The lumad

REPUBLIC ACT No. 6734

The people of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, imploring the aid of
Almighty God, in order to develop a just and humane society and establish an
Autonomous Regional Government that is truly reflective of their ideals and aspirations
within the framework of the Constitution and national sovereignty, as well as the
territorial integrity of the Republic of the Philippines, and to secure to themselves and
their posterity the blessings of autonomy, democracy, peace, justice and equality, do
ordain and promulgate this Organic Act through the Congress of the Philippines.

he indigenous cultural communities (ICC) in the Philippines are believed to make up about ten percent of the
national population. Also known as cultural minorities, they had been pushed to the mountains and forests by
lowlanders ever since towns and cities were built. Most of the ICC do not possess money or private property
and, widely discriminated against, find it hard to integrate with mainstream society. With the destruction of the
forests as well as with efforts of the lowland majority to assimilate them into Christian culture, the ICC
struggle to protect their ancestral domain and cultural identity.

In 1986, fifteen of the more than eighteen ICC in Mindanao adopted the term lumad, a Bisayan word for
“native” or “indigenous,” to distinguish themselves from the Christians and Muslims in Mindanao. Republic
Act 6734, enacted during Corazon Aquino’s time, used the term to differentiate these ethnic communities from
the Bangsamoro people.
Lumad are non-Muslim or non-Christian, although “the orientation of their cultural developments … appears
to be toward the Muslim groups” (Jocano, 1998). The anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano stresses that “in
most cases, language is the only differentiating element in ethnic cultures, particularly among those which
occupy adjacent and contiguous territory.” Most of the ICC in Mindanao speak languages belonging to the
Manobo family of languages, except the Blaan, T’boli, and Teduray.

The lumad who live within the southern highland ranges are swidden farmers, and practice little trade. Like
many of its neighbors, Bagobo society is ruled by a class of warriors known as magani or bagani. The
Bagobo’s elaborate dress and personal adornment are well known among anthropologists. The T’boli and
Teduray are also known for their baskets, trinkets, bracelets, and earrings made of brass. The
T’boli’s t’nalak are prized fabrics believed to be inspired by the dreams of the woman weavers.
The Mandaya, Agusan Manobo, and Ata share numerous cultural traits and social institutions such as in
clothing and religious rituals. They practice slash-and-burn farming and trade with neighbors. Warriors,
headed by the datu, are greatly valued and respected.

On the mountains and plateaus of Bukidnon live a number of ICC collectively known as Bukidnon (from a
Bisayan word for “mountain people”) but who call themselves Higaonon, or “mountain dwellers.” The
mountains and ravines had separated them from their neighbors, and may account for why many of their
traditions and practices have been maintained. In recent years, however, the Higaonon are slowly being
assimilated into the prevailing lowland culture.

The Subanen also refer to a several ethnolinguisiticgroups found in the hills and coastal lowlands of
Zamboanga. They are slash-and-burn farmers who fish, hunt, gather, and practice little trade.

The Minoritization of the Indigenous Communities of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago outlines “what the
Lumads (sic) desire,” which can also be said to reflect the struggles of the lumad throughout history up to the
present. According to the book, the lumad want:
 the return of all lands taken from them through deceit, harassment, illegal manipulation, or simply

grabbed;

 the government to cancel permits secured by individuals and companies operating logging, mining,

pastures, rattan gathering, and other agri-based industries within lumad territories. These businesses

may operate within areas of ancestral domain only with the permission of individual “tribes”;

 the migration of settlers into ancestral domain controlled;

 their culture to be learned, respected, and taught as part of the DepEd curriculum;

 the government to stop militarization in lumad territories, stop the recruitment of lumad into

paramilitary units, and stop the improper use of the lumad pangayaw (revenge raids); and
  the government to stop recognizing “fake Lumad organizations and fake datu which has become

standard practice not only to foil or diffuse legitimate Lumad aspirations but also to advance selfish

interests among government officials and their influential friends.”

