need to add equivalent lengths of fittings and
valves to obtain the longest equivalent circuit length. This is the only distance used to determine
the sizes of all pipe sections in the network.
The flow capacities for various standard pipe sizes and for the longest circuit length are based on
these equations:
For gas pressure not exceeding 1 PSIG
0.5
 h 
Q = 3550 x K 
 S x L 
For gas pressure exceeding 1 PSIG and pipes sizes smaller than 6 in.
0.5
P x a
Q = 4830 x K 
 S x L 
The constant K for a given pipe size is:
0.5
 
 D
5

K= 
3.6
1 + + 0.03 x D 
 D 
where Q = gas flow at standard condition (cu ft/hr)

D = inside diameter of pipe (in.)
K = constant for given pipe diameter D
h = pressure drop (in. wg)
S = specific gravity of gas

L = total equivalent length of pipe circuit (ft)

P = pressure drop in circuit (psi)
a = average pressure in pipe (psi)
Equations 32, 33 and 34 can be applied to all types of fuel gases provided by the gas utility
industry. This includes both natural and manufactured gas. To size pipes for a particular type of
fuel gas, use the specific gravity of that gas. Specific gravities for typical fuel gases include 0.67
for natural gas, 0.42 for coal gas, 0.86 for producer gas from bituminous coal, 0.47 for oil gas, and
0.55 for methane. Refer to Flow of Fluids, Crane, p. A-8 for specific gravities of other gases.
For gas pressures exceeding 1 PSIG and pipe sizes equal to or larger than 6 in.
0.5394
 P 12 - P 22 
Q = 36.8 x E x D 2.6182  
 Lm 
where E = efficiency factor
= 0.92 for average operating conditions
P1 = pressure entering pipe network (psi)
P2 = pressure leaving pipe network (psi)
Lm = length of pipe circuit (miles)
Sizing procedures consist of generating a table of flow rates Q for each inside pipe diameter D for
a given maximum circuit pressure drop h. The initial trial length L is the measured length of the
longest circuit. The size of each pipe section is selected from the table of flows in the section.
Dynamic Head
Dynamic circuit pressure analysis consists of these steps:
 add the pressure losses in each section of the circuit to obtain the circuit pressure loss
 determine the highest circuit pressure loss
 set the entering pressure of the first section in the circuit as the highest circuit loss
 analyze each section in the circuit starting with the first section and moving through
each section in the fluid flow sequence
 the entering section pressure is the leaving section pressure of the upstream
section
 the leaving section pressure is the entering section pressure less the section loss
 calculate the balancing required in each circuit. This is equal to the highest circuit
pressure loss minus the given circuit pressure loss.
In the case of primary-secondary systems, the primary circuit ends at the booster pump on the
terminal equipment if there is no booster pump in the circuit.
Secondary systems are analyzed independently as separate systems. The entering pressure of
the first section in the secondary system is the pressure loss of the secondary circuit with the
highest pressure loss.

Static Head
Static head calculations apply to liquids only. The static head at any point in the piping system is
due to the weight of the column of liquid above that point.
The static heads at the start and end nodes of each pipe section in the piping system is
estimated. The static head at any node is the difference between the highest z coordinate of all
the nodes in the system and the z coordinate of the given node.
Circuit Balancing
There are two circuit balancing options:
1. Balancing to maintain a maximum limit for circuit pressure loss. This option applies to
steam systems only.
2. Balancing to minimize the amount of throttling in the circuit. This option applies to
liquid supply systems only.
Maintaining a Maximum Limit for Circuit Pressure Loss
The limiting criteria used in the balancing procedure is the minimum velocity limit for each
nominal pipe size. The iteration procedure is:
1. Calculate pressure loss through all circuits.
2. Sort the circuits in ascending order of pressure loss and find the circuit with the highest
pressure loss.
3. If the highest circuit pressure loss is less than the maximum allowed, exit the iteration
routine.
4. Calculate the pressure loss reduction required in the circuit with the highest pressure
loss (circuit pressure loss ─ maximum allowed).
5. Move through the circuit in sequence from the last section with terminal equipment to
the first supply section.
a. If the given section has an override size, proceed to the next upstream section.
b. Increase pipe size by one nominal size.
c. Calculate new pressure loss in this section and the pressure reduction in the circuit.
d. If required circuit pressure reduction is not satisfied, repeat steps 5b and 5c until
upstream section size or minimum velocity is reached.
e. When upstream section size is reached, repeat steps 5a through 5d for the next
upstream section until the first section is reached.

