Grading and Differentiation: Paradox or Good Practice?

Author(s): Carol Ann Tomlinson

Source: Theory into Practice, Vol. 44, No. 3, Differentiated Instruction (Summer, 2005), pp.
262-269
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THEORY INTO PRACTICE,44(3), 262-269

Carol Ann Tomlinson

Gradingand Differentiation:
Paradoxor Good Practice?

Teachersoftenperceivean inherent conflictbe- dentsdifferin manyways.I getthattheywould

tween"differentiated whichempha- likelylearnbetterifwhathappenedin theclass-
instruction,"
sizes attention to variancein students'readiness roomworkedforthem.Butatsomepoint,I haveto
levels,interests, and learningprofiles,and "the givegrades-makeoutreportcards-and at that
gradingsystem," whichseemstoindicatea sortof point,myjob is to separatethe sheepfromthe
rigidityandstandardization. Thisarticleexamines goats.Isn'tthiswholedifferentiation thinggoing
keyprinciples ofquality andofqual- to interfere
differentiation withthatpartofmyjob?"
itygradingtodetermine whetherthetwofacetsof A colleagueof mineis proneto beginheran-
educationalpracticeare compatible. It concludes swertothespokenorinferred puzzlement bysay-
thattheperceivedincompatibility stems frommis- ingthatthereis no inherent problemwiththephi-
understanding theessentialprinciples
ofdifferenti- losophyofdifferentiationandgrading orreporting.
ationandgrading, andfrom entrenched classroom the
Rather, problems existin how educatorsview
habitsthatoftenruncountertoguidancefromex- and practicegrading-even in the absence of
pertsingradingand indifferentiation. differentiation.
The goal of thisarticleis to examinewaysin
whichgradingmightbe conceivedandcarriedout
in a differentiated
approachto teaching-andin
A PERENNIAL QUESTION RELATED to differenti-
accordancewithrecommended practicesrelated
ationis, "How couldI gradeit?"Nearlyal- to gradingin general.Followingintroduction of
ways,theinquirer'stone,facialexpression, and key termsand assumptions, the articleexplores
follow-upsuggesta longersequenceof thoughts ways in whichdefensiblegradingsystemsand
something likethefollowing."I getthatmystu- practicescanmeshwithgoalsandpractices ofde-
fensibledifferentiation.
CarolAnnTomlinson isProfessor
ofEducationalLead-
ership, and
Foundations, Policy TheUniversity
at of
Virginia. EstablishingCommonTerms
Requestsforreprints can be sentto CarolAnn and Assumptions
Tomlinson, The University of Virginia, P.O. Box
VA22904.E-mail:cat3y@vir-
400277,Charlottesville, Boththetopicofgradingandthetopicofdif-
ginia.edu ferentiation
arethefocusof scoresofbooks,arti-

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Tomlinson Paradoxor GoodPractice
Gradingand Differentiation:

