EMILIO AGUINALDO COLLEGE CAVITE

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
NERVOUS SYSTEM : THE BODY’S COMMAND CENTER
Vertebrates and Invertebrates

CONTENT CREATOR AND WRITERS

ALCANO, ALTHEA T.
CAPILOS, KYLA MAE P.
SOLIS, ARKIN JAN N.
TOBIAS, JANELLA MAE L.
March 2023

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 Acknowledgement

The completion of this undertaking seems not conceivable without the support and
assistance of numerous individuals whose names may not all be stated. Their commitments are
truly appreciated and gratefully acknowledged. The authors would like to express their deep
gratitude and indebtedness particularly to the following:

To Ms. Kelly C. Janson, our General Biology 2 subject teacher who kindly gave up
considerable amounts of her time to answer each question and for guiding the authors to fulfill
their paper to the utmost capabilities and for being patient, understanding, and kind.

To the fellow authors who publish different articles and books where we collected the
ideas and knowledge to have guidelines in creating this module.

To all our relatives and friends who in one way or another showed their support, either
by giving motivation that will help the researchers, morally, and physically.

To all the writers of this study for an utmost cooperation and determination to unite,
work, and fulfill one’s responsibility in the completion of this paper.

Above all, to the Lord, who is always there to help and support us and the one who
made knowledge and wisdom as well as his countless love.

We, the authors, Thank you.

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 Table of Contents

Acknowledgement 2

What Is This Module All About? 6

What will you learn from this module? 7

Let’s See What You Already Know 7

LESSON 1 9

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 9

Let’s Study and Analyze 9

Let’s Think About This 10

Let’s Learn 10

Let’s Try This 12

Let’s Learn 12

Let’s Try This 13

Let’s Learn 14

Let’s Try This 14

Let’s Learn 15

Let’s Think About This 17

Let’s See What You Have Learned 17

Let’s Remember 18

LESSON 2 19

THE PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 19

Pre-Assessment 19

Let’s Learn 20

Let’s Try This 22

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 Let’s Learn 22

Let’s Try This 23

Let’s Try This 23

Let’s Learn 24

Let’s Try This 26

Let’s Review 26

Let’s Learn 27

Let’s Learn 28

Let’s Review 30

Let’s Learn 31

Let’s Think About This 32

Let’s See What You Have Learned 32

Let’s Remember 33

Let’s Try This 36

LESSON 3 38

INJURIES AND DISEASES THAT CAN AFFECT NERVOUS SYSTEM 38

Pre-Assessment 38

Let’s Think About This 39

Let’s Learn 40

Let’s Try This 43

Let’s Learn 44

Let’s Try This 47

LESSON 4 50

TAKING CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 50

Pre-Assessment 50

Let’s Learn 52

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 Let’s Try This 57

Let’s Review 57

Let’s Remember 58

Let’s See What You Have Learned 60

Let’s Sum Up 60

What Have You Learned? 61

Key To Correction 63

Glossary 71

References 76

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 What Is This Module All About?

Can you imagine your life if you didn't have the ability to move, think, and feel? Living
organisms are endowed with the capacity to process information, perceive, and take a step.
The organism's body is capable of many incredible things. We can tell when we are hungry or
tired. We can move our bodies whenever we need to. We have the capacity to form ideas and
understand things.
We can do all of these things due to possessing an organ system that processes and
transmits information to various parts of our bodies known as the nervous system . It is a
system that causes us to assume, behave, respond, move, and make decisions. Even though we
sleep, our nervous system keeps functioning.
In this module, you will learn about the nervous system. You will learn about the
nervous system's components and functions. You will also gain a better understanding of the
diseases that can affect the nervous system and how to best care for it.

This module on the nervous system is divided into four lessons. These are:

Lesson 1 — Functions of the Nervous System

● Vertebrates
● Invertebrates
Lesson 2 — The Parts of the Nervous System
● Vertebrates
● Invertebrates
Lesson 3 — Injuries and Diseases That Can Affect the Nervous System
● Vertebrates
● Invertebrates
Lesson 4 — Taking Care of the Nervous System
● Vertebrates
● Invertebrates

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 What will you learn from this module?