Bagobo[edit]
The Bagobo are one of the largest subgroups of the Manobo peoples. They comprise three
subgroups: the Tagabawa, the Klata (or Guiangan), and the Ovu (also spelled Uvu or Ubo) peoples.
The Bagobo were formerly nomadic and farmed through kaingin "slash-and-burn" methods. Their
territory extends from the Davao Gulf to Mount Apo. They are traditionally ruled by chieftains
(matanum), a council of elders (magani), and mabalian or female shamans. The supreme spirit in
their indigenous anito religions is Eugpamolak Manobo or Manama.[6][7][8]

Blaan[edit]
Main article: Blaan people
The Blaan is an indigenous group that is concentrated in Davao del Sur and South Cotabato. They
practice indigenous rituals while adapting to the way of life of modern Filipinos. [9]

Bukidnon[edit]
"Bukidnon people" redirects here. For the Panay Bukidnon, see Suludnon.

The colorful Kaamulan Festival celebrated annually in Malaybalay City

The Bukidnon are one of the seven tribes in the Bukidnon plateau of Mindanao. Bukidnon means

'that of the mountains or highlands' (i.e., 'people of the mountains or highlands'), despite the fact that
most Bukidnon tribes settle in the lowlands.
The name Bukidnon itself used to describe the entire province in a different context (it means
'mountainous lands' in this case) or could also be the collective name of the permanent residents in
the province regardless of ethnicity.[10]
The Bukidnon people believe in one god, Magbabaya (Ruler of All), though there are several minor
gods and goddesses that they worship as well. Religious rites are presided by a baylan whose
ordination is voluntary and may come from any sex. The Bukidnons have rich musical and oral
traditions[11] which are celebrated annually in Malaybalay city's Kaamulan Festival, with other tribes in
Bukidnon (the Manobo tribes, the Higaonon, Matigsalug, Talaandig, Umayamnom, and the
Tigwahanon).[12]
The Bukidnon Lumad is distinct from and should not be confused with the Visayan Suludnon people
of Panay and a few indigenous peoples scattered in the Visayas area who are also alternatively
referred to as "Bukidnon" (also meaning "highland people").

Higaonon[edit]
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The Higaonon is located on the provinces of Bukidnon, Agusan del Sur, Misamis

Oriental, Camiguin (used to be Kamiguing), Rogongon in Iligan City, and Lanao del Norte. The
Higaonons have a rather traditional way of living. Farming is the most important economic activity.
The word Higaonon is derived from the word "Higad" in the Higaonon dialect which means coastal
plains and "Gaon" meaning ascend to the mountains. Taken together, Higaonon, means the people
of the coastal plains that ascended to the mountains. Higaonons were formerly coastal people of the
provinces as mentioned who resisted the Spanish occupation. Driven to the hills and mountains
these people continued to exist and fought for the preservation of the people, heritage, and culture.
The Higaonon people believe in a variety of deities, namely:

 Magbabayà (The Ruler of All) – The supreme god who has minor gods and goddesses
beneath him to do specific jobs and take care of certain things, he is also the god of the
west.
 Domalondong – The god of the north.
 Ongli – The god of the south.
 Tagolambong – The god of the east.
 Ibabasok – He watches over the crops and their growth in a simple ceremony at the
center of the rice field.
 Dagingon – They worship this deity in an elaborated celebration complete with songs
and dances which will last for nine nights during planting and after harvest seasons.
 Bulalakaw – The spirit who watches the rivers and takes care of the fishermen's catch.
 Tumpaa Nanapiyaw or Intumbangol – Watches the base of the earth night and day lest it
crumbles.
 Tagabugtà – The spirit who watches the farm or the forest
Kalagan[edit]
Main article: Kalagan people
Also spelled "K'lagan" or (by the Spanish) "Caragan", is a subroup of the Mandaya-Mansaka people
who speak the Kalagan language. They comprise three subgroups which are usually treated as
different tribes: the Tagakaulo, the Kagan, and the Kallao people of Samal. They are native to areas
within Davao del Sur, Compostela Valley, Davao del Norte (including Samal Island), Davao Oriental,
and North Cotabato; between the territories of the Blaan people and the coastline.
The Caraga region is named after them. Their name means "spirited people" or "brave people",
from kalag, ("spirit" or "soul"). They were historically composed of small warring groups. Their
population, as of 1994, is 87,270. [13][14][15]