cles, and othermaterials.It is impossiblein one Underpinnings ofEffective

relativelyshortpiece to explorethecomplexities Differentiation
of eithertopicwithanyscope. Nonetheless, it is
important to set out keytermsand assumptions Teacherswhopracticedifferentiated orrespon-
frombothbodiesofwriting, to establisha frame- siveteachingworktoensurethat:(a) learning en-
workfortheconsideration thatfollowsinthearti- vironments arebothsafeandchallenging foreach
cle. Understanding the concepts"differentiated student; (b) teaching andlearning routines include
instruction" and "grading"is essentialto explor- wholeclass,smallgroup,andindividual attention;
ingtheinteraction ofthetwo. (c) learninggoals areclearlydesignated andpur-
"Differentiated is a
instruction" philosophy of sued to ensure focus on the essentialknowledge,
teachingpurporting thatstudents learnbestwhen understanding, and skillin a topicor discipline;
theirteacherseffectively addressvariancein stu- (d) preassessment and ongoingor formative as-
dents' readinesslevels, interests, and learning sessmentregularly inform teachers'instructional
profilepreferences. A keygoal of differentiated plans;(e) teachersuse time,space,materials, and
instruction is maximizingthe learningpotential instructional strategies inflexiblewaystoaddress
of each student(Tomlinson,2001, 2003). There variedlearnerneeds;and (f) classroomsbecome
is no single"recipe"fordifferentiation. Nonethe- communities of learningin whichstudents share
less,therearecertainheuristics or guidesfordif- withtheteacherresponsibility forrespect,opti-
ferentiation,which,if followed,are likelyto as- mumoperation, andmaximum individual growth.
sist teachers in developing defensible and It is theseaims that"define"or shape effective
effective practicethatrespondsto the needs of differentiation.
diverselearners. Theseaspectsof differentiation havebeende-
"Grading" is the of
assignment symbolic num- tailed in otherplaces (Tomlinson, 1999, 2003). Of
bersor lettersat theend of a specifiedperiodof particular importance to a discussion on differen-
time, thatwill serve as a summary statement of tiation and grading, however, are severalcardinal
evaluationsmade of students(Marzano,2000). principles ofdifferentiation.
The primary goal of gradingis to providehigh First,students'attitudesabout learningand
qualityfeedbackto parentsand students so they aboutthemselves as learnersare of greatimpor-
can clearlyunderstand and appropriately use the tanceinestablishing, maintaining, anddeveloping
information to supportthelearningprocessand students'commitment to the learningprocess.
encourage student success (Airasian, 1997; Practicescontributing to positivestudent attitude
Guskey& Bailey,2001; O'Connor,2002). There aboutlearningand themselvesas learnersmerit
is no single,rightwaytograde(O'Connor,2002), teacherattention. Thosepracticesthaterodestu-
but thereare heuristicsor guides for grading dentattitudeabout learningand themselvesas
which,iffollowed, wouldbetter servethepurpose learners shouldbe questioned. Attending tolearn-
of providinginterested individualswithuseful ingenvironment andstudent affectis nota matter
information. of socialwork,buta pathwayto support achieve-
An examination of thekeygoals and princi- ment(Tomlinson, 2003).
ples ofdifferentiation andthoseofgradingestab- Second,differentiation mustbe an extension of
lishesa framework forexploringwaysin which highqualitycurriculum, nota replacement forit.
the two aspects of educationalpracticemight A primejob of teachersis to ensurecurriculum
come togetherfora commonpurpose.I begin thatengagesstudents andhelpsall ofthemuse,re-
withan overviewofkeyindicators andprinciples tainand retrieve, and makemeaningof powerful
of qualitydifferentiation, thenexaminekeyindi- ideas fromthedisciplinesand theworldaround
catorsandprinciples ofqualitygrading, andulti- them.Students whostruggle withschoolfora va-
matelylook at how thetwoareas of educational rietyof reasonsshouldparticularly havetheirat-
practicenot only mightbe, but oughtto be, tentionfocusedon the knowledge,ideas, and
compatible. skillsmostlikelyto give thempowerto under-

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 Instruction
Differentiated

standthesubjectand to proceedin it. Advanced ing stayson course. Gradingon-goingassess-