After studying this module, you should be able to:

♦ describe the functions of the nervous system;
♦ recognize the components of the nervous system;
♦ differentiate the nervous system of vertebrates and invertebrates;
♦ explain the nervous system's function;
♦ characterized some of the injuries and illnesses that can affect the nervous system and
♦ provide examples of ways to care for the nervous system.

Let’s See What You Already Know

Before you begin studying this module, consider how much you already know about the
subject. Fill in the blanks with your answers to the questions below.

1. Name the four major functions of the nervous system.

a. _____________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________
d. _____________________________________________________
2. Give at least three parts of the nervous system in both vertebrates and invertebrates.
a. _____________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________
3. Describe how the nervous system works.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
4. Name three diseases that can affect the nervous system.
a. _____________________________________________________

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 b. _____________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________
5. Give three ways of taking care of your nervous system.
a. _____________________________________________________
b. _____________________________________________________
c. _____________________________________________________

So, how was it? Do you believe you did well?

If all of your answers are correct, congratulations! This demonstrates that you are
already well-versed in the topics covered in this module. You can still study the module to
refresh your memory. Who knows, you might even learn something new.
Don't be discouraged if you receive a low score. This module is intended for you. It will
assist you in comprehending some critical concepts that you can apply in your daily life. If you
carefully study this module, you will learn the answers to all of the test items as well as much
more! Are you prepared?
You may now proceed to the following page to begin Lesson 1.

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 LESSON 1

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The organism's body is an impressive machine. It is composed of functional parts that

work together in an organized approach for carrying out useful roles. A group of body organs
that collaborate to operate a process is known as the organ system. For instance, the nervous
system consists of a highly advanced set of structures that enable us to think, memorize, move,
and acquire new knowledge.
In this lesson, you will learn about the ways in which the nervous system works. It is
essential to comprehend these functions in order to better understand the nervous system.

Let’s Study and Analyze

Take a look at the image below. What does it demonstrate? Do you notice how well
she tries to balance herself on the bicycle? What do you think the girl is thinking as she
attempts not to fall and make the bicycle move?

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 Let’s Think About This

What role do you think the nervous system plays in allowing the girl in the picture to
move?
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

Let’s Learn

The nervous system is the body's primary control and message center. It is made up of
components that can send impulses. These are electrical signals that travel through your body.
These signals carry messages and instructions that maintain the body in good health and
working properly. Assume you have an organ system that keeps everything within your body
running.
The nervous system serves four critical functions. These are a few examples:
1. The nervous system makes your body move.
Muscles contract as a result of electrical impulses from the nervous system. This is
known as the nervous system's somatic or voluntary motor function.

Your nervous system instructs your leg Your nervous system also assists you in

muscles to contract and move when you run. deciding how fast to run. It precisely
transmits impulses to the muscles to adjust
your speed.

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 When you make the decision to stop, your While sleeping, your nervous system keeps
brain sends signals to your muscles in order you in a comfortable position.
to stop shrinking.

2. The nervous system picks up stimuli.

This is the nervous system's sensory function. Stimuli are environmental or internal
signals to which you respond. Sense organs such as the eyes detect stimuli in the environment,
and the brain interprets and responds to this data.
Every object reflects light. When you look at something, your eye is drawn to it and
stimulated by the light reflected by the object. The stimulus is interpreted into a signal that your
eyes send to your brain. Your brain then sends signals sent through your nerves indicating how
you should react to the data sent by your eyes.

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 Let’s Try This

Consider how your nervous system works as it instructs various parts of your body to
perform a specific task. What kinds of movements can you make? Make a list of everything on
a separate sheet of paper.

Let’s Learn

The light that enters your eye from your surroundings is known as an external stimulus.
The stimulus can sometimes come from within your body referred to as an internal stimulus.

For Instance, suppose it was already
nighttime and you're still reading a book.
Your nervous system will signal your body to
nap, so you'll start feeling worn out and
drowsy.
Your nervous system will tell your body to
to sleep, and your body will feel the need for
rest. You rest in response and that is called
the internal stimulus.

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 Let’s Try This

Put some personal items inside a bag, such as a comb, a bar of soap, a ball pen, a scrap
of paper, and so on. Take something from your bag. Make use of your eyes to describe what
you're holding. What color is it? What material is it made of? You can describe the object
because of the external stimulus provided by the light sensed by your eyes.
Close your eyes and take another object from your bag. Are you able to obtain one?
Now, without opening your eyes, try to describe that object. What is the weight? What does it
smell like?

