CIVIL ENGINEERING

Section: - Easy

Solution 1)

1. Precipitation: - It denotes the different ways of processes by which water reaches the
earth’s surface from the atmosphere.
• Water evaporates from earth’s surface in the form of water vapour. As the
evaporation continues the amount of water vapour.
• As the evaporation continues the amount of atmosphere vapours goes on increasing,
a stage will come when if any addition of water vapours gets condense. This will
result in precipitation.
There are different types of precipitation, which are as follows:
a) Rainfall: -
• It is the most dominant form precipitate in India and it denotes water droplets with
size varying from greater than 0.5 mm and smaller than 6 mm.
• On the basis of intensity, rainfall is classified as follows:

Type of rainfall Intensity (mm/hr)

Light rain <2.5
Moderate rain 2.5-7.5
Heavy rain >7.5

b) Snow fall: -
• It is another form of precipitation.
• Snow fall are made up of ice crystals which usually combine flakes.
• The snow fall occurs when near to earth’s surface the temperature is at freezing
and average intensity of snow is 0.1 g/cc.
c) Drizzle: - These are fine droplets of water size is less than 0.5 mm and intensity of
these water droplets is less than 1 mm/hr.
d) Glaze: -
• It is also called as freezing rain.
 • It occurs when the water droplets come in contact with ground which have the
temperature near about 00C or less than it, the water drops are freeze and a coating
is formed which is known as glaze.
e) Sleet: -
it is the form of rain drops which have transparent grains.
The size of sleet is less than 5 mm.
f) Hail: -
• It is a large size of snow which have size greater than 8 mm.
• These types of snow are destructive in nature as the are capable of destroying the
agriculture and are harmful for animal and human.

➢ The generated velocity of different types of precipitations are as follows:

Form of Fall speed

precipitation (m/sec)
Drizzle drops 1
Rain drops 10
Hail 20 - 50
Sol 2) Bricks and its ingredients:
• It is one of the oldest and leading building material used for construction due to its less
cost, durability. and ease of handling.
• It is a rectangular block in shape and size that convent- ently handled with one hand.
• It is made up of clay or mixture of sand and lime or OPC.
• Clay bricks are commonly used since it is more economical and easily available.
• The L, B, H of a brick are interred related.
• Generally, length of Brick = 2x Width of Brick + thickness of mortar and
• Height of Brick = width of Brick
• Size of Standard / Modular Brick = 19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm
• Nominal Size Brick = 2o cm x 10 cm x10 cm (also including thickness of Mortar)
• Size of conventional / Traditional = 9"x 4.5"x3"
• Brick = 23cm x11.4cm x 7.6cm
• Weight of Brick is in the range of 3-3.5 kg.
• An indent called frog is called placed over the brick to indicate the trade name of
manufacture and act as a shear key b/w the two bricks, there increase its strength in lateral
direction. The size of frog is 10cm x 4cm x 1cm.

Ingredients of Good Brick Earth (soil used for preparation of Brick) are as follows:

1. Silica:
• It is present in brick to 50 – 60 % of total.
• It enables the brick to retain its shape and size.
• It imparts durability to the bricks by preventing shrinkage and warping in it.
• Excess of silica makes the brick brittle and weak on burning.
• A large % of sand or uncombine silica (in clay) is undesirable.
• However, is added to decrease shrinkage in during burning.
2. Alumina (20-30%):
• It is present in brick to 20 – 30 % of total.
• It absorbs water and imparts plasticity to the brick earth, hence helps in its moulding.
• If it is in excess it produces cracks on drying.

3. Lime:
• It is present in brick to 2 – 5 % of total.
• Lime in bricks have several advantages such as
 i. Reduces shrinkage on drying
ii. Cause silica in clay to melt on burning thus help to bind it.
• Although, it had some disadvantages such as
i. If it is in excess, it may cause melting of brick.
ii. If it is in excess, it may develop cracks in its due to calcination and slaking.

4) Magnesia:
• It is present in brick to <1 % of total.
• It affects the colour and make the brick yellow during burning.
• It causes the clay to soften at slower rate than in most case.
• It reduces working of bricks.