learnersshouldfindextendedlearningopportuni- mentscan undermine student willingness to take
tiesbased noton randomencounters withseren- mentalrisks,absorban undueamountof teacher
dipitoustasksbutratheron theessentialsof the time,and contribute to a skewedview of whata
disciplinethatcontribute to a progression toward studentactuallylearnsby theend of a particular
expertise(Tomlinson et al., 2002). cycleoflearning(O'Connor,2002).
Third,effectivedifferentiation is notrandom. Second, gradesshould be based on clearly
Rather,itis basedon a clearcycleof:(a) articulat- specifiedlearningcriteria(Guskey & Bailey,
ingwhatis essentialina topicordiscipline, (b) as- 2001). The bestreference systemis likelycrite-
sessinga student'sstandingrelativeto thosees- rionreferenced; thatis, charting the statusof a
sentials,(c) providingfeedbackand adapting student relativeto a setof preestablished, clearly
instructionto ensurethateach student progresses stated,content-specific learninggoals (Marzano,
inthemosteffective andefficient wayspossibleto 2000). Much confusionin gradingand grading
mastertheessentials, (d) assessingoutcomes, and practiceresultsfromlackof clarityaboutwhata
(e) makingadditional adaptations as needed(Earl, particulargrade represents. Currently, required
2003; Tomlinson,1999; Tomlinson& McTighe, standardswould likely serve as the basis for
in press). gradingcriteria. Whentoo manystandards com-
These threeprinciples-as is the case with promise clarity about achievement, teachers
otherprinciples ofdifferentiation-emanate from should organizethe standardsinto meaningful
thebestunderstanding ofpsychology ofteaching strands(O'Connor,2002).
and learning,humandifferences, and how the Third,and relatedto principletwo, grades
brainlearns.Theyalso formanimportant intersec- shouldnotbe normative (Guskey& Bailey,2001;
tionwithkeyprinciples ofeffective grading. Wiggins,1993). Comparingstudents to othersin
theclass ratherthanto criteriais counterproduc-
tive.Gradingnormatively, or on a curve,spawns
ofEffective
Underpinnings Grading unhealthy competition anddiminishes motivation
fornearlyall students. Rather,gradingshouldbe
Keyfeatures ofeffective gradingpracticestem criterionreferenced. Thatis, educatorsshouldes-
bothfroman understanding ofteaching andlearn- tablishindicators of student success,describethe
ing, as well as knowledgeof psychometrics or criteriaby whichtheywill evaluatestudentsuc-
measurement. Theyprovidea compasstoenhance cess,andmeasurestudent successaccordingly.
thelikelihoodthattheway teachersgrademeets Fourth,evidence used to gradestudents should
thegoal of communicating clear,usefulinforma- be valid.A measureis validifitmeasureswhatit
tionforthepurposeofenhancing learning.There is intended to measureandnotextraneous factors.
are numerous guidesfordefensible gradingprac- For instance,ifa teacherwantsto measurea stu-
tice.A fewmeritparticular attentionherebecause dent'sunderstanding of,andability toapply,a par-
oftheirlinkagewiththekeyprinciples ofdifferen- ticularmathematical concept,he shouldbe sure
tiationandthesearchforan appropriate intersec- thestudent's scoreis notdeflatedbyfactorssuch
tionbetweendifferentiation andgrading. as inabilityto speak English,impulsivity, diffi-
First,gradingis nota synonym forassessment. cultyinreadingdirections, slowpace ofwork,and
Assessmentis gathering information about stu- so on. Similarly, we needto ensurethatthestu-
dents'achievement forthepurposeofmakingin- dent'sgradeis notinflated byfactors suchas neat
structionaldecisions(Marzano,2000). Gradingis hand writingor an attractive coveron thework
makingan end-pointjudgmentabout students' (Guskey& Bailey,2001).
achievement. Formative, or on-going, assessment andrelated
Fifth, toprinciple itisimportant
four,
shouldnotall be graded.Itspurposeis tohelpboth to do all one can to minimize"gradepollution"
teacherand student see howlearningis progress- (O'Connor,2002). A student's"observedgrade"
ingandto adjustas necessaryto makesurelearn- equals thatstudent's"truescore" plus "error"

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Tomlinson Gradingand Differentiation:
Paradoxor Good Practice

(Marzano,2000). In otherwords,thereare many mentandgrading aretightly alignedwiththespec-