By having to close your eyes, you permitted your other sense organs, such as your skin,
nose, and hands, to define the object. To ascertain your response, your sense organs send
signals to your brain, and the brain sends signals back. The nervous system keeps functioning
without our awareness in many ways.

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 Let’s Learn

The nervous system assists the heart in having beaten by continuously sending signals to
it. It also instructs other organs, such as the lungs, to operate without one's knowledge. This is
an involuntary or autonomic function of the organism's nervous system.

When you are angry, your heart automatically You are breathing without being aware of it
pumps faster as your emotion drives your as the nervous system sends signals to the
breathing and nerves brain automatically.

Let’s Try This

Make a list of all of your involuntary actions on a separate sheet of paper. You are aware
of your body. What is the significance of each of these functions? How many did you manage to
jot down?

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 Let’s Learn

Every day, we use our nervous systems to think, plan, learn, and remember. These
activities reflect the nervous system's cognitive function. This unique ability distinguishes us
from animals. The nervous system's cognitive function allows us to adapt to our surroundings.
Consider the following scenarios:

Kyla was tasked with delivering an essay to
her fellow students. Due to the cognitive
function of her nervous system, she was
capable of recalling the lines and smartly
answering her classmates' queries.
Arkin's mother was getting prepared for her
birthday. Arkin desired to
throw her a surprise birthday party. He
depended on his cognitive function.
nervous system during the event planning.

Let us review the nervous system's four major functions:

1. The nervous system makes the body move (somatic or voluntary function).
2. The nervous system helps people detect stimuli from their environment
(sensory function).
3. The nervous system maintains body functions important for life without our

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being aware of it. (autonomic or involuntary function).
4. The nervous system helps us think and remember (cognitive function).

These four major nervous system functions are not dynamic with one another. It is
essential to keep in mind that these functions work in tandem to react to every scenario.

Consider this situation;

Althea is walking across the roadway when he notices a car approaching at a high rate of
speed (sensory function). His heart begins to race (autonomic function). Seeing the car warns
him that a threat is approaching (cognitive function). His nervous system then instructs the rest
of his body to adjust itself so that he can avoid hitting the vehicle (somatic function).

The illustration shows how quickly the nervous system reacts toward any scenario in a
cohesive way. The nervous system is responsible for ensuring that your body is secure and your
brain operating properly.

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 Let’s Think About This

Consider a period of your existence once your nervous system worked tirelessly to
maintain you safe. Can you visualize the events from within your body as your nervous system
did receive and transmitted information to and from various areas of your body?

Let’s See What You Have Learned

Inside the box is listed the four major functions of the nervous system. Choose the letter
of the correct answer and put it in a blank.

A. Somatic or Voluntary Function

B. Sensory Function
C. Autonomic or Involuntary Function
D. Cognitive Function

____1. feeling hungry

____2. running
____3. writing
____4. digestion of food
____5. remembering names
____6. feeling pain
____7. lifting objects
____8. smelling odor
____9. making decisions
____10. breathing

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 Try comparing your answers to the ones on page 58 of the Answer Key. Very good if your
score is 6 or higher! That indicates that you are gaining knowledge. You may go over the
sections you didn't understand again. After that, you can move to the following lesson.
If your score is 5 or lower, you should go over this lesson again. After you've finished
reviewing, move on to the next lesson.

Let’s Remember

The nervous system:

♦ makes the body move
♦ enables beings to react to internal stimuli (signals from within the body)
♦ interprets and reacts to external stimuli (signals from the environment)
♦ maintains and regulates the autonomic functions of the body
♦ gives organism’s intelligence and the capacity to think and remember

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 LESSON 2

THE PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

In Lesson 1, you learned about the functions of the nervous system. It is the main
control and message center of the organism’s body. Your nervous system keeps you alive, allows
you to respond to stimuli, moves you, and aids in the acquisition of knowledge. But do you
understand how it works?
To fully comprehend how well the nervous system functions, you must first understand
its components. This lesson will teach you all of this, as well as how each of these parts work
together to form a functional whole that will allow you to do a variety of things.