f. For the first section, repeat steps 5a through 5c until the required circuit reduction
is satisfied or the minimum velocity is reached.
6. Check if all the sections have reached minimum velocity (ignore override sizes). If so,
exit the iteration routine.
7. If maximum allowable circuit pressure loss is still not satisfied, start again with step 1.
Minimize the Throttling Required in Circuits
The limiting criteria used in this procedure are your design criteria for maximum velocity in the
piping system. The iteration procedure is:
1. Calculate pressure loss through all circuits.
2. Sort the circuits in ascending order of pressure loss and find the circuits with the highest
and lowest pressure loss.
3. If the circuit flag of the circuit with the lowest pressure loss indicates that the current
loss cannot be further increased, exit the iteration routine.
4. Calculate the pressure loss increase required in the circuit with the lowest pressure loss
(highest circuit pressure loss ─ lowest circuit pressure loss).
5. If the pressure loss increase from step 4 is less than or equal to 0, exit the iteration
routine.
6. Move through the circuit with the lowest pressure loss, in sequence, from the last
section with the terminal equipment to the first supply section.
a. If the given section has an override size, go to the next upstream section.
b. If the section flag indicates that the section has reached maximum velocity, then go
to the next upstream section.
c. If the next upstream section is common to other circuits, return to step 1.
d. Decrease the pipe size by one nominal size.
e. Calculate the new velocity and pressure loss in the section followed by the increase
in circuit pressure loss.
f. If the new velocity in the section is greater than the maximum velocity, then
i. Set flag indicating section size cannot be further reduced.
ii. Go to the next upstream section.

iii. Go to step 6c.
g. If the required circuit pressure increase is not satisfied, then repeat steps 6d
through 6f until the first section is analyzed.
7. Set circuit flag indicating that the circuit has been analyzed and the circuit loss cannot
be increased any further.
Go to step 1.
Pressurization Tanks
Pressurization (expansion/compression) tank sizing is based on the methods described in the
1987 ASHRAE Handbook, pp. 13.11 - 13.15. Pressurization tanks include
 Open
 Closed
Such tanks are appropriate for system types that use condenser water, chilled water, hot water,
domestic hot and cold water, glycol and brine. High-temperature hot water systems can be
designed up to operating temperatures of 280 F as stated in Equation 40.
Closed pressurization tank construction can be:

 A regular tank where the pressurizing air or gas is in contact with the liquid.
 A diaphragm tank where the air charge and liquid are permanently separated by a
diaphragm to prevent corrosion

System Volume
Pressurization tank size is based on the volume capacity of the system. System volume is
estimated in three parts:
The volume of all the pipe sections in the system. The pipe volume is converted into gallons
of liquid using the density of the liquid. The liquid temperature for determining the
density is the lowest temperature in the system.
The liquid storage capacity of all the equipment in the system. The volume storage capacity
of the terminal equipment, primary equipment and miscellaneous equipment.
Additional contingency system volume estimated as a percentage of the system volume.
Open Tank Sizing
Open tank sizing assumes that the tank is:

vented to the atmosphere
at least three feet above the highest point in the piping system
connected to the suction side of the pump

The tank volume size in gallons is estimated as a percentage of the total system volume The
minimum recommended volume is 6% in accordance with the 1987 ASHRAE Handbook.
As an alternative to sizing the tank based on the percentage of system volume, you can use the
system liquid expansion volume which is the difference in volumes at the maximum temperature
of the piping system and at the minimum temperature.
Closed Tank Sizing
Fill Pressure: The tank location with respect to the piping system affects the initial fill or
minimum pressure Pf at the tank. The tank can be at three possible locations with respect to the
system.
Tank is above the piping system
P f =V + F + A
where V = positive venting pressure; (assumes 12 ft of liquid if not known)

F = frictional piping losses from tank to pump that must be overcome to obtain
positive air venting pressure (ft of liquid as specified in input)
A = atmospheric pressure (ft of liquid)
Tank is on suction side of the pump
P f =V + H + A
where H = system static head

= distance between tank and highest point of piping system
Tank is on discharge side of the pump
P f = V + PH + A
where PH = pump head (ft of liquid) that must be added to maintain the positive pressure
at the top of the system
In all three cases, the atmospheric pressure A is added to obtain absolute pressure You must
specify either the initial fill pressure Pf or the system static head H.
Tank Sizing Equations
The following equations are used to size closed tanks:
Regular tank with operating temperatures below 160 F

E
Vt=
 P a   P a  
  -  
 P f   Po 
where Vt = minimum volume of pressurization tank (gal)

E = net pressurization of water in the system when heated from minimum to
maximum temperature (gal)
Pa = pressure in pressurization tank when water first enters tank (ft of water
absolute); this can be assumed to be atmospheric pressure
Pf = initial fill or minimum pressure of tank (ft of water absolute)
Po = maximum operating pressure of tank (ft of water absolute); you can specify
this relief valve setting
Regular tank with operating temperatures between 160 F and 280 F
 0.041 x T - 0.0466  x V s
Vt=
 P a   P a  
   
 P f   P o 
where T = maximum average operating temperature (F)

Vs = system volume calculated from the piping system dimensions (gal)
 Diaphragm tank
 0.041 x T - 0.0466  x V s
Vt=
  P f 
1  
  P o 
Cold Water Tanks
Tank sizing for chilled water systems using Equation 39 will result in tanks of very small size
because of the low pressurization coefficients (40 to 90F temperature range). For that reason,
closed compression tanks applied to chilled water systems are sized as follows:
Regular tank size is half the equivalent hot water size. The piping system is considered to be
operating from 70 F to 200 F. Diaphragm tank size is calculated from

eV s
Vt=
  P f 
1 -  
  Po  
where e = net pressurization factor for water
The lowest temperature of chilled water equals the minimum design temperature. This can be
assumed to be 35 oF. The highest temperature is the highest anticipated ambient temperature
The net pressurization factor e is obtained from Fig. 1-51.
Highest Pressurization
Temp. F Factor
90 0.0041 1-51: Net Expansion Factor:
100 0.0058 Water in Chilled Water Systems
110 0.0077
120 0.0100 (reproduced with permission from 1987 ASHRAE
130 0.0124 Handbook, Table 2, p. 13.15)
140 0.0150
150 0.0179
160 0.0209