factorsthatcan interferewitha student'sopportu- ifiedgoals andcriteria forsuccess.
nitytodemonstrate whatheorsheactuallyknows, Even the gradingprincipleof eliminating
understands, andcan do. Amongthosefactors are "gradepollution" echoesanimportant principle of
poorlywritten taskdirections, studentdifficulty differentiation. Differentiation suggests thatit is
withreadingorunderstanding thelanguageofthe criticalforteachersto providemultipleroutesto
taskortest,a mismatch betweenkeygoalsandthe accomplishingspecified goals, so that each
actualassessment instrument,narroworrigidap- learnercan progressto thegreatest degreepossi-
to
proaches measuring understanding, low grades ble. The differentiation argument is thatmoststu-
formissinghomework, andso on.Whensuchfac- dentscanlearnmostthings undertheright circum-
torsdisguisewhata student actuallyknows,"grade stances.To knowthattheyhaveremovedbarriers
pollution"occurs.It is important to be awareof to academicgrowth forourstudents is partofthe
suchvariablesandtoreducetheir impactonassess- responsibility ofprofessional educators.
mentoutcomes.A gradeshouldrevealas muchas Expertsintheareaofgrading buildfroma very
possibleaboutwhata student has actuallylearned similarvantagepointwhentheycautionteachers
andshouldnotbe obfuscated witha myriad offac- to makeeveryeffort to givestudents opportunity
torsthatserveas barrierstostudent demonstration to showwhattheyknow.Teachersshould,theex-
ofkeyproficiencies. pertstellus, eliminatebarriers to demonstrating
Although thesearenottheonlyimportant prin- achievement thatmightarise whenan artificial
ciplesrelatedto grading,thesefivedo influence barrierobstructs students' opportunity to express
thequalityofourgradingpracticesandthecapac- theirlearning.
ityofgradestocommunicate clearlyandinuseful In support oftheprinciple ofeliminating grade
to
ways important audiences.Thatis thecase in pollution, in
experts gradingadmonisheducators
bothdifferentiated andnondifferentiatedsettings. to attendto individualdifferences by givingstu-
dentssecondchancestolearnandshowwhatthey
havelearned,andto use timeflexibly to measure
PrinciplesofDifferentiation thequality, rather thanthespeed,ofa performance
and GradingAligned? (O'Connor,2002; Wiggins,1993). Theycaution
teachers tofocustheirattention on scoresstudents
To thispoint,itwouldseemthatkeyprinciples earnlaterina marking sequencerather thanearlier
governing gradingand differentiated instruction because studentsneed multipleopportunities to
are well aligned.Forinstance,in theliterature of practicebeforetheyare expectedto achieveim-
bothdomains,thereis considerable attention
paid portant goals.Thus,earlyscoresare likelyto un-
to teachersensuringclarityaboutpreciselywhat derestimate a student's trueachievement, andav-
students shouldknow,understand, andbe able to eraging scores is likely to creategradepollution
do. Bothbodiesofwriting emphasizethefounda- (Marzano,2000; O'Connor,2002).
tionalimportance of a teacherknowingprecisely A firstexamination ofthetwobodiesofwriting
wherea student should"endup" attheconclusion suggeststhatgrading ina differentiated classroom
ofa segment oflearning, teachingwiththoseout- shouldpresentlittleproblemfor educators.In
comes in the forefront of all instructionaldeci- suchclassrooms, teacherswould:(a) be awareof
sions,andmakingthecriteria forsuccessclearto andresponsive to student differences; (b) specify
students.Bothstressusingpreassessment andon- clear learningoutcomes;(c) use preassessment
goingassessmentdatato inform teacherand stu- and formative assessmentdatato chartstudents'
dentsofprogress andneedforadditional progress. progressrelativeto thestatedgoals; (d) adaptin-
Both stressuse of formative assessmentdata to structionina variety ofwaystoensure,as muchas
makeinstructional adaptations thatlead togreater possible,thateachstudent continues toprogress in
successformorestudents. Bothacknowledge the regardto thelearninggoals; (e) make surestu-
importance of ensuringthatsummativeassess- dentsknowcriteria forsuccesson summative as-

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 Instruction
Differentiated

sessments,ensuringthat the assessmentsare Further,bothaspectsof practicenotetheim-