Pre-Assessment

Direction: Identify the following questions.

1. ______ In which body part is the ganglion located?

2. ______ Concerning the viscera, which are the soft internal organs of the body, including
the lungs, heart, and organs of the digestive, excretory, reproductive, and circulatory
systems.
3. ______ The adductor muscle connects the two shells, allowing the mussel to close its
shell.
4. ______ The pair of closely connected ventral longitudinal nerves with segmental ganglia
found in many elongate invertebrates (such as earthworms).
5. ______ What are the three pairs of ganglia?
6. ______ Invertebrates are made up of.
7. ______ Anatomy and Zoology. of or relating to the cerebrum or the brain.
8. ______ The lower part of a man's or an animal's leg.
9. ______ Give one major function of the CNS.

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 10. ______ Of or relating to the foot or feet, literally or metaphorically; specifically, relating
to the foot of a mollusk.
Compare your answers to the Answer Key on page 58. It's okay if you didn't get all of the
answers right. Simply keep reading to learn more about the nervous system's components.

Let’s Learn

2.1 Vertebrates

If your nervous system can transmit things all through one's body, it must be like a busy
highway. Consider how many such highways exist within your body. Where would the major and
minor roads be? Would there be traffic?
Certainly, despite the fact that the nervous system is similar to a busy highway, traffic
jams do not occur. This is due to the way the nervous system is structured. Let us now look at
the components of this system. The nervous system is divided into two major parts: the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

Examine the figure below;

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 The brain and spinal cord comprise the central nervous system. It is called central
because it is in the center of the body. The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerve cells
or neurons that extend from the spinal cord to various parts of the body. The word periphery
means "on the outskirts." As a result, the peripheral nervous system is concentrated on the
body's sides.
Consider the central nervous system to be a highway through which important cargo
passes. These vehicles must travel through smaller roads before arriving at their destinations.
The smaller roads represent the nervous system's peripheral nerves. Traveling would be
extremely difficult without both roads, and important cargoes would never reach their
destinations. Similarly, both the central and peripheral nervous systems are necessary for the
nervous system as a whole to function properly.

It is essential to keep in mind that the nervous system is entirely made up of nerve cells,
also known as neurons. Neurons are cells that can send and receive electrical impulses and relay
information throughout the body. The spinal cord and brain are organs made up of neuron
bundles.

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 Let’s Try This

The human nervous system is depicted on the following page. Lightly shade the central
nervous system. Blacken the peripheral nervous system.
After you've shaded the central and periphery areas, imagine an external stimulus acting
on one of the person's hands in the image. Follow its path as it approaches the brain. Trace the
path that the signal from the brain takes in response to that stimulus.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Let’s Learn

The Brain
The brain is the nervous system's command center. It controls the majority of your
body's functions. It is found inside the skull and is protected by it.

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 Let’s Try This

Put your hand on your head. Have you ever noticed how hard your skull is? Tap
your head lightly. Take note of the fact that your skull does not sound hollow. This is due to
the presence of the brain within it.

The brain is an extremely versatile organ. It is located at the very top of the body, as it
should be because it is the master controller that governs all of our body functions. The brain is
the organ responsible for receiving, processing, and storing information from both inside and
outside the body. It determines what to do with the information received and sends signals to
the body to react, decide, or move.
The brain's capacity to gather and transmit information to the body constitutes only one
of the numerous objects it can do. Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of the brain is its ability
to make people think. Human intelligence is housed in the brain. It forces you to make
decisions, reason, judge, solve problems, learn, and recall information. The brain, like a
supercomputer, can gather and integrate information, which it then analyzes and retransmits to
the affected body part.

Let’s Try This

You now understand how powerful the brain is, but do you know what it looks like?
Examine the brain image below carefully. Fill in the blanks with a description of what the brain
looks like.

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 _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

Let’s Learn

The brain resembles a white cabbage. It is, however, made up of nerve cells that are
tightly packed together to form a ball-like organ. You are correct if you wrote that the brain does
not appear to be very large. An adult human brain weighs only about 2.5 to 3 pounds. The fact
that the brain is so small makes it even more amazing. The most important part of the nervous
system is small, but it functions!
Did you make a note of the wrinkled folds? If you did, congratulations! These folds are
referred to as gyri or convolutions.