Pump Performance Based on System Requirements

Analyses
The pump must be analyzed for the following
Total static head for open systems
Net positive suction head available (NPSHA)

Atmospheric pressure at a given altitude
Vapor pressure for liquid at a given temperature
Circuit loss on the suction side of the pump
System data
Flow and head
Domestic water flow based on total fixture units
Primary system curve of flow vs. head in tabular form
Performance required of each pump in primary pumping station

Flow and head
Brake horsepower, motor horsepower and standard motor size
Performance required of each booster pump

Flow and head
Brake horsepower, motor horsepower and standard motor size
Total Static Head for Open Systems
The total static head is based:

Static suction lift (SSL) (ft of liquid)
Static suction head (SSH) (ft of liquid)
Static discharge head (SDH) (ft of liquid)
The total static head (TSH) is calculated given the discharge head and suction lift or suction head.
TSH = SSL + SDH

TSH = SSH - SDH if SSH > SDH
TSH = SDH - SSH if SDH > SSH

Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)
NPSHA is calculated for open systems such as condenser/cooling tower systems where the water
is in contact with the atmosphere, and for high temperature hot water (HTHW) systems.
In the case of open systems NPSHA is affected by the total static head. For HTHW, NPSHA is
affected by high values of vapor pressure.
NPSHA has limited usage in closed piping systems, which include water, glycol and brine. For a
detailed explanation, refer to Pump & System Curve Data, Bell & Gossett, p. 11.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) can be defined as the head that causes liquid to flow
through the suction piping and into the eye of the impeller. This head is due to either
the pressure of the atmosphere or static head plus atmospheric pressure.
Required NPSH (NPSHR) is a function of the pump design. It varies among different pump
manufacturers, between different pumps from the same manufacturer and with the
capacity and speed of any one pump. The manufacturer supplies this quantity for the
pump.
Available NPSH (NPSHA) is a function of the piping system which includes the pump. This is
calculated based on the z-elevations of the liquid and piping system. The available
NPSH must be equal to or greater than the required NPSH of the pump.
The pumping arrangement can be as follows:
The source of liquid is above the pump:

NPSHA = atmospheric pressure (ft) + static head on suction (ft)
- friction losses in suction piping (ft) - vapor pressure of liquid (ft)
The source of liquid is below the pump:

NPSHA = atmospheric pressure (ft) - static suction lift (ft)
- friction losses in suction piping (ft) - vapor pressure of liquid (ft)

Altitude Atmospheric Pressure

ft in. Hg psia
0 29.921 14.679
500 29.38 14.414
1000 28.86 14.159
2000 27.82 13.648
3000 26.82 13.158
4000 25.84 12.677
5000 24.90 12.216
6000 23.98 11.765
7000 23.09 11.328
8000 22.22 10.901
9000 21.39 10.494
10000 20.58 10.097
Fig. 1-52: Standard Atmospheric Pressure for Altitudes

(In. Hg data reproduced with permission from ASHRAE Handbook: 1985
Fundamentals, Table 3, p. 6.12)
Vapor pressure data for the given liquid and given temperature is obtained from Fig. 1-53.
Default values for water from 60 oF to 450 oF and for diesel oil and gasoline from 0 oF to 150 oF
are shown. The frictional losses on the suction side of the pump must be calculated as required
for the NPSHA equation.

Temp. oF WATER DIESEL GASOLINE

-30
0 1.00 1.80
30 3.00 3.80
60 0.26 5.00 6.80
100 0.95 7.00 10.80
150 3.72 20.00 30.00
212 14.12
220 17.19
240 24.97
260 35.44
280 49.22
300 67.00
350 134.60
400 247.30
450 424.25
Fig. 1-53: Vapor Pressure of Liquids, psia

(water data reproduced permission from Hydraulic Handbook, pp. 84-85)
System Data
System head includes the highest circuit pressure drop in the system. It is the sum of all the
pressure losses of all the sections in the circuit. Section-by-section pressure losses are calculated
in both psi and feet of liquid at the entering section temperature and density of the liquid.
Circuit pressure losses are obtained by summing the section losses in psi and then expressed in
feet of liquid if required. This is because losses measured in feet of liquid are dependent on the
density of the liquid at different temperatures.
H c = HCPD + PSL  1 + CF / 100 

where Hc = pressure head for closed systems (psi)
HCPD = highest circuit pressure drop (psi)
PSL = pumping station losses not calculated in sectional analysis (psi)
CF = contingency factor (%)
Equation 43 applies to closed systems. For open systems, the total static head in psi is
added to the pressure head
H o = H c + TSH

where Ho = pressure head for open systems (psi)