tightlyalignedwiththestatedlearninggoals; and portanceof providing multiplemodesof assess-
(f) providevariedformsof assessmentto ensure mentandflexibleuseoftimewhenthetimecomes
thatstudentshavean unobstructedopportunity to forsummative or evaluativeassessments.From
expresswhattheyhavelearned. thevantagepointof differentiation, suchefforts
enhancetheopportunity forsuccessfora wider
rangeofstudents. Fromthevantagepointofgrad-
Is theCoast ReallyClear? ing,such effortsenhance thelikelihoodofdemon-
stratingwhata student reallyknows,understands,
Ifitis thecase thatadhering totheprinciples of andcan do. It cutsdownon gradepollution.
qualitydifferentiation and qualitygradingare Fromtheperspective of qualitygrading, there
fullyaligned,thenitseemsoddthatgrading indif- is nothingunfairaboutproviding multiplepath-
ferentiated classroomspresents sucha conundrum waysandsupport systems forlearning.Whatmat-
to manyteachers.Perhapsthereareareasofmis- tersis ensuring clarityand stabilityin criteriawe
alignment inthetwoaspectsofclassroompractice willuse toteach,construct assessments, andmea-
notevidentat first consideration. suresuccess.
Therearethreequestionsthatteachersponder
relatedtodifferentiation andgrading. Theseques-
Motivationin Differentiation
tionsmeritexamination to determine compatibil-
and Grading
itybetweendefensible gradingpracticesand dif-
ferentiation. The threequestionsare:"Whatdoes The issueofnurturing positivestudent motiva-
it meansto be 'fair'in a classroom?""Whatrole tionto learnis a coreconcernin differentiated or
does gradingplay in motivating academically responsiveteaching.Again,thetopicof motiva-
diverse learners?"and "How mightreporting tionand achievement is complex,and cannotbe
of gradesworkso thattheybothcommunicate fullyaddressedhere.In brief,positiveclassroom
accuratelyand contributeto positive student environment, balance of challengeand safety,
motivation?" sense of community, studentacceptanceof re-
sponsibilityforpersonalgrowth, sharedresponsi-
bilityforeffective classroomroutines,and cer-
"Fair" in Differentiation and Grading
tainlyachievement are all threatened if student
A philosophyof responsiveinstruction sug- motivation is impaired-bygradingpracticesor
geststhat"fairness"in academicallydiverseset- otherwise.Among motivation-related issues of
tingsis best conceivednot as treating everyone practitioners ofdifferentiation arethefollowing:
alike,butworking to ensurethateach student has
thesupport heorsheneedstosucceed(Tomlinson, 1. Students whose school histories have
2003). Thus the teacherdevelops varied ap- causedthemto believethatsuccessis outoftheir
proachesto teachingand learning,and varied reach and controlwill likely eithergive up
modesof expressinglearningto maximizeeach on themselves or on school.In eithercase, they
learner'saccessto success.In otherwords,differ- cease to investsignificant andprolonged effortin
entiation stressesremovalofbarriers to learning. learning.
Expertsin gradingmakesimilararguments- 2. Students whose school historieshave
althoughperhaps for somewhat different rea- caused themto believe thatexcellencecan be
sons-whentheyadmonish teachers touse forma- achieved withminimaleffort do notlearnto ex-
tiveor in-process assessments as a meansofgiv- pendeffort, andyetperceivethathighgradesare
ingfeedbackforpracticeratherthanmovingtoo an entitlement forthem.
quicklyto grading.To gradeeverything a student 3. Studentswho learn predominately from
does earlyin thelearningprocess,theysay,is to masterymotivation (thesatisfaction of learning)
injecterrorintotheprocess. ratherthanfroma performance motivation (for

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Tomlinson Gradingand Differentiation:
Paradoxor Good Practice

grades)are likelyto be moreeffective learners confidence andresulted ina kindofmind-numbing