Kamigin[edit]
A subgroup of the Manobo people from the island of Camiguin. They speak the Kamigin
language and are closely related to the Manobo groups from Surigao del Norte.[16]

Mamanwa[edit]
A 1926 photograph of Bagobo (Manobo) warriors in full war regalia

The Mamanwa is a Negrito tribe often grouped together with the Lumad. They come
from Leyte, Agusan del Norte, and Surigao provinces in Mindanao; primarily
in Kitcharao and Santiago, Agusan del Norte,[17] though they are lesser in number and more
scattered and nomadic than the Manobos and Mandaya tribes who also inhabit the region. Like all
Negritos, the Mamanwas are phenotypically distinct from the lowlanders and the upland living
Manobos, exhibiting curly hair and much darker skin tones.
These peoples are traditionally hunter-gatherers [18] and consume a wide variety of wild plants, herbs,
insects, and animals from tropical rainforests. The Mamanwa are categorized as having the "negrito"
phenotype with dark skin, kinky hair, and short stature. [18][19] The origins of this phenotype (found in
the Agta, Ati, and Aeta tribes in the Philippines) are a continued topic of debate, with recent
evidence suggesting that the phenotype convergently evolved in several areas of southeast Asia. [20]
However, recent genomic evidence suggests that the Mamanwa were one of the first populations to
leave Africa along with peoples in New Guinea and Australia, and that they diverged from a common
origin about 36,000 years ago.[21]
Currently, Mamanwa populations live in sedentary settlements ("barangays") that are close to
agricultural peoples and market centers. As a result, a substantial proportion of their diet includes
starch-dense domesticated foods. [22] The extent to which agricultural products are bought or
exchanged varies in each Mamanwa settlement with some individuals continuing to farm and
produce their own domesticated foods while others rely on purchasing food from market centers.
The Mamanwa have been exposed to many of the modernities mainstream agricultural populations
possess and use such as cell phones, televisions, radio, processed foods, etc. [22]
The political system of the Mamanwa is informally democratic and age-structured. Elders are
respected and are expected to maintain peace and order within the tribe. The chieftain called
a Tambayon, usually takes over the duties of counseling tribal members, speaking at gatherings,
and arbitrating disagreements. The chieftain may be a man or a woman, which is characteristic of
other gender-egalitarian hunter-gatherer societies. [23] They believe in a collection of spirits, which are
governed by the supreme deity Magbabaya, although it appears that their contact with monotheist
communities/populations has made a considerable impact on the Mamanwa's religious practices.
The tribe produces excellent winnowing baskets, rattan hammocks, and other household containers.
Mamanwa (also spelled Mamanoa) means 'first forest dwellers', from the words man (first)
and banwa (forest).[24] They speak the Mamanwa language (or Minamanwa).[25] They are genetically
related to the Denisovans.[26]

Mandaya[edit]
A hat from the Mandaya people made up of palm, bamboo, feathers, cotton, fiber, and beads, housed at
the Honolulu Museum of Art.

"Mandaya" derives from "man" meaning "first," and "daya" meaning "upstream" or "upper portion of a
river," and therefore means "the first people upstream". It refers to a number of groups found along
the mountain ranges of Davao Oriental, as well as to their customs, language, and beliefs. The
Mandaya are also found in Compostela and New Bataan in Compostela Valley (formerly a part of
Davao del Norte Province).