TSH = total static head as calculated
Calculations for TSH are shown in Total Static Head for Open Systems. The system head in psi is
converted to feet of liquid at the temperature of the liquid in the pump discharge pipe section.
H 1 = H  144 / D
where H1 = system head (ft of liquid)
H = Hc for closed systems, or Ho for open systems
D = density of liquid at pump discharge section temperature (lb/cu ft)
The static heads are the z axis distances from the lowest and highest point of the piping system
to the primary pumping station. System flow Q1 is calculated as the flow in the discharge section
of the pump station. In the case of domestic water, the flow at the pump or first section, is
calculated on the basis of total fixture units, if fixture type data is entered as terminal flow.
System Curve
The primary system curve showing flow versus head is calculated from this equation:
2
Q1
H 2 = H 1   
Q 2
H2 and Q2 are points on the system curve generated by varying the value of Q2. The flow vs.
head table calculates 30 points. The intervals for Q2 are obtained by dividing the system flow Q1
by 20. The table, therefore, includes 10 points above the required system operating point of Q1,
H1.Fig. 1-54 shows system curve construction using a table generated by Equation 46.

Fig. 1-54:
reproduced courtesy of ITT

Fluid Technology Corporation from
Pump & System Curve Data, Bell &
Gossett, p. 15)
Primary Pump Performance Data
The primary pumping station can be any configuration of pumps in series and parallel. All pumps
in a pumping station are assumed to be identical.
The flow through each pump is the system flow divided by the number of parallel pump flow
paths at the station.
The head for each pump is the system head divided by the number of pumps in series in any
parallel path. All parallel paths should have the same number of pumps in series.
Brake horsepower and motor horsepower are calculated from the following equations.
GPM  H  SPGR
BHP =
 PE 
3960   1 + 
 100 
where BHP = brake horsepower

GPM = flow through each pump
H = pump head (ft of liquid)

SPGR = specific gravity of liquid at temperature in pump discharge section

PE = pump efficiency (%)
BHP
MHP =
 ME 
1+ 
 100 
where MHP = motor horsepower

ME = motor efficiency (%)
Standard motor horsepower is obtained from Fig. 1-55. It is the nearest size above MHP.
MHP MHP MHP
0.16 5 50
0.25 7.5 60 Fig. 1-55: Standard Motor Sizes
(reproduced with permission from ASHRAE
0.33 10 75
Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals, Table 24,
0.50 15 100 p. 26.25)
1 25 150
2 30 200
3 40 250
Secondary (Booster) Pumps
The flow through the booster pump is the flow through the section with the booster pump.
The booster pump head is the highest circuit pressure drop in the secondary system of circuits
downstream of the given booster pump.
Brake horsepower, motor horsepower and standard motor size are calculated in the same way as
primary pumps.
Pump Performance Based on Test Data
This section is based upon information and procedures described in the following technical
bulletins:

1. Parallel and Series Pump Application, Bell & Gossett Bulletin No. TEH-1065,
International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation, Morton Grove, 1965.
2. Pump & System Curve Data for Centrifugal Pump Selection and Application, Bell &
Gossett Bulletin No. TEH-375, International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation,
Morton Grove, 1967.
The Pump Curve
The results of pump performance tests are shown by means of a plotted curve that relates the
flow (gpm) to the pressure head produced (ft of liquid). The manufacturer establishes the pump
curve. A typical head capacity curve is shown in Fig. 1-56.
Fig. 1-56: Pump Curve

(reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid
Technology Corporation Pump &
System Curve Data, Bell &
Gossett, p. 3)
Flow
Point Head (ft) Effic. (%)
GPM
1 800.00 234.00 58.00
2 1000.00 203.00 60.00 Fig. 1-57:
Pump Test Performance Data:
3 1500.00 192.00 77.00
Pump Curve
4 2000.00 180.00 87.00
5 2500.00 167.00 89.00
6 3000.00 152.00 84.00
Pump curve (plotted test data) is based on the impeller diameter and pump rpm. From this test
data, the pump equations, piping methods and fluid dynamics can be used to estimate pump
performance for other pump speeds (rpm) and impeller diameters (in.). This includes:

Pump affinity laws

Parallel pumping
Series pumping
Combination parallel and series pumping
Pump Affinity Laws
Pump affinity laws, as published in Pump & System Curve Data, p. 6, is used to calculate the
effects of changes in impeller diameters and rotational speeds on the pump curve. These laws
state that
1. Pump gpm capacity varies directly as the speed (rpm) or impeller diameter ratio.
2. Pump head varies directly as the square of the speed (rpm) or impeller ratio.
Change GPM Capacity (Q) Ft Head (H)

2
Impeller Diameter Change D  D2 
Q 2 = 2 Q1 H2=   Q1
D1 to D2 D1  D1 
2
Speed (RPM) Change R  R2
Q 2 = 2 Q1 H 2 =   Q1
R1 to R2 R1  R1 
Where Q = gpm H = head D = impeller diameter R = rpm
Fig. 1-58: Pump Affinity Laws

(reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid Technology Corporation from Pump & System Curve Data, Bell
& Gossett, p. 3)
You can use the pump station and booster pump master or override forms to request a specific
pump performance curve from the library. These curves are based on test impeller diameter and
rpm speed. The actual pump performance curve data is calculated from the pump test curve
data that you specify, and your input for impeller diameter (in.) and speed (rpm), using the pump
affinity laws.
In Fig. 1-58, the terms Q1 H1 and R1 refer to the test data values in the library. The terms Q2 H2
and R2 refer to your input on the pump station or booster pump master or override form. The
new curve results are presented in tabular form.