overthelonghaul. malaise. (Earl, 2003, pp. 72,76)
4. Helpingstudents assumeresponsibility for
theirown growth,measuredagainstclearlyde- Thus,theexpertsingradingremind onethatcom-
finedgoals,ratherthancompetingagainstpeers petitive or norm-based grading erodes motivation
assistsin buildingpositivestudentmotivation to to for
learn manystudents-including thosewho
learn. struggle and thosewho are advanced(Azwell &
5. Providinglearningopportunities thatare Schmar,1995; Officeof EducationalResearch
appropriately challenging forindividuals, thatare andImprovement, 1992).Theynotethatdesireto
interesting and relevant to individuals, and that al- learn is a more preferable motivator thanearning
lowindividuals tolearninwaysthatworkforthem grades(Earl,2003; Wiggins,1993).Theyremind
facilitates positivestudent motivation to learn. us thatusingformative assessment forcorrective
6. Acknowledging student or
growth progress feedback rather than grading is likely tobe a posi-
inregardtoacademicgoalsfacilitates positivestu- tive motivator for students (Azwell & Schmar,
dentmotivation to learn,andis important inhelp- 1995; Guskey & Bailey, 2001). They caution that
ingstudents adoptthepracticeofdoingone'sbest. effective grading practices require an "overriding
A majorreport on motivating students tolearnad- concernforstudents" and thatgradingpractices
viseseducators to setgoalsforeachchildthatcan should "be a positive beneficialaspectofstu-
and
be achievedwithhigheffort andacknowledge the dents' learningexperiences"(Guskey& Bailey,
attainment (Officeof EducationalResearchand 2001,p. 194).Theycautionthatconcern forgrades
Improvement, 1992). should not pervert or
learning damage motivation
to learn(O'Connor,2002).
It is interesting thatexpertsin gradingalso
Thus,a philosophyof differentiation advises raisea beliefsharedwithdifferentiation thatifed-
that:(a) Positivemotivation to learnis an impor- ucatorstaughtstudents in waysthatworkedfor
tantfactorin student success;(b) effort is neces- them,educators shouldexpecta "normalcurve"to
saryforachievement andstems,inpart,frommo- disappear.Thatis,iftheytaught forthesuccessof
tivationto learn; (c) each learnermust grow everystudent, theywouldnotacceptthepremise
academicallyfromhis or herownpointofreadi- thatsome studentsmustbe winnersand others
ness;(d) teachersshouldprovideopportunity and mustbe losers.Teachingforsuccessrejectsthat
support for students to grow from their own start- theremustbe a bell-shapedcurveofrewardsand
ing pointstowardincreasingcompetencewith punishments rather thanassumingthatmanystu-
specifiedlearninggoals; and (e) acknowledging dentscan achieveproficiency withhardworkand
student growth is important forcontinuing devel- appropriate support(O'Connor,2002; Wiggins,
opmentofpositivestudent motivation andstudent 1993).
expenditure of effort.If recommended grading
practicesrancounterto thesegoals,therewould,
indeed,be a conflictbetweenthetwoaspectsof ReportingGrades in a Differentiated
theclassroom. Classroom
Although central toa philosophy ofdifferentia-
tion,experts intheareaofgrading also addressthe If the fundamental principlesof gradingand
issueofstudent motivation as itrelatesto grading differentiation arenotinconflict, andifissuesre-
practice. lated to fairnessand motivation are not oppo-
sitionalingrading anddifferentiation, perhapsthe
Forsomestudents, thecertainty ofpraiseandsuc- perceived conflict in the two areas occurs at
cess ... has becomea drug;theycontinually need the point of reporting grades-in other words,
more.Formanyotherstudents, year after year of when it is report card time. Next, I examine that
'notgoodenough' haseroded theirintellectual
self- possibility.

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 Instruction
Differentiated

Qualitydifferentiation has a corefocuson en- has improved sincepreviousvisits,althoughit is