5) Iron Oxide
• It is present in brick to <7% % of total.
• It gives red colour to the brick.
• It improves impermeability and durability.
• It imparts strength and Hardness to bricks.

Harmful Ingredients of Brick Earth:

1. Lime:
• When it is present in desirable amount in clay, it results in good bricks but when
it found in excess leads to melting bricks during of bricks during burning and
slaking (which causes disintegration bricks).
2. Pebbles, Gravels, Grits, Stones:
• Presence of stones and pebbles reduces the strength of bricks by reducing the
area availability to transfer the load.
• They do not allow the clay to be mixed thoroughly and spoil the appearance of
the brick.
3. Iron Pyrite:
• It leads to oxidise and decompose the brick during.
• burning, the brick may split into pieces due to flume change.
• It also decolourises the brick.
4. Alkalies:
 • If it is present in proportion less than 10%, it is of great values as fluxes but
when in excess leads to the development of stains over the surface (termed as
efflorescence)
5. Organic Matter:
• They help in burning of bricks during manufacturing but it left unburnt
undergoes decomposition, thereby produces gases which when escapes, makes
the brick porous.
6. Carbonaceous material:
• In the form of bituminous matter or carbon generally affects the colour of row
bricks.
7. Sulphur:
• It is usually found in clay as the sulphate of Ca, Mg, Na, K, or Fe.
• It found in excess it makes the brick spongy with swollen structure.
Section: - Medium
Solution 3)
➢ The process of intersecting the bolt in the hole of plates which have to be connected
in a proper manner is termed as bolted connection, as shown in figure 3.1(lap joint).
➢ Bolt is a metal pin with head at an end and shank is threaded at the other and a nut is
also used in threaded area for making desired required strength.

Figure 3.1 Bolted Connection

• Bolt is classified as 4.6 bolt which basically means the ultimate strength of bolt is 4x
100 = 400 MPa and yiped strength of bolt can be calculated as 0.6 x 400 = 240 MPa.
• As per IS 800:2007, the bolt has been designed on the basis of different strength
calculation in which it had chances to get fail due to several reasons. So, due to this
the bolt is designed for shear capacity of bolt, bearing capacity of bolt and tensile
strength.
• Some principles to be remembered while designing:
i. Design strength should be more than design load.
ii. The centre of gravity of bolts should coincide with the centre of gravity of the
connected members.
iii. The length of connection should be kept as small as possible.
iv. It should satisfy requirements specified in clause 10.2, regarding spacing, such as
a. Pitch shall not be less than 2.5 d, and minimum edge distance = 1.7*do, in case
of hand cut edges and 1.5*do in case of rolled or machine cut edges.
v. Diameter of bolt hole for various bolts shall be taken as shown below:
diameter of bolt (d): 12 14 16 20 22 24 30 36
diameter of bolt hole (do): 13 15 18 22 24 26 33 39
𝜋
vi. Area of bolt at shank = 𝐴𝑛𝑏 = 4 𝑑2
0.78∗𝜋
vii. Area of bolt at threads = 𝐴𝑠𝑏 = 𝑑2
4

viii. Material properties of bolts. Grade 4.6

fyb = 240 MPa, fub = 400 MPa
• The tensile strength is calculated as
Bolt Strength in Tension ( 𝑇𝑏 )
𝑇𝑏 < 𝑇𝑑𝑏
where
𝑇𝑛𝑏
𝑇𝑑𝑏 = 𝑚𝑏

𝑇𝑛𝑏 = nominal tensile capacity of the bolt,

calculated as:
𝑓𝑦𝑏 ∗𝐴𝑠𝑏
𝑇𝑛𝑏 = 0.9*fub *𝐴𝑛 < 𝑚𝑏 /
𝑚𝑜

where
fub = ultimate tensile stress of the bolt,
𝑓𝑦𝑏 = yield stress of the bolt,
𝐴𝑛 = net tensile stress area as specified in the appropriate Indian Standard (for bolts
where the tensile stress area is not defined, 𝐴𝑛 shall be taken as the area at the bottom
of the threads), and
𝐴𝑠𝑏 = shank area of the bolt.
Solution 4)