Parallel Pumping
All pumps in the primary pumping station should be identical in size and type. The effect of
pumps in parallel is to divide the total system flow equally among the number of parallel pump
paths.
Fig. 1-59 is a schematic layout of pumps in parallel. The check valves at the pump discharge are
essential to prevent any short-circuit flow or pump damage when a single pump is running. Fig.
1-60 is a graphic representation of parallel pump curve construction.
Fig. 1-59: Parallel Pumping

Technology Corporation
Parallel and Series Pump
Application, Bell & Gossett, p. 2)
Fig. 1-60: Parallel Pumping Curve

Construction
(reproduced courtesy of ITT

Fluid Technology Corporation

Series Pumping
All pumps in the primary pumping station are assumed to be identical. The effect of pumps in
series is to divide the total system head equally among the number of pumps in series in any one
of the parallel pump paths. Pump curve points for pumps in series are calculated by multiplying
the head at each point by the number of pumps in series in any one of the parallel paths. The
flow remains the same through each pump in series. Fig. 1-61 is a schematic layout of pumps in
series. Fig. 1-62 is a practical installation of pumps in series where the pumps can be run singly
or simultaneously. Fig. 1-63 is a graphic representation of series pump curve construction.
Fig. 1-61: Series Pumping
(reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid Technology Corporation

Parallel and Series Pump Application, Bell & Gossett, p. 16)
reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid

Technology Corporation from
Parallel and Series Pump Application,
Bell & Gossett, p. 16)


Curve Construction

Combination Parallel and Series Pumping
Fig. 1-64 shows a primary pumping station consisting of a combination of pumps in parallel and
series. The pumps are assumed to be identical. The flow through each pump is the total system
flow divided by the number of parallel paths in the station. The head for each pump is the total
system head divided by the number of pumps in series in any one parallel path. Pump curve
points for the combination are calculated using the test data for a single pump.
Fig. 1-64: Combination Parallel

and Series Pumping
(reproduced courtes of ITT Fluid


Point of Operation
The point of operation of the pump on the combination of parallel and series pumps is the
intersection of the system curve described in Fig. 1-54 and the pump curve on the combined
pumping station curve. This is shown in Fig. 1-65.
Fig. 1-65: Point of Operation

Parallel and Series Pump Application, Bell &
Gossett, p. 15)
Domestic Hot and Cold Water
Domestic hot and cold water distribution systems are analyzed as open network, liquid supply
systems. Use the system code DHW or DCW. The reference libraries used by domestic water
systems include:
Properties of water in the liquid properties library, as shown in Fig. 1-19.
Pipe material properties. The library includes steel, cast iron, copper, and plastic pipe
materials, as shown in Fig. 1-23 through Fig. 1-28.
Frictional loss correction factors due to pipe age, as shown in Fig. 1-29.
Properties of insulation, as shown in Fig. 1-30 and Fig. 1-31.
System cross-checking tables for pipe materials and insulation, as shown in Fig. 1-32 and
Fig. 1-33.
Sizing criteria based on pressure drop per unit length, velocity or flow for each nominal pipe
size, as shown in Fig. 1-34.
Losses through fittings, as shown in Fig. 1-35 and Fig. 1-37.
Losses through valves, as shown in Fig. 1-36 and Fig. 1-38.

Domestic water fixture data, as shown in Fig. 1-42.
Analysis and Design Procedure
Flow rate for each fixture is entered using the deftermequip form or ovrtermequip form. The
flow at the fixture can be specified as a flow rate in gpm or as a fixture type. A fixture type refers
to a corresponding set of design data in the reference library, as shown in Fig. 1-42. The design
data consists of:
Supply Control Code:

Control code options include flush valve, flush tank, faucet, mixing valve, or other codes
you can define yourself. Faucets, mixing valves and other fixture types use the same
conversion data as flush tanks, as shown in Fig. 1-43.
Minimum Pressure:
The minimum pressure required at the fixture. The primary pump static head is
calculated to maintain this pressure. If a pump is not specified and the water main
pressure is used, you must choose the circuit balancing analysis option to maintain the
minimum pressure at the fixture and not exceed the water main pressure.
Required Flow Rate:

The required flow rate at the fixture or terminal. This value will override the supply
control code and fixture units data in the reference library.
Fixture Unit Data:

Fixture unit information can be entered in the next six fields of the library form. Fixture
units can be specified separately for private or public use. Fixture unit information can
be further subdivided and entered separately for cold and hot water systems
The total fixture unit data is used to calculate the flow rate in the main section. If a
diversity factor applies to the main section, then first calculate the flow based on the
sum of all total fixture units in the system, then multiply this flow by that diversity
factor.
Minimum Hot and Cold Water Connections:

The calculated pipe size if it is greater than the minimum connections in the reference
library.
The remaining system analysis and design procedures are described in earlier sections of this
engineering basis and are summarized below.

