MECHANICAL R & AC

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MECHANICAL R & AC

REFRIGERATION
&
AIR CONDITIONING
INTRODUCTION 4
GAS CYCLE REFRIGERATION 4
AIR STANDARD CYCLE ANALYSIS 4
REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE 4
REVERSED BRAYTON CYCLE 5
POLYTROPHIC AND MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION 6
ACTUAL GAS CYCLE 7
SIMPLE AIRCRAFT REFRIGERATION CYCLE WITH RAM 7
COMPRESSION
DRY AIR RATED TEMPERATURE 8
VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM 10
DRY VERSUS WET COMPRESSION 10
THROTTLING VERSUS ISENTROPIC EXPANSION 10
VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE 11
VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM CALCULATION 11

1
REPRESENTATION OF VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE ON 12
PRESSURE-ENTHALPY DIAGRAM
EFFECT OF OPERATING CONDITIONS 12
ACTUAL VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE 14
SECOND LAW EFFICIENCY OF VAPOUR COMPRSSION CYCLE 15
MULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS 17
REFRIGERATION
MULTISTAGE OR COMPOUND COMPRESSION 17
AND COMPLETE MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION SYSTEM 18
REFRIGERATION SINGLE COMPRESSOR-INDIVIDUAL EXPANSION VALVES 18
CYCLES SINGLE COMPRESSOR – MULTIPLE EXPANSION VALVES 19
INDIVIDUAL COMPRESSORS MULTIPLE EXPANSION VALVES 19
CASCADE SYSTEMS 20
VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS 21
SIMPLE VAPOUR ABSORPTION SYSTEM 21
MAXIMUM COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE OF A HEAT 22
OPERATED
REFRIGERATING MACHINE 22
COMMAN REFRIGERANT- ABSORBENT SYSTEMS 22
MODIFICATIONS OF SIMPLE ABSORPTION SYSTEM 23
ELECTROLUX REFRIGERATOR 23

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MECHANICAL R & AC

CONDENSERS 25
HEAT REJECTION RATIO 25
TYPES OF CONDENSERS 25
HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSERS 26
DESUPERHEATING 27
CONDENSING HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT 27
EXPANSION DEVICES 29
TYPES OF EXPANSION DEVICES 29

2
AUTOMATIC OR CONSTANT PRESSURE EXPANSION VALVE 29
THERMOSTATIC-EXPANSION VALVE 30
CAPILLARY TUBE 31
BALANCE POINT OF COMPRESSOR AND CAPILLARY TUBE 32
EVAPORATORS 33
TYPES OF EVAPORATORS 33
COMPONENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER IN EVAPORATIORS 33
REFRIGERATION HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR NUCLEATE POOL 34
SYSTEM BOILING
FORCED CONVECTION BOILING CORRELATIONS 34
HORIZONTAL VS. VERTICAL TUBE 34
EFFECT OF OIL IN REFRIGERANT ON HEAT TRANSFER 34
EXTENDED SURFACE EVAPORATORS 35

REFRIGERANTS 37
REFRIGERANTS IN USE AFTER THE YEAR 2000 37

3
REFRIGRANTS
SELECTION OF A REFRIGERANT
THERMODYNAMIC REQUIREMENTS
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS
SUBSTITUTES FOR CFC REFRIGERANTS
AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES
SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS
37
38
39
43
44
44

PSYCHROMETRY 45
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES 45
IMPORTANT PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES: 45
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART 47
PSYCHROMETER: 48
PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES 48

4
PSYCHROMETRY
SENSIBLE COOLING:
SENSIBLE HEATING (PROCESS O-B):
SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR
COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION (PROCESS O-C):
D) HEATING AND HUMIDIFICATION (PROCESS O-D):
COOLING & HUMIDIFICATION (PROCESS O-E):
48
49
49
49
50
51
HEATING AND DE-HUMIDIFICATION (PROCESS O-F): 51
MIXING OF AIR STREAMS 52

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MECHANICAL R & AC

COOLING LOAD ESTIMATE 54

GRAND TOTAL LOAD ON AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM 54
HEATING LOAD ESTIMATE 54

5
AIR
INTERNAL HEAT GAINS
SYSTEM HEAT GAINS
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH WALLS AND ROOFS
SUMMMER AIR CONDITIONING
WINTER AIR CONDITIONING
YEAR –ROUND AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM
55
55
56
56
56
57
CONDITIONING CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING 57
INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDITIONING 57
COMFORT AIR CONDITIONING 57

