The structure of releasing hormones: 

*
Gonadotrophinreleasinghormone(GnRH)has8aminoacids
Thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) has 3 amino acids
Somatostatin has 12 amino acids
Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) has 6 amino acids
Prolactin inhibiting factor has 10 amino acids
The corpus luteum *
can sometimes be formed without extrusion of the ovum
has the granulosa and theca separated by a basement membrane
has an accumulation of protein droplets in the cytoplasm of the granulosa cells
has an increased production of estrogen before ovulation
is much more dependent on FSH than LH for steroid production
Regarding releasing hormones: *
Somatostatin is found in the adrenal glands
Releasing hormones are secreted in pulses
Continuous administration of gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH)associated with a
progressive increase in gonadotrophin release ("up regulation")
Endorphins stimulate gonadotrophin release
Oestrogens promote release of FSH rather than LH in response to GnRH
Adrenergic: receptors: *
Adrenaline stimulates only a-receptors
Adrenaline stimulates only B-receptors
Adrenaline relaxes the smooth muscle of the uterus
Noradrenaline constricts skeletalmuscle
Adrenaline relaxes the smooth muscle of the bladder
In the breast 
*
there are more than 100 alveoli
each duct is constricted immediately beneath the areola
the glands of Montgomery are non-secretory
the blood supply includes branches of the vena cava
the nerve supply is from cervical nerves
Luteinising hormone (LH) *
is secreted as pulses every 5-10 minutes
pulsatile secretion ceases during sleep
peak occurs about 30 hours before ovulation
levels reach a peak at 20 weeks of intrauterine life
levels are higher in the male than the female fetus
Ovarian follicles:*
Cyclic gonadotrophin stimulation is essential for initiation of follicular activity
Five days before ovulation there is usually only one follicle
The dominant follicle secretes 90% or more of total oestradiol
FSH receptors are found on both granulosa and theca cells
LHstimulatesformationofFSHreceptors
Growth hormone (GH) *
is a glycoprotein
dissolved in water
has a structure similar to ACTH
is released in short bursts
release is stimulated by corticosteroids
Seminiferous tubules *
contain many spermatogonia in meiosis
are connected to the epididymis by ducts derived from the metanephros
develop as a result of the presence of the HY antibody
become canalised at 18-20 weeks of intrauterine life
secrete a gonadotrophin inhibiting compound
Oxytocin 
*
has 50 amino acids
is synthesised in the posterior pituitary
is formed as a larger precursor molecule
is released by the placenta during labour
is found in the corpus luteum
Oestrogens: *
Oestradiol is the major oestrogen in the premenopausal female
Oestrogens may be formed in stem cells
Oestrogens bind to sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) with higher affinity than
testosterone
Thirty per cent of oestradiol in blood is bound to SHBG
In the female metabolism of oestrogens occurs principally in the uterus
In steroid synthesis *
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is not formed from pregnenolone
progesterone is an essential intermediate for cortisol synthesis
ll-deoxycortisol is an essential intermediate for androgen synthesis
androstenedione may be a precursor for progestrone
androstenedione may be a precursor for aldosterone
During lactation *
progesterone promotes growth of ducts rather than alveoli
Estrogen levels dependent
prolactin secretion increases in the early puerperium
prolactin causes milk ejection
oxytocin causes milk ejection
The median eminence *
is part of the neurohypophysis
is surrounded by the pars tuberalis
contains the ventromedial and paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei
secretes cathecolamine
stores oxytocin
Oestrogens *
are metabolised mainly to sulphate conjugates
have a greater excretion in bile than in faeces
have a half-life in the circulation of 5-6 hours
after hydroxylation at the 2 and 4 positions, result in catecholoestrogens that will not bind
to oestrogen receptors
in pregnancy are mainly oestriol
In relation to sex steroids: *
The basic nucleusisfour6-carbonrings
Oestrogens have 20 carbon atoms
Testosterone has no carbon atoms
The rate-limiting step in production is conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone
Only non-protein-bound cholesterol is taken up by cells
Catecholamines:  *
They are synthesised from the amino acid tyrosine
They are synthesised within the placenta