A flow rate is assigned to all sections in the network based on the required flow rate at the
fixtures. See Network Analysis.
Pipe sizing options can be based on pressure drop per unit length, velocity or maximum
flow. See Sizing Criteria.
The Colebrook-White and Darcy-Weisbach equations are used to calculate the pressure
losses through pipe sections. See Pipe Sizing.
Fitting and valve loss calculations can be based on velocity pressure factors, K, or equivalent
lengths, L/D. See Fittings and Valves.
Heat gains and losses and temperature changes in the system are based on the thermal
data that you can specify in the input forms. See Thermal Analysis.
Static and dynamic heads are calculated for all nodes in the pipe network. See Circuit
Pressure Analysis.
The system can be designed to provide the minimum pressure required at fixtures and
maintain the maximum pressure limit at the water main. See Circuit Balancing.
The primary pump station is analyzed if a primary pump is used to develop the pressure in
the main pipe section. See Pump Performance Based on System Requirements.
Booster pumps can be located in any supply pipe circuit to increase the pressure in the
circuit. See Network Analysis.
Pressurization tanks can be located on the discharge side of the pump, on the suction side
of the pump, or at the high point of the pipe system. See Pressurization Tanks.
Sanitary Drainage and Venting
The design of the sanitary drainage system is based on the fixture unit method. The reference
library includes a series of look-up tables and corresponding data forms you can use to specify
the data in accordance with a specific geographic location or municipal code you may need to
follow. The table format was designed to accommodate various city codes throughout the
United States. It should be flexible enough to allow any adjustments you make.
The sanitary drainage library tables, shown in Fig. 1-66 through Fig. 1-69, are:
 building drains and sewers

 horizontal fixture branches and stacks
 horizontal vent sizing
 vertical vent sizing

Sanitary Drainage Pipe Sizing
The following procedure is used to size sanitary drainage pipes:
The horizontal pipes, or branches, on each floor connected to a vertical stack are sized first.
The fixture types associated with each horizontal branch are converted into fixture units.
Fixture units handled by each pipe segment in the horizontal branch are calculated
sequentially, starting with the last fixture and working toward the vertical stack.
The pipe size for the number of fixtures is chosen using the reference library data, as shown
in Fig. 1-67.
The number of fixture units in each pipe segment in the vertical stack are calculated
sequentially, starting at the highest horizontal branch.
The pipe size is determined using the values indicated in Fig. 1-67 for stacks with three or
fewer branches, or for stacks with more than three branch intervals, as appropriate.
If the resulting pipe size for a vertical segment is smaller than that of the horizontal branch
above it, the pipe size for the vertical segment is adjusted to match that of the
horizontal branch.
The pipe size for the horizontal building drains connecting the vertical stacks is based on the
slope, the fixture units handled by each pipe segment between vertical stacks, and by
the corresponding column shown in Fig. 1-66.

Building Drains and Sewers
Maximum number of fixture units that may be connected

to any portion of the building drain or the building sewer
Diameter
of Pipe (in.) Slope Per Foot
1/16 inch 1/8 inch ¼ inch ½ inch
2 21 26
2-1/2 24 31
3 42 50
4 180 216 250
5 390 480 575
6 700 840 1000
8 1400 1600 1920 2300
10 2500 2900 3500 4200
12 2900 4600 5600 6700
15 7000 8300 10000 12000
Fig. 1-66: Building Drains and Sewers

(reproduced with permission from ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, Table 1-5, p. 1-6)
Horizontal Fixture Branches and Stacks
One Stack of Stacks with more than

Diameter Any Horizontal Three Branch three Branch Intervals
Pipe (in.) Fixture Branch Intervals or Total at one
Total for stack
Less branch interval
1-1/2 3 4 8 2
2 6 10 24 6
2-1/2 12 20 42 9
3 20 48 72 20
4 160 240 500 90
5 360 540 1100 200
6 620 960 1900 350
8 1400 2200 3600 600
10 2500 3800 5600 1000
12 3900 6000 8400 1500
15 7000
Fig. 1-67: Horizontal Fixture Branches and Stacks


Horizontal Vent Sizing
Diameter of Vent (in.)

Diameter Slope of Maximum development length of vent (ft)
Horizontal Horizontl NL= No Limit
Branch Branch
1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 4 5 6 8 10
(in.) (in./ft)
Maximum Developed Length of Vent (feet)
1/8 NL
1-1/4 1/4 NL
1/2 NL
1/8 NL NL
1-1/2 1/4 NL NL
1/2 NL NL
1/8 NL NL NL
2 1/4 290 NL NL
1/2 150 380 NL
1/8 180 450 NL NL
2-1/2 1/4 96 240 NL NL
1/2 49 130 NL NL
1/8 190 NL NL NL
3 1/4 97 420 NL NL
1/2 50 220 NL NL
1/8 190 NL NL NL
4 1/4 98 310 NL NL
1/2 48 160 410 NL
1/8 190 490 NL NL
5 1/4 97 250 NL NL
1/2 46 130 NL NL
1/8 190 NL NL NL
6 1/4 97 250 NL NL
1/2 46 130 NL NL
1/8 190 NL NL NL
8 1/4 91 310 NL NL
1/2 38 150 410 NL
1/8 190 500 NL NL
10 1/4 85 240 NL NL
1/2 32 110 NL NL
1/8 180 NL NL
12 1/4 79 420 NL
1/2 26 200 NL
Fig. 1-68: Horizontal Vent Sizing

(reproduced with permission from BOCA National Plumbing Code, Table P-902.2, p. 61)
The maximum developed length of the vent is measured from the vent connection to the open
air. Where Fig. 1-68 shows NL or no limit, the default limit is 500.