INTRODUCTION 59
GENERAL RULES FOR DUCT DESIGN 59

6
DUCT DESIGN
CLASSIFICATION OF DUCT SYSTEMS
DUCT DESIGN METHODS
PERFORMANCE OF DUCT SYSTEMS
SYSTEM BALANCING AND OPTIMIZATION
59
59
59
60

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MECHANICAL R & AC

CHAPTER 5 AIR-CONDITIONING

COOLING LOAD ESTIMATE

a. ROOM SENSIBLE HEAT (RSH)
I) Solar and transmission heat gain through walls, roofs etc.
II) Solar and transmission heat gain through glass.
III) Transmission gain through partition walls, ceiling etc.
IV) Infiltration
V) Internal heat gain from people, power, lights etc.
VI) Additional heat gain not accounted above.
VII) Supply duct heat gain, supply heat leakage loss and fan horsepower.
VIII) Bypassed outside air load.

Sum of all these give Effective Room Sensible Heat ( ERSH)

b. ROOM LATENT HEAT (RLH)

I) Infiltration
II) Internal heat gain from people, steam etc.
III) Vapour transmission
IV) Additional heat gain not accounted above
V) Supply duct leakage loss
VI) Bypass outside air load

The sum of all these gives the Effective Room Latent Heat (ERLH)

GRAND TOTAL LOAD ON AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM

A. Sensible Heat
I) Effective room sensible heat
II) Sensible heat of the outside air that is not bypassed.
III) Return duct heat gain

Sum of all these gives the Total Sensible Heat (TSH)

B. Latent heat
I) Effective room latent heat
II) Latent heat of outside air which is not bypassed.
III) Return duct leakage gain

Sum of all these gives the Total Latent Heat (TLH)

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MECHANICAL R & AC

Sum of A and B gives Grand Total Heat (GTH)

HEATING LOAD ESTIMATE

Heat load estimate is made on the basis of the maximum probable heat loss of the room
or space to be heated
I) Transmission heat loss
Transmission heat loss through wall and roof etc. is calculated on the basis of
just the design outside and inside air temperature difference.

II) Solar radiation

There is no solar heat gain at the time of peak load which normally occurs in
early hours of morning.
III) Internal heat gains
It is the heat gain from occupants, lights , motor and machinery etc. diminish
the heat requirement.

Bypassed outside air loads on the room are:

Effective room sensible heat

Effective room latent heat

The effective sensible heat factor (ESHF) is the ratio of the effective room
sensible heat to the effective room total heat.

INTERNAL HEAT GAINS

1. OCCUPANCY LOAD
The occupants in a conditioned space give out heat at metabolic rate that
more or less depends on their rate of working. The relative proportion of
sensible and latent heats given out depends upon the ambient dry bulb
temperature.
2. LIGHTING LOAD

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MECHANICAL R & AC

Electric lights generate heat equal to the amount of electric power

consumed. Most of the energy is liberated as heat and the rest is liberated as
light which also becomes heat after multiple reflections.
3. APPLIANCES LOAD
Most appliances contribute both sensible and latent heats. The latent heat
produced depends upon the function the appliances perform. Electric
motors contribute sensible heat to the conditioned space.

SYSTEM HEAT GAINS

1. SUPPLY AIR DUCT HEAT GAIN AND LEAKAGE LOSS
Supply air has a temperature lower than the ambient temperature. If the
duct passes through such a unconditioned space having ambient
temperature, a significant heat gain will occur till the air reaches the
conditioned space.
2. HEAT GAIN FROM AIR CONDITIONING FAN
The heat equivalent of an air-conditioning fan horsepower is added as
the sensible heat to the system. If the fan motor is outside the air stream,
the energy loss due to the inefficiency of the motor is not added to air.
3. RETURN AIR DUCT HEAT AND LEAKAGE GAIN
Heat gain for return duct is done in exactly the same way as for supply
air ducts. But the leakage in this case is that of the hot and humid
outside air into duct because of suction within the duct.
4. HEAT GAIN FROM DEHUMIDIFIER PUMP AND PIPING
The horsepower required to pump water through the dehumidifier adds
heat to the system and is to be considered like that of other electric
motor.
5. SAFETY FACTOR
Safety factor is strictly a factor of probable error in the estimation of
load.