Manobo[edit]

A Bagobo (Manobo) woman of the Matigsalug people from Davao

Datu Manib, a bagani of the Bagobo, with family, followers, and two missionaries (c. 1900)

Manobo is the hispanicized spelling of the endonym Manuvu (also spelled Menuvu or Minuvu). Its

etymology is unclear; in its current form, it means "person" or "people." It is believed that it is derived
from the rootword tuvu, which means "to grow"/"growth" (thus Man[t]uvu would be "[native]-grown" or
"aboriginal").[27]
The Manobo are probably the most diverse ethnic groups of the Philippines in the relationships and
names of the groups that belong to this family of languages. The total current Manobo population is
not known, although they occupy core areas from Sarangani island into the Mindanao mainland in
the regions of Agusan, Davao, Bukidnon, Surigao, Misamis, and Cotabato. A study by the
journal NCCP-PACT put their population in 1988 at around 250,000. The groups occupy such a wide
area of distribution that localized groups have assumed the character of distinctiveness as a
separate ethnic grouping such as the Bagobo or the Higaonon, and the Atta. Depending on specific
linguistic points of view, the membership of a dialect with a supergroup shifts. [28][29]
The Manobo possess Denisovan admixture, much like the Mamanwa. [26] Manobos also
hold Austroasiatic ancestry.[30]

Mansaka[edit]

A group of Mansaka tribeswomen in their formal attire.

The term "Mansaka" derives from "man" with literal meaning "first" and "saka" meaning "to ascend,"
and means "the first people to ascend mountains/upstream." The term most likely describes the
origin of these people who are found today in Davao del Norte and Davao de Oro. and some parts of
Davao Oriental. Specifically in the Batoto River, the Manat Valley, Caragan, Maragusan, the Hijo
River Valley, and the seacoasts of Kingking, Maco, Kwambog, Hijo, Tagum, Libuganon, Tuganay,
Ising, and Panabo.[31]

Matigsalug[edit]
Main article: Matigsalug
Bukidnon groups are found in the Tigwa-Salug Valley in San Fernando in Bukidnon province,
Philippines. Their name means "people along the Salug River (now called the Davao River)."
Although often classified under the Manobo ethnolinguistic group, the Matigsalug are a distinct
subgroup.[32]

Sangil[edit]
Main article: Sangirese people
The Sangil people (also called Sangir, Sangu, Marore, Sangirezen, or Talaoerezen) are originally
from the Sangihe and Talaud Islands (now part of Indonesia) and parts of Davao
Occidental (particularly in the Sarangani Islands), Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Sultan
Kudarat, South Cotabato, and North Cotabato. Their populations (much like the Sama-Bajau) were
separated when borders were drawn between the Philippines and Indonesia during the colonial era.
The Sangil people are traditionally animistic, much like other Lumad peoples. During the colonial
era, the Sangil (who usually call themselves "Sangir") in the Sangihe Islands mostly converted
to Protestant Christianity due to proximity and contact with the Christian Minahasa
people of Sulawesi. In the Philippines, most Sangil converted to Islam due to the influence of the
neighboring Sultanate of Maguindanao. However, elements of animistic rituals still remain. The
Indonesian and Filipino groups still maintain ties and both Manado Malay and Cebuano are spoken
in both Indonesian Sangir and Filipino Sangil, in addition to the Sangirese language. The exact
population of Sangil people in the Philippines is unknown but is estimated to be around 10,000
people.[33][34][35][36]

Subanon[edit]
Main article: Subanon people

The Subanon people of Misamis Occidental living in the mountains of Mount Malindang.

The Subanons are the first settlers of the Zamboanga peninsula. The family is patriarchal while the
village is led by a chief called a Timuay. He acts as the village judge and is concerned with all
communal matters.
History has better words to speak for Misamis Occidental. Its principal city was originally populated
by the Subanon, a cultural group that once roamed the seas in great number; the province was an
easy prey to the marauding sea pirates of Lanao whose habit was to stage lightning forays along the
coastal areas in search of slaves. As the Subanon retreated deeper and deeper into the interior, the
coastal areas became home to inhabitants from Bukidnon who were steadily followed by settlers
from nearby Cebu and Bohol.