Vertical Vent Sizing

Total Diameter of Vent (in.)
Stack
FU’s
Diam. 1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
conn to
(in.) Maximum Developed Length of Vent (feet)
stack
1-1/4 2 30
8 50 150
1-1/2 10 30 100
12 30 75 200
2 20 26 50 150
2-1/2 42 30 100 300
10 42 150 360 1040
21 32 110 270 810
3 53 27 94 230 680
102 25 86 210 620
43 35 85 250 980
140 27 65 200 750
4 320 23 55 170 640
540 21 50 150 580
190 28 82 320 990
490 21 63 250 760
5 940 18 53 210 670
1400 16 49 190 590
500 33 130 400 1000
1100 26 100 310 780
6 2000 22 84 260 660
2900 20 77 240 600
1800 31 95 240 940
3400 24 73 190 720
8 5600 20 62 160 610
7600 18 56 140 560
4000 31 78 310 960
7200 24 60 240 740
10 11000 20 51 200 630
15000 18 46 180 570
7300 31 120 380 940
13000 24 94 300 720
12 20000 20 79 250 610
26000 18 72 230 500
15000 40 130 310
25000 31 96 240
15 38000 26 81 200
50000 24 74 180
Fig. 1-69: Vertical Vent Sizing
(reproduced with permission from BOCA National Plumbing Code, Table P-902.1, p. 60)
The developed length is measured from the vent connection to the open air.

Sizing Procedure
Sanitary vent systems must be developed within the same graphic model as the associated
sanitary drainage system, toggling back and forth between the two system types as necessary.
First analyze the drainage system to obtain the drainage pipe sizes, then size the associated vent
system.
Sanitary vent sizing uses the reference library look-up tables as shown in Fig. 1-68 and Fig. 1-69
Determine the length of the vent pipe from its point of connection to the drainage system to the
point of vent exit. In order to use the library look-up tables, obtain the pipe size and number of
fixture units at the point of connection, which is typically at the low point of the sanitary
drainage vertical stack.
To size vent pipes connected to a drainage stack, read from the table in Fig. 1-69, the vertical
vent stack size that corresponds to the vent pipe length, and the drainage stack diameter and
fixture units that was determined from drainage pipe sizing.
To size vent pipes connected to a horizontal drainage branch, the slope for that horizontal drain
is required. The size can be read from the table shown in Fig. 1-68. Vent piping section types
include:
 extensions
 terminal
 header
 individual
 branch
 circuit
 relief
The same sizing procedure can be used for all vent types, with the exception of the relief vent.
Relief vents use the same sizing table as horizontal vent pipes, with the drainage pipe slope as
specified in the master or override form. The vent length, however, is calculated from the point
of connection to the sanitary drainage stack to the point of connection to the vertical vent stack.

Storm Drainage
The design of the storm drainage system is based on the look-up table method. The reference
library includes a series of look-up tables and corresponding data forms you can use to specify
the data in accordance with a specific geographic location or municipal code that you may need
to follow. The table format was designed to accommodate various city codes throughout the
United States. It should be flexible enough to allow any adjustments you make.
The tables can be used to design continuous flow storm drainage systems. To design controlled
flow systems, you will need to enter the equivalent total area per drain and rainfall rate for
continuous flow.
The drain in the storm system sizing corresponds to the terminal equipment in other system
types. Gutter sizing is not included in the program and storm systems that include gutters must
be modified to convert the system into an equivalent system of roof drains, leaders and
horizontal rainwater pipes.
The storm drainage library tables, shown in Fig. 1-70 and Fig. 1-71, are:
roof drain and leader sizing
horizontal rainwater pipe sizing
Roof Drain and Leader Sizing
Rainfall Size of Drain or Leader Diameter (in.)

(in./hr.) 2 3 4 5 6 8
1 2880 8800 18400 34600 54000 111600
2 1440 4400 9200 17300 27000 58000
3 960 2930 6130 11530 17995 38660
4 720 2200 4600 8650 13500 29000
5 575 1760 3680 6920 10800 23200
6 480 1470 3070 5765 9000 19315
7 410 1260 2630 4945 7715 16570
8 360 1100 2300 4325 6750 14500
9 320 980 2045 3845 6000 12890
10 290 880 1840 3460 5400 11600
11 260 800 1675 3145 4910 10545
12 240 730 1530 2880 4500 9660
Fig. 1-70: Roof Drain and Leader Sizing

For each rainfall rate and valid nominal drain or leader diameter, you can define the area that
can be drained. The area is in square feet.