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 Did you notice how the brain appears to have a stalk or a handle? If you did,
congratulations! The brainstem is the name given to this area of the brain.
Are you ready to learn about the different parts of the brain?

The Cerebrum
The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum.It
receives, stores, and recalls all the information the
body picks up. Cognitive processes such as thinking,
memorizing and decision making occur in the outer
gray part of the cerebrum, which is called the cerebral
cortex. Cortex means “covering.” The inner white part
of the cerebrum relays electrical signals to other parts
of the brain.

The Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a densely packed mass of nerve tissue just beneath the cerebrum. It is
in charge of muscle coordination and balance. The cerebellum assists you in making moves
when you play basketball. Consider a drunken man on the street. He sways unbalanced and
uncoordinated. That's how you'd be if your cerebellum didn't work.
The cerebellum also orders and processes your split-second actions and reactions. If
your cerebrum tells you to jump, your cerebellum—your "little brain"—unites all of your muscle
actions.

The Brainstem
The brainstem is the brain's backbone. It is responsible for the medulla oblongata and
the pons. The medulla oblongata, also known as the medulla, is a nerve that connects the spinal
cord to the brain. It also regulates autonomic or involuntary functions like heart rate and

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breathing. The pons contain tracts that connect the spinal cord to higher brain levels. It also has
information-transfer cell groups from the cerebral to the cerebellar.

Let’s Try This

A diagram of the brain's structure is shown below. Label each component. If you want,
you can color the brain parts. Use the Answer Key on page 49 to double-check your answer.

Let’s Review

Fill in the blanks with the correct word or group of words.

1.There are _________ major divisions of the nervous system.
2.The central nervous system is composed of the __________ and the

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_______________.
3.The nerves that branch off the brain and the spinal cord make up the
_______________ nervous system.
4.The __________________ is the seat of human intelligence.
5.The _____________________ forms the outermost portion of the cerebrum.
6.The word cortex means __________________.
7.The wrinkled folds of the brain are called _____________ or
________________.
8.The _____________________________ control logic, memory, feelings and abilities.
9.The cerebellum controls muscle coordination and ________________.
10. Heartbeat is controlled by the ____________________.

Check your answers against the Answer Key on page 59. Congratulations if your score is
7 or higher! You may proceed to the following section. If your score is 6 or lower, you must first
review the previous section before moving on to the next.

Let’s Learn

The Spinal Cord

Take a look at this activity. Examine your nape. Then try to feel the column of bones as
far down your back as you can. Can you guess how many bones there are in this column?

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 What you touched is the spinal column, which protects your spinal cord. The spinal cord
is the brain's downward extension. Doesn't the brain need a way to receive signals and send
commands to different parts of the body? This function is performed by the spinal cord. It
enables impulses to travel from and to the brain. The brain could not receive or send
information without the spinal cord. The brain would lose its ability to control the body if the
spinal cord were not present.
The spinal cord is a fragile structure. It's only about the thickness of your ring finger. It is
made up of 31 nerve bundles that exit from the 33 connected bones known as the column or
backbone. Because the nerve bundles that comprise the spinal cord are extremely sensitive,
they must be safeguarded.

Let’s Learn

The Peripheral Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord must constantly communicate with the rest of the body. How
do you think this will be accomplished? What is the best way to send and receive signals to and
from the central nervous system?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

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 Bundles of nerve cells branch off from the spinal cord, and the central nervous system
sends commands to various parts of the body via them. Sensory signals from inside and outside
the body are transmitted through these nerve cells and processed in the brain. This network of
nerve cells that branch out from the brain and the peripheral nervous system is made up of the
brain and the spinal cord.

The peripheral nerves enable us to sense and respond to our surroundings. Consider the
following example:

Arkin is running around his house barefoot Pain receptors in his skin detect the sensation
when he steps on something pointed. immediately. The message is sent to his brain
via the spinal cord by these receptors.

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 Arkin’s brain recognizes the signal right away. His brain sends a command to withdraw his
The brain makes a decision right away. foot. His leg muscles contract, and the object
is avoided.