When a vehicle traveling on a straight road enters into a horizontal curve instantaneously, it
will ca discomfort to the driver. To avoid this, it is required to provide a transition curve. This
may be provided either between a tangent and a circular curve or between two branches of a
compound or reverse curve.
Transition curve has a radius equal to infinite when it meets to straight Road within gradually
change to designate radius towards the circular curve.
The objectives of providing a transition curve are:
• To gradually introduce the centrifugal force between straight and circular curves.
• To avoid the certain jerk.
• To gradual introduction of superelevation and extra widening.
• To enable the driver, turn the sheering gradually for comfort and security.
• To improve aesthetic appearance.
A transition curve should satisfy the following conditions
• It should meet the straight path tangentially.
• It should meet the circular curve tangentially.
• It should have the same radius as that of the circular curve at its junction with the
circular curve.
• The rate of increase of curvature and superelevation should be the same.
The length of transition curve required on a horizontal highway curve depends upon the
following factors:
• Radius of circular curve, R
• Design speed, V
• Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, C
• Maximum amount of super elevation, E which depends on the maximum rate of
superelevation, e and the total width of the pavement, B at the horizontal curve.
• Rotation of pavement cross-section either about the inner edge or the centre line
Different Types of Transition Curves
The types of transition curves commonly adopted in horizontal alignment of highways are:
1. Spiral
2. Bernoulli’s Lemniscate
3. Cubic Parabola
The types of figure has been shown in figure 4.1.

Types of transistion curve

Section: - Complex
Solution 5)
DEGREE OF FREEDOM
• Degree of freedom (DOF) is defined as the set of independent displacements/rotations
that describe the deformed shape of the structure with respect to its initial position.
• In simple terms, DOF of the structure is the number of directions the structure can be
moved freely without any restrainment.
• As in case of two-dimensional structures; each joint will have the 3 possible degrees of
freedom., one in horizontal direction, one in vertical direction and one rotation. But as in
case of 3 dimensional structure; each joint will have the 6 possible degrees of freedom
.i.e., 2 in horizontal direction ,2 in vertical direction and 2 rotation.
• Mode number and mode type are the two important factors on which dof depend. Since
every possible mode has to fit with the respective moving direction of the structural
element. Therefore, structure with more dof has more complicated modes.
DOF is calculated as
DOF=R-S
Where R= 3, i.e., Conditions of Equilibrium
S= No of Reaction forces of the support which required to resist the External load acting.
Degree of freedom for various joints conditions
1. For Simple joints
R = 3; S = 1 (i.e., vertical direction)
Therefore, DOF = 2 (1 Horizontal direction and 1 rotation)
2. For Hinged joints
R = 3; S = 2 (i.e., vertical direction and 1 Horizontal direction)
Therefore, DOF = 1 (1 rotation)
3. For Roller support joints
R = 3; S = 1 (i.e., Vertical direction)
Therefore, DOF= 2 (1 Horizontal direction and 1 rotation)
4. For Fixed support
R = 3; S = 3 (i.e Vertical direction, 1 Horizontal direction and 1 rotation)
Therefore, DOF = 0
Solution 6)
Truss: -
• A framework composed of straight members joined at their ends to form a structure to
bear loads is called a truss. It is one of the major structures commonly used in engineering
applications. Trusses may be seen in steel bridges, supporting structures of roofs,
electrical transmission towers, roller coasters and giant wheels of amusement parks and
in innumerable other constructions.
• The figures above are the various trusses in used to support various structures.