Horizontal Rainwater Pipe Sizing
Pipe Size (in.) Maximum Rainfall (in./hr)

1/8 Slope 2 3 4 5 6
3 1644 1096 822 657 548
4 3760 2506 1880 1504 1253
5 6680 4453 3340 2672 2227
6 10700 7133 5350 4280 3566
8 23000 15330 11500 9200 7600
10 41400 27600 20700 16580 13800
12 66600 44400 33300 26650 22200
15 109000 72800 59500 47600 39650
1/4 Slope 2 3 4 5 6
3 2320 1546 1160 928 773
4 5300 3533 2650 2120 1766
5 9440 6293 4720 3776 3146
6 15100 10066 7550 6040 5033
8 32600 21733 16300 13040 10866
10 58400 38950 29200 23350 19450
12 94000 62600 47000 37600 31350
15 168000 112000 84000 67250 56000
1/2 Slope 2 3 4 5 6
3 3288 2295 1644 1310 1096
4 7520 5010 3760 3010 2500
5 13360 8900 6680 5320 4450
6 21400 13700 10700 8580 7140
8 46000 30650 23000 18400 15320
10 82800 55200 41400 33150 27600
12 133200 88800 66600 53200 44400
15 238000 158800 119000 95300 79250
Fig. 1-71: Horizontal Rainwater Pipe Sizing

For each valid slope and rainfall rate, you can define the nominal pipe size and the area that can
be drained. The area is in square feet.

Sizing Procedure
For storm drainage, use the input forms and place the appropriate engineering elements to
specify:
The rainfall rate for the building type and location, as determined by code requirements or
other design considerations.
The locations of roof drains, and their associated roof and washdown areas if those areas
are different from the master values.
The slope of horizontal rainwater pipes.
The following steps are used to size storm drainage pipes:
Orientations for vertical leader pipes and horizontal pipes are determined from the graphic
data.
Vertical leaders are sized using the reference library as shown in Fig. 1-70.
Horizontal pipe sizes are based on your input slope, and the maximum rainfall rate and
drainage area of the drains connected to that pipe. The reference library, as shown in
Fig. 1-71, is used.
If the rainfall rate is greater than the maximum in that library, an error message is
generated and the maximum rate is used. For any other case, actual rates are rounded
up to the nearest rate in the library if necessary.
The vertical leader size from the library is checked against the size of the horizontal pipes, if
any, connected above it. If the leader is smaller, the size is adjusted to match that of
the horizontal pipe.
Similarly, the horizontal pipe size from the library is checked against the size of the vertical
leader, if any, connected above it. If the horizontal pipe is smaller, the size is adjusted
to match that of the vertical leader.

Material Estimating
Piping system material estimation include:
Pipe material, insulation, fittings, valves and equipment quantities for each pipe section in
the system
Total pipe lengths for each pipe material and pipe size used in the system
Total insulation surface areas for each insulation type and thickness used in the system
Fitting quantities for each fitting type and size used in the system
Valve quantities for each valve type and size used in the system
Turn to Appendix Two: Reports for more information on material estimation reports.

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Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988

Engineering Design Basis

Piping Design Program

Copyright 1998 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. All rights reserved.

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 15

Piping Systems and Networks

Open Network Systems

Closed Network Systems

The flow arrangements in closed piping networks can be:

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 16

Piping Design Data

Pipe materials used in HVAC, Plumbing and Fire Protection include:

Pipe Fittings and Valves

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 17

HVAC Piping Design Criteria

Plumbing Drainage Design Criteria

Piping System consists of:

A piping system must be analyzed for:

 there is a change in the fluid flow rate through the pipe

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 18

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 19

Example of Piping Systems & Networks

Fig. 1-3 : Primary-Secondary System

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 20

Section ID Upstream Downstream Section Terminal Booster Primary

Fig. 1-4: Piping Network Identification Information

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 21

Fig. 1-6: Primary System Identification

1 8 21 22 29 206 205 204 203 201

Fig. 1-7: Secondary System from Booster Pump BP-1

1 8 31 32 35 36 205 204 203 201

Fig 1-8: Secondary System from Booster Pump BP-2

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 22

Ckt # of Sections in Each Circuit Arranged in Flow

Fig. 1-9: Secondary System from Booster Pump BP-3

Fig. 1-5: Complete System Identification

TE-<number> = Terminal Equipment No. BP-<number> = Booster Pump No.

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 23

Closed and Open Piping Network Systems

Fig 1-10: Closed System

Fig1-11: Open System

Closed systems are made up of two components:

 a supply system that ends at a terminal air conditioning equipment unit

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 24

Two-Pipe Direct Return Systems

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 25

Fig. 1-12:Two-Pipe Direct Return

Two-Pipe Reverse Return Systems

Fig. 1-13: Two-Pipe Reverse Return

Primary-Secondary Systems and Loops

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 26

Fig. 1-14: Primary-Secondary

Fig. 1-15: Three Pipe Systems

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 27

Fig. 1-16: Four Pipe Systems

System System Fluid Network

Fig. 1-17: System, Fluid and Network Types

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 28

System Engineering Units

Fig. 1-18: System Types and Engineering Units

Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 29

High Temperature Hot Water

Saturation Kinematic Specific