The brain sends signals to the body via the peripheral nervous system in order for the
body to respond to certain conditions. A voluntary action is one that is willed or controlled by
your thoughts. Voluntary actions include jumping, running, and singing. You only run when you
want to run, and you only sing when you want to sing. You can stop at any time or continue
doing something for an extended period of time. The activity is performed with conscious
effort. These movements are being actively controlled by the brain.
These actions are usually very quick and are mostly intended to protect the body from
harm. A hand being withdrawn from a hot surface is one example.Increased beating of the
heart during fearful events is another.

Let’s Review

The following is a list of activities that the body can perform. Encircle the voluntary
activities. Highlight the involuntary activities.

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 1. Running 6. Singing
2. Jumping 7. Digesting food
3. Beating of the heart 8. Talking
4. Praying 9. Trembling
5. Breathing 10. Dancing

Check your answers against the Answer Key on page 59. If you got everything correct, it
means you're learning very well. If you missed anything, go back and review the previous
section.

Let’s Learn

Because of the ability of nerves to conduct electrical impulses, the pain signal from the
environment was immediately sent, received, and acted on by the central nervous system in the
situation presented on page 24. Nerves are bundles of fibers (axons) from neurons that are held

together by connective tissue. Take a look at the neuron diagram below.

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 The nerve cell, also known as a neuron, is the fundamental unit of the nervous system.
Its shape assists it in carrying out its function. A neuron is made up of the following
components:

♦The fibers that branch out from the nerve cell are the dendrites. These fibers
pick up information from the receptors. (Receptors are parts of the body,
either nerves or sense organs, that can pick up stimuli from the
environment or from within the body).
♦ The information received by the dendrites is then carried to the cell body or
soma in the form of an electrical signal. The cell body contains the nucleus of
the cell as well as other structures that help keep the cell alive.
♦ The electrical signal continues along the cell body and moves to a single, long
fiber called an axon. From the axon, the electrical signal is transmitted to
another nerve cell. Between the axon of one cell and the dendrite of another
is a small gap called synapse. When the electrical signal reaches the tip of the
axon of one cell, a chemical spills into the synapse. This chemical receives
and carries the electrical signal to the dendrite of the next nerve cell.

Let’s Think About This

How quickly do you believe electricity travels through nerves? A million meters per
second, or two meters per second? According to research on the speed of conduction in nerve
cells, electricity travels at an average speed of 60 meters per second in a thick myelinated nerve.
When a nerve is myelinated, it is covered with a fatty layer called the myelin sheath, which
allows impulses to travel faster through nerve cells. An average adult's body length ranges from
1.2 to 1.8 meters. In one second, a signal traveling through nerve cells can travel from the head
to the toes 30 times! That's pretty quick, isn't it?

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 Let’s See What You Have Learned

A. Read the following statements. Write True in the blank before each correct
statement and False before each wrong statement.
______ 1. The spinal cord protects the spinal column.
______ 2. The spinal cord is made up of nerves.
______ 3. The spinal cord belongs to the peripheral nervous system.
______ 4. The spinal cord only sends messages from the brain to the body.
______ 5. The spinal column is also known as the backbone.
______ 6. The neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system
______ 7. The shape of the neuron helps it carry out its function of transmitting electrical
signals.
______ 8. The neuron has only a soma and an axon.
______ 9. Dendrites send messages.
______ 10. Nerves are composed of bundles of neurons.
B. Label the 3 major parts of a neuron

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 Check your answers against the Answer Key on page 60. Congratulations if your score is
12 or higher! You know a lot about the spinal cord and neurons. You can now move on to the
next lesson. If your score is 6 or lower, you should review the previous lesson before continuing.

Let’s Remember

♦ The nervous system has two main divisions–the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.
♦ The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
♦ The brain is the seat of human intelligence. Its main parts are the:
♦ Cerebrum–the largest part of the brain; its outer gray part, the cerebral cortex,
controls the cognitive processes.
● Cerebellum–considered the “little brain”; controls muscle coordination and
balance.
● Brainstem–contains the medulla oblongata, which controls autonomic
functions, and the pons, which transfers information from the cerebrum to the
cerebellum.
♦ The spinal cord is the downward extension of the brain. It transmits signals from
various parts of the body to the brain.
♦ The peripheral nervous system is composed of all the nerve cells that branch off from
the brain and the spinal cord.
♦ The nerve cell or neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system. It has three main
parts: the dendrites, cell body or soma and axon.