Adrenalectomy leads to a fall in circulating noradrenaline
The main catecholamine with the lowest concentration in fetal blood is L-dopa
Noradrenaline levels in amniotic fluid decrease in late pregnancy
Stimulation by releasing hormones: *
Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates both luteinising hormone (LH) and
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) inhibits thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) not stimulates prolactin
Dopamine stimulates prolactin
Somatostatinstimulatesgrowthhormone(GH)release
Ovulation*
'releases the ovum in less than 5 seconds
releases the oocyte still surrounded by granulosa cells
may be blocked by estrogen inhibitors
occurs 36 hours after the LH peak
occurs 32 hours after injection of hCG
Thyroid hormones: *
hyroxineisformedbyiodinationoftryptophan
can kill the fetus absolutely
The normal thyroid/serum ratio of iodine is 25: 1
Oxidation of iodide in the follicle cells is blocked by perchlorate
Thyroglobulin has a molecular weight of 25 000
Prolactin is *
chemically similar to growth hormone
usually contains carbohydrate residues
has a molecular weight of 100 000
is decreased in the mother during pregnancy
is lower in the fetus than in the mother
Thyroid hormones: 
*
The pregnant uterus increases oxygen consumption in response to thyroid hormones
Maternal T3 and T4 readily cross the placentac.
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) reaches a peak at 20-30 weeks of fetal life
Thyroid deficiency in the neonate not impairs skeletal growth
Pregnancy is associated with increased retention of iodine
The adrenal cortex*
develops from ectoderm
has the zona reticularis as its outermost layer
secretes androgens from the zona reticularis
secretes cortisol from the zona glomerulosa
blood flow is decreased by adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Luteinising hormone (LH) 
*
has higher levels in the luteal than in the follicular phase
has rising levels during menstruation
has a mid-cycle peak less than that of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
release may be suppressed by progesterone
release may be stimulated by androgens
Prolactin release is stimulated by*
dopamine
phenothiazines
serotonin
TSH
glucose
Androgens in the female: *
The secretion rate of testosterone (T) is greater than that of androstenedione (A4)
The secretion rate of dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEA-S04) is greater than that of
T
Most of the circulating T is produced in the adrenal
DHEA is excreted in urine mainly as the sulphate conjugate
Most of the circulating dihydrotestosterone (DHT) arises from the ovary and adrenal
Testosterone is*
is higher in the male fetus than the female
shows a transient increase in the female during the first week of neonatal life
is not bound more to albumin than sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) in the male
is responsible for the development of pubic and axillary hair in the female
administration increases SHBG levels
Q.4.44  The adrenal cortex: *
Circulating cortisol can have a feedback effect on both synthesis and release of ACTH
Cortisolsecretionreachesamaximumat6p.m.
The fetal zone of the cortex becomes the zona glomerulosa
Is rare to become carcinome
Cortisol decreases sodium reabsorption by the kidney
In breast milk *
colostrum contains low quantities of protein
after 4 weeks of lactation the main immunoglobulin is IgM
the main carbohydrate is glucose
there is moreprotein than in cows' milk
there are fewer minerals than in cows' milk
Ovarian follicles: *
Each primordial follicle may contain several oocytes
During each menstrual cycle 5-20 follicles enter a stage of rapid growth
Cavities in the oocyte form "Call-Exner" bodies
There is a basement membrane between the theca and the granulosa
The development from primordial follicles up to the point of
Sperm: *
Spermatocytes are formed by meiotic· division of spermatogonia
Colored normally yellow
Energy is derived from mitochondria in the tail
The tail consists of a single microtubule
The process of sperm maturation from spermatogonia takes 9-10 weeks
In congenital adrenal hyperplasia *
the commonest defect is ll-hydroxylase deficiency
21-hydroxylase deficiency is associated with a failure of formation of progesterone from
cholesterol
ll-hydroxylase deficiency does not lead to salt loss
17-hydroxylase deficiency may be associated with partial virilisation of a female
21-hydroxylase deficiency is associated with a decrease in plasma renin
The pituitary gland *
arises from endoderm
lies posterior to the cerebellum