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH WALLS AND ROOFS

Heat transfer through the walls and roofs of building structures is not steady and difficult
to evaluate. This is due to variation of outside temperature and also in the variation of
solar radiation intensity. The combined effectof these temperatures can be incorporated
into a singleeffectivetemperature.
The governing equation will be unsteady state one dimensional heat transfer

Where = temperature at any section of the wall at a distance x from the surface at any
time τ.

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MECHANICAL R & AC

SOL-AIR TEMPERATURE
An expression for rate of heat transfer from the environment to the outside surface of the
wall may be written as

= the outside film coefficient

= temperature of the outside surface
a = absorptivity of the surface
= the total radiation intensity

Introducing an equivalent temperature,

From the two equations

Where = sol-air temperature and can be considered as an equivalent outside air

temperature such that the total heat transferred is same as due to the combined effect of
the incident solar radiation and outside air and the wall temperature difference.

SUMMMER AIR CONDITIONING

In summer, outside air temperature and humidity are both high. The room gains heat as
well as moisture. It is thus required to cool and dehumidify the recirculated room air in
the air conditioning apparatus either by the use of a cooling coil or by using air washer in
which chilled water is sprayed. The process follows the room sensible heat factor
(RSHF).

The temperature at which the RSHF line intersects the saturation curve is called room
apparatus dew point (Room ADP).

WINTER AIR CONDITIONING

In winter, the building sensible heat losses are partially compensated by the solar heat
gains and the internal heat gains. The latent heat loss due to low outside air humidity is
more or less offset by the latent heat gain from occupancy. Hence heating load is likely to
be less than the cooling load in summer. However, the actual situation both in summer
and winter depends upon the swing of the outside temperature and humidity with respect
to the inside conditions.

The process in the conditioning apparatus for winter air conditioning for comfort involve
heating and humidifying.

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MECHANICAL R & AC

Two of the typical process combinations are:

i. Preheating the air with steam or hoot water in a coil followed by adiabatic
saturation and reheat.
ii. Heating and humidifying air in air washer with pumped recirculation and
external heating of water followed by reheat.

YEAR –ROUND AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM

It should have equipment for both the summer and the winter air-conditioning. The
outside air flows through the dampers and mixes up with the recirculated air. The mixed
air passes through a filter to remove dirt, dust and other impurities. In summer cooling
coil operates to cool the air to a desired value. The dehumidification is obtained by
operating the cooling coil at a temperature lower than the dew point temperature. In
winter, the cooling coil is made inoperative and the heating coil operates to heat the air.
The spray type humidifier is also made use in the dry season to humidify the air.

CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING

This is the most important type of air-conditioning system, which is adopted, when the
cooling capacity required is 25 TR or more. The central air conditioning is adopted when
the air flow is more than 300 m3/min or different zones in a building to be air
conditioning.

INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDITIONING

There are various categories of applications requiring varying load standards of inside
design conditioning. One category comprises those where constancy of temperature is the
prime consideration. Other category may be where the relative humidity is to be kept
constant at high value. There is still another category of applications where strict control
of both temperature and relative humidity are required.

COMFORT AIR CONDITIONING

There is a problem of measuring comfort in terms of a single parameter which would
include all of the three parameters governing comfort i.e. air temperature, humidity and
air velocity in addition to air purity. Often a single parameter called the effective
temperature is used as an index of comfort.

Effective temperature ET is defined as that temperature of saturated air at which the

subject would experience the same feeling of comfort as experienced in the actual
unsaturated environment.
Another effective temperature may be defined as the temperature at 50% RH at which the
subject would experience exactly same feeling of comfort as at ET at 100% RH.

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MECHANICAL R & AC

At lower humidities, the DBT’s of the air can be higher for the same ET and for the same
feeling of comfort. Thus at a higher DBT, the body would lose more heat in form of
latent heat. Sn increase in temperature can also be compensated by an increase in
velocity.

Factors affecting the effective temperature:

1. Climatic and seasonal differences
2. Clothing
3. Age and sex
4. Duration of stay
5. Kind of activity
6. Density of occupants

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