2.2 Invertebrates

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 An invertebrate is a cold-blooded animal with no backbone.Invertebrates’ nervous
systems are made up of nerve nets, ganglia, and nerve cords, which vary in organization
between species.

NERVE NETS
A nerve net is a simple, decentralized, multipolar nervous system found in animals such as
jellyfish.
-
GANGLIA
A ganglion is a cluster of neuronal bodies found in the peripheral nervous system's (PNS)
voluntary and autonomic branches. A network of circular nerves or a chain of segmentally
organized ganglia. The nervous system is made up of three pairs of ganglia, which include:

● Cerebral - Anatomy and Zoology. of or relating to the cerebrum or the brain.

● Visceral - Concerning the viscera, which are the soft internal organs of the body,
including the lungs, heart, and organs of the digestive, excretory, reproductive, and
circulatory systems.
● Pedal - Of or relating to the foot or feet, literally or metaphorically; specifically, relating
to the foot of a mollusk.

Each of them is associated with the:

- Esophagus - The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the throat (pharynx) and
stomach.
- Muscles close to the shell - The adductor muscle connects the two shells, allowing the
mussel to close its shell.
- Foot - The lower part of a man's or an animal's leg.

35
NERVE CORD
The pair of closely connected ventral longitudinal nerves with segmental ganglia found in many
elongate invertebrates (such as earthworms)

36
 Let’s Try This

Direction: Fill in the crossword puzzle.

1. 2.
I F
9. 3.
E S

6.
V
4. 5.
G N

7.
P

8.
C

DOWN CROSS

1.Invertebrates are composed of nerve nets, 4. A ganglion is a group of neuronal bodies found
ganglia, and nerve cords, the organization of in the voluntary and autonomic branches of the
which varies between species. peripheral nervous system (PNS).

37
2. A man's or an animal's lower leg. 7. A foot or feet, literally or metaphorically;
specifically, a mollusk's foot.

3. The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting 8. Anatomy and Zoology are two disciplines. of or
the throat (pharynx) to the stomach. relating to the cerebrum or the brain.

5. A simple, decentralized, multipolar nervous 9. In many elongate invertebrates, a pair of

system that can be found in animals like jellyfish. closely connected ventral longitudinal nerves with
segmental ganglia (such as earthworms).

6. Concerning the viscera, which are the body's

soft internal organs, such as the lungs, heart, and
organs of the digestive, excretory, reproductive,
and circulatory systems.

38
 LESSON 3

INJURIES AND DISEASES THAT CAN AFFECT

NERVOUS SYSTEM

You've already learned about the nervous system's functions and components. You've
realized how vital the nervous system is. What if something goes wrong? What if you suffered a
spinal cord injury unexpectedly? What impact would it have on your life?

Pre-Assessment

Instruction: Write True if the statement is correct and False if not.

Write the word True in the blank if the statement is correct and write the word False if the
statement is Wrong.

____ 1. Public lice disease is like a big insect that could be found in the genital area?
____ 2. Paralytic shellfish poisoning is a disease caused by eating toxins-containing bivalve?
____ 3. The meaning of SSWD in sea star disease is Sea Star Water Disease?
____ 4. The venom and poison of jellyfish has no potential to harm the circulatory system and
the human nervous system?
____ 5. In certain snakes, lizards, and crocodiles, it can cause fatal liver or digestive tract
diseases, this is called Adenoviruses.
____ 6. This infection can be very serious if the fluke travels to the central nervous system,
where it can cause symptoms of meningitis, this infection called Schistosomiasis?
____ 7. This is a disease that can be caused by a parasitic worm that lives in certain types of
freshwater snails, this type of this disease is Paragonimiasis?

39
____ 8. A democratic illness caused by the bite of a spider is a Loxoscelism?
____ 9. The disease that is experiencing a strong resurgence, that is called Dengue Fever?
____ 10. This is the most common form of this can cause a fever and severe muscular and joint
pains. Is there such a symptom called chikungunya virus?
____ 11. The diseases that amphibians have are Ranaviruses, Chytridiomycosis, and
Chlamydiosis?
____ 12. This is the disease that affects the entire body and can be caused by trauma, an
abscess, parasite infestation, or environmental stress. This disease is an example of Septicemia.
____ 13. The eye disease is caused by eating fish that contain toxins produced by Gambierdiscus
toxicus, marine microalgae.?
____ 14. It is caused by an A-type influenza virus, a single-stranded RNA virus from the
orthomyxoviridae family. It is an Adenovirus?
____ 15. The septicemic cutaneous ulcerative disease (SCUD) is from Reptiles?