suring thateach student in a diversearrayoflearn- notyetin an idealrange.
ers maintainsa focuson personalgrowthto en- For students withIndividualEducationPlans
hancemotivation to learnand effort necessaryto (IEPs), achievement reportsmayneed to reflect
learn.Qualitygrading hasa corefocusonaccurate IEP goals,ratherthancriteriaestablished forthe
communication of valid information. The ques- class as a whole.In suchcases,reportcardscan
tion becomes,"Is it possible to reportstudent makenoteof thatfactand statethecriteriafor
gradesin a way thatpromotesindividualgrowth measuring academicachievement forthestudent.
and stillmaintains validityandaccuracy?" Reportcardscan also includestatements thatad-
Here,too,theansweris yes.Thereis no inher- vancedstudents have workedbeyondcoursere-
entconflict inthegoalsofqualitygradingandthe quirements,specifyingthe extendedlearning
goalsofqualitydifferentiation. Expertsinthearea goals thestudent has achieved.If reportcardsdo
ofgradingsuggestthatsocietydevelop"reporting notallowforreporting of achievement,progress,
systems" ratherthanonly"report cards"as means andworkhabits,itis possibleto communicate all
ofconveying multiple messagesabouta student's threefacetsof studentdevelopment via attach-
learning. Theirdriving cautionis thatteachersnot mentsto the reportcard, separatecommunica-
"blend"themessages,thusdamagingclarityand tions,checklists,student-parentconferences, etc.
usefulnessof information(O'Connor, 2002; In all such instances,clarityabout criteriaand
Wiggins,1993). consistent applicationof specifiedcriteriaare of
In otherwords,one mightthinkin termsofre- greatimportance (Guskey& Bailey,2001).
portingacademicachievement relatedto a setof Thus,reporting systemshavetheflexibility to
clearly defined criteria,plus individualgrowth provideinformation thatcan be important to the
alonga continuum ofclearlydefinedcriteria, plus instruction,motivation, and achievement of aca-
effort (Guskey& Bailey,2001; Marzano,2000). demicallydiversepopulationsin differentiated
Suchmultifaceted reporting can provideinforma- classroomsandstilladheretotheprinciples ofde-
tionabouta student'sstanding relativeto criteria fensiblegrading.Whatseemsa tacitconflict be-
designatedas important for a particularclass, tweengrading anddifferentiationdoesnothaveto
aboutthatstudent'sdegreeof progressfromthe persist.
startof the markingperiod,and about student
workhabits-threedistinct butpotentially impor-
tantmessagesforstudents andtheirparents. In re- BarriersMore ImaginedThan Real
gardto reporting progressas one categoryof in-
formation about a learner,some notedauthors The barriersthathave been mentallyerected
havesuggested thatiflearning is assessedusinga thatuse gradingas a necessary impediment todif-
well-defined set of learningoutcomesor stan- ferentiationdo notexistif one carefullyimple-
dards,progress canbe bothmeasuredandcommu- mentsone's bestguidanceon defensible grading
nicated(Guskey& Bailey,2001). procedures.Rather,it is likelythatthe barriers
Again,thecaveatposedbyexperts ingrading is stemfroma combination ofmisperceptions about
thatteachersnotcombinethethreeaspectsintoa qualitydifferentiation,
misperceptions aboutqual-
singlegrade,erodinggradevalidityandclarityof itygrading, andhabitualpracticeofone-size-fits-
communication. A helpfulanalogycomparesthis all instructioncoupled withintractable beliefs
sortofmultipart reporting systemtoa doctor'sre- aboutgrading.
porting ofvitalsigns.Thereis important informa- It is possible to change one's attitudesand
tionin"scores"ofbloodpressure, cholesterol,and practicesregardinginstruction and gradingso
pulserate.Thedoctorwillshareall threepiecesof thatteachingbothservesdiverselearnersmore
information, butwillnotaveragethem(O'Connor, effectivelyand communicates information about
2002). Presumably itwouldalso be ofuse (moti- their learningmore accuratelyand usefully.
vating)toa patient toknowthathisbloodpressure Gradingand reporting are, afterall, an integral

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Tomlinson
partof the instructionalprocess,and have as a
goal providinginformation that enhancesthe
teachingand learningprocessforeach student
(Guskey& Bailey,2001).
thatanychangein schools
Earl(2003) reminds
is a kindof "creepingincrementalism" (p. 15).
Teachersmodifytheirpracticenotby sweeping
changebutstepbystep,in smallways,as theyre-
flectontheirpracticeandwillthemselves togrow.
Perhapseducatorsare notso different fromtheir
students-learners who have theirown starting
points,andwhoneedtomeasuretheirsuccessac-
cordingto essentialgoals (in thisinstance,the
principlesof differentiation
and grading),persis-
tenteffort,
andprogress towardtheirgoals.
References
Airasian,P. (1997). Classroomassessment(3rd Ed.).
New York:McGraw-Hill.
Azwell,T.,& Schmar,E. (1995). Reportcardon report
cards: Alternativesto consider.Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Earl,L. (2003). Assessment as learning:Usingclass-
room assessmentto maximizestudentlearning.
ThousandOaks,CA: Corwin.
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