lies above the hypothalamus
has basophil cells which secrete LH
has acidophil cells which secrete ACTH
Testosterone*
plays no role in spermatogenesis
in the male is more than 90% produced by the Leydig cells
production by Leydig cells occurs mainly via the delta-5 pathway
circulating levels are highest in the evening
production is primarily controlled by FSH
Breast *
is formed from mesoderm
ducts are canalised in early neonatal life
true alveoli are formed mainly during infant phase
alveoli are lined with squamous epithelium
milk is stored in both alveoli and ducts
Vasopressin 
*
has 7 amino acids
stimulates uterine secretion
is synthesised mainly in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus
secretion is stimulated by a water load
secretion is inhibited by alcohol
In the testis: *
descent to the inguinal ring occurs during the third trimester
Leydig cells develop rapidly from 32 to 40 weeks
Sertoli cells respond mainly to LH
sperm may be formed before puberty
Sertoli cells lie inside the tubules
Luteinising hormone (LH) 
*
consists of one subunits
has a molecular weight of 100000
contains no carbohydrate residues
is partly excreted in urine
has a half-life of 12 hours
Thyroid hormones: *
The amount of tri-iodothyronine (T3) secreted is one-third that of thyroxine
Some 99.5% of thyroid hormones in the blood are protein- bound
T3 is bound with greater avidity than T4
Ten per cent of blood T3 is derived by peripheral deiodination of T4
Reverse T4 is more prominent in fetal than adult life
Oestrogens *
increase the glycogen content of the vaginal epithelium
decreasetheexcitabilityoftheuterus
increase blood and urine calcium
decrease total thyroxine (T4)
increase factor V
As a result of adrenal cortical activity *
blood total cortisol increases during pregnancy
The free fraction of cortisol decreases during pregnancy
the pigmentary changes during pregnancy are due to increased levels of a-melanocyte
stimulating hormone (a- MSH)
renin levels increase during pregnancy
aldosterone levels decrease during pregnancy
Androgens:*
There is a negative feedback relationship between testos- terone and inhibin
FSH elevation precedes LH at puberty
Testosterone levels fall in males after 50
In testicular feminisation there is a female karyotype (XX)
In Sa-reductase deficiency the internal genitalia are of female type
The thyroid gland 
*
secretes calcitonin
arises from the thymus gland
contains approximately 10000 follicles
has follicles lined by multiple layers of cells
has follicle cells which can not absorb hormones from follicular fluid
Calcium regulating hormones: *
Parathormone (PTH) has a molecular weight of 6000
Calcitonin is secreted by the parathyroid glands
Vitamin D is produced in the kidney
ACTH increases renal calcium reabsorption
Reduced oestriogen reseptors
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) 
*
has a molecular weight of 20 000
is the precursor of lipotrophic hormone (LPH)
contains the sequence of a-melanocyte stimulating hormone (a-MSH)
contains the sequence of p-endorphin
dissolved in water
In ovarian follicles *
the diameter of fully grown follicles rarely exceeds 1 cm
stem cells have FSH and LH receptors
the second meiotic division is completed before ovulation
one of the two cells resulting from meiosis is extruded as the polar body
the granulosa cells are not connected to the oocyte via cytoplasmic channels
Calcium regulating hormones: *
Calcitonin secretion is directly controlled by PTH secretion
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels are higher in the fetus than in the mother
Calcitonin levels are higher in the fetus than in the mother
Infants of vitamin C deficient mothers may have congenital rickets
MaternallevelsofPTHfallduringpregnancy
Sperm and seminal plasma: *
Sperm are fully motile when they reach the epididymis
Mostspermarestoredintheseminalvesicles
The seminal vesicles secrete acid phosphatases
The seminal vesicles secrete fructose
The prostate secretes inositol
Gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) *
stimulates release of both LH and FSH
releases, by large pulses, relatively more FSH than LH
produces a continuously increasing response if administered continuously
secretion is stimulated by prolactin
secretion is supressed by melatonin (pineal hormone)
Progesterone is *
production in luteal phase may reach 100-200 mg/day
depends for most of its biological effects upon the presence of oestrogens
causes cervical mucus to become thin and abundant
has a general contrictions effect on smooth muscle
enhances the sodium-retaining effect of aldosterone