Tagabawa[edit]
Tagabawa is the language used by the Bagobo-Tagabawa. They are an indigenous tribe in
Mindanao. They live in the surrounding areas of Mt. Apo.[37]

Tagakaulo[edit]
Tagakaulo is one of the tribes in Mindanao. Their traditional territories is in Davao del Sur and
the Sarangani Province particularly in the localities of Malalag, Lais, Talaguton Rivers, Sta. Maria,
and Malita of Davao Occidental, and Malungon of the Sarangani Province. Tagakaulo means living
in the mountain. The Tagakaulo tribe originally came from the western shores of the Gulf
of Davao and south of Mt. Apo.[38] a long time ago.

Talaandig[edit]
Talaandig are originally from the foothills of Mount Kitanglad in Bukidnon, specifically in the
municipalities of Talakag and Lantapan.[39]

Tasaday[edit]
Main article: Tasaday
The Tasaday is a group of about two dozen people living within the deep and mountainous
rainforests of Mindanao, who attracted wide media attention in 1971 when they were first
"discovered" by western scientists who reported that they were living at a "stone age" level of
technology and had been completely isolated from the rest of Philippine society. They later attracted
attention in the 1980s when it was reported that their discovery had in fact been an elaborate hoax,
and doubt was raised both about their status as isolated from other societies and even about the
reality of their existence as a separate ethnic group. The question of whether Tasaday studies
published in the seventies are accurate is still being discussed. [40][41]
Teduray[edit]
Main article: Teduray people
The Teduray/Tiruray people live in the municipalities of Datu Blah T. Sinsuat, Upi, and South Upi in
southwestern Maguindanao Province; and in Lebak municipality, northwestern Sultan Kudarat
Province. They speak the Tiruray language, which is related to Bagobo, B'laan, and T'boli. Coastal
Tirurays are mostly farmers, hunters, fishermen, and basket weavers; those living in the mountains
engage in dry field agriculture, supplemented by hunting and the gathering of forest products.
Tirurays are famous for their craftsmanship in weaving baskets with two-toned geometric designs.
While many have adopted the cultures of neighboring Muslims and Christians people, a high
percentage of their population still believe and practice their indigenous customs and rituals. [42]

Tboli[edit]
Main article: Tboli people

A Tboli dance performed during colorful street dancing competition on the Tnalak Festival in Koronadal, South
Cotabato.

The Tboli are one of the indigenous peoples of South Mindanao. From the body of ethnographic and
linguistic literature on Mindanao, they are variously known as Tboli, Teboli, Tau Bilil, Tau Bulul or
Tagabilil. They term themselves Tboli. Their whereabouts and identity are to some extent confused
in the literature; some publications present the Teboli and the Tagabilil as distinct peoples; some
locate the Tbolis to the vicinity of the Buluan Lake in the Cotabato Basin or in Agusan del Norte. The
Tbolis, then, reside on the mountain slopes on either side of the upper Alah Valley and the coastal
area of Maitum, Maasim, and Kiamba. In former times, the Tbolis also inhabited the upper Alah
Valley floor.

Tigwahonon[edit]
The Tigwahonon are a subgroup of Manobo originally from the Tigwa River basin near San
Fernando, Bukidnon.[43]

Umayamnon[edit]
The Umayamnon are originally from the Umayam River watershed and the headwaters of
the Pulangi River. They are a subgroup of the Manobo.[44][45]

The Subanen
Manobo
B'laan
T'boli
Mandaya
Mansaka
Tiruray
Higaonon
Bagobo
Bukidnon
Tagakaolo
Banwaon
Dibabawon
Talaandig
Mamanua, and
Manguangan.