• The loading of truss is designed in such a way that all external forces are applied at the
joints. If loads are applied elsewhere, it will introduce bending loads and a truss cannot
resist bending loads.
• The analysis of truss is the process of finding the forces in the members of a truss.
• The truss is one of the major types of engineering structures.
• It is a structure made up of straight members joined together at their ends by pin-
joints, where it is loaded.
• Each member of the truss is normally uniform in cross section along its length.
• The truss provides great strength over large spans in the airy structures than more
solid type of structures.
• It also provides practical and economical solution.
• A truss consisting of coplanar members (such as a truss on both sides of a bridge) is
called plane truss.
• If a truss is made up of non-coplanar members, it is known as space truss.
Structural model of truss:
An idealized truss is termed as just-rigid, if on the removal of any of its members destroys its
rigidity.
An elementary stable (just-rigid) structure with three members form a triangle.
A simple relation between number of joints (j) and number of members (m) would be
m = 2j – 3 (Perfect Truss)
m > 2j – 3 (Redundant Truss)
m < 2j – 3 (Deficient Truss)
Assumptions:
The following assumptions are made in the analysis of truss: -

• · Truss members are connected only at their ends

• · Truss members are connected by frictionless pins
• · Trusses are loaded only at the joints
• · The weight of the members may be neglected
Free body diagram of Joints and Members
Each member of a truss is subjected to the force only at the ends.
Hence members of trusses are two force members.
The force which pulls the members or tends to increase the length (or elongate) is known as
tensile force. The member experiencing tensile force is said to be in ‘Tension’.
Force which pushes the member of tends to decrease the length (or compress) is known as
compressive force. The member withstanding the compressive force is known to be in
‘Compression’.
The nomenclature is to name the force from A to B. For example, the force at point A due to
B can be named as FAB.

There are two types of methods which are commonly used for analysis of truss, which are
as follows:
1. Method of Joints:
• Truss may be considered as a group of two force members connected at their ends by
friction-less pins.
• Since the entire truss as a rigid body is in equilibrium, each part is also considered to
be in equilibrium i.e., each member of the truss must be in equilibrium and each joint
of the truss must be in equilibrium.
 • The method of joints consisting of taking the truss into number of parts, drawing free
body diagrams for each member and joint and applying equations of equilibrium for
each part.
• In the analysis, the members of the truss are assumed in tension.
• If the sign of the force comes out to be negative, this means that the member is in
compression instead of tension.
Steps in Method of Joints:
i. Considering the whole truss as a rigid body, find the reactions at supports using
equations of equilibrium. i.e., Summation of all forces in x- direction, y- direction and
moment about any point is equal to zero.
ii. Select a joint such that there are only two unknown force and one or more known forces
act on it. Assume all the forces in the members as tensile and draw the free body
diagram of joint.
iii. Select the next joint such that there are only two unknown forces available. Draw the
free body diagram of such joint and find the unknown using equations of equilibrium.
iv. Follow step 3, till the forces in all members are obtained.
v. After determining the forces in all the members, represent them in a table. Since we
assumed all the member forces as tensile, for some members, we may get negative
forces. It indicates that our assumption is not correct and such members with negative
sign of forces are members which are in compression.
vi. Represent member forces (magnitude only) and nature of forces (C stands for
compression and T stands for Tension).
vii. To check the solution, the unused joint (the joint which we have not analyzed) should
be verified for equilibrium. Verify that the equations of equilibrium are satisfied on this
unused joint.
2. Method of Sections:
• The method of joints is suitable when the forces in all members of truss are required to
be calculated. When the forces in only few members are required, method of joints
becomes time consuming and another method known as method of sections may be
applied.
• The method of sections is based on the principle that if a truss is in equilibrium, any
section taken from the truss must be in equilibrium.
 • Divide the truss into two separate parts by a section. Note that the section must not
intersect at more than three members.
Steps in Method of Sections:
i. Identify the section which passes through the members whose forces are required and
note that the section is not passing through more than three members.
ii. Using this section, separate the truss into two parts. The free body diagram of both parts
is drawn.
iii. One of the two parts of the truss obtained after the intersected members have been cut
may be used as a free body.
iv. Select the portion of free body where the numbers of forces are minimum.
v. Use the equations of equilibrium i.e.

vi.
vii. and find forces in members.

viii. If positive values are obtained, the members are in tension. If the force in a member
becomes negative, the members would be in compression