Let’s Think About This

Answer the following questions:

1. What caused some nervous diseases accidents?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. Why is it important to protect the Nervous System?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

40
 Let’s Learn

3.1 Vertebrates

Some Disorders That Can Affect the Nervous System of Vertebrates

Vertebrates Diseases/Injury

Mammals Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)

Epilepsy is a chronic disorder of the function
of the cerebrum. Sudden bursts of electrical
activity cause changes in awareness, tremors,
jerking movements and loss of consciousness.
Epileptic seizures can now be limited through
the intake of some drugs.

Brain and spinal tumors

masses of abnormal cells in the brain or spinal
cord that have grown out of control.

Trauma Injuries
This is sudden injuries can cause systemic
shock, requiring immediate medical attention

Reptiles Adenoviruses
In certain snakes, lizards, and crocodiles, it can
cause fatal liver or digestive tract diseases.
Adenovirus appears to be transmitted by
fecal-oral contamination in bearded dragons.

41
 Septicemic cutaneous ulcerative disease
(SCUD)
Is a bacterial infection that affects aquatic
turtles. The disease causes scutes on the shell
to pit. The scutes may slough off, and there
may be an underlying pus-filled discharge.

Septicemia
It is a common cause of death in reptiles and
is caused by bacteria in the blood. The disease
affects the entire body and can be caused by
trauma, an abscess, parasite infestation, or
environmental stress.

Amphibians Chlamydiosis
This is a serious infection caused by several
species of Chlamydia bacteria that can lead to
death in amphibians.

Chytridiomycosis
This is the most serious fungal infection in
amphibians, and it is thought to be
contributing to the global decline of frog
populations. It is caused by a fungus called
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which is
related to water molds.

Ranaviruses
It has been found in many wild amphibian
populations around the world. Some of these

42
 cause symptoms that are very similar to
bacterial skin infections.

Fish Eye disease

It is a common disease in fish that can be
caused by a variety of problems. Sore,
enlarged (as in a peek looks), bloody,
ulcerated, or otherwise disfigured eyes can
occur.

Ciguatera fish poisoning

Is a disease caused by eating fish that contain
toxins produced by Gambierdiscus toxicus,
marine microalgae.

Gas bubbles disease

It forms in small blood vessels and
accumulates most visibly in the fins, gills, and
eyes, as well as occasionally in the major
organs. Tiny microbubbles can combine to
form larger bubbles, which can obstruct blood
flow and damage tissue.

Birds Avian (Bird/Poultry)

This is a highly contagious viral disease that
infects several species of domesticated birds
such as chickens, turkeys, and others. It is
caused by an A-type influenza virus, a
single-stranded RNA virus from the
orthomyxoviridae family.

43
 Let’s Try This

Think of a person you know who has an injury or illness that affects his/her
nervous system.

1. List down five aspects of his/her body, movement, behavior and thinking that
are different from those of people with healthy nervous systems.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

2. List down three parts of the nervous system that are possibly affected by the
injury or disease.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Consider yourself after completing this exercise and how fortunate you are to have a
well-functioning nervous system.

44
 Let’s Learn

3.2 Invertebrates

Some Disorders That Can Affect the Nervous System of Invertebrates

Invertebrates Diseases/Injury

Echinoderms SSWD (SEA STARS WASTING DISEASES) This is

a list of common sea star symptoms. Lesions
form in the ectoderm and are followed by the
decay of tissue surrounding the lesions, which
can lead to body fragmentation and death.

Sea urchin stings

Spine fragments can cause local tissue
reactions and migrate into deeper tissues,
causing a granulomatous nodular lesion, or
they can become wedged against bone and
nerve. Dermatitis and joint muscle pain may
also occur.

Cnidarians Venom And Poison Of Jellyfish

It has the potential to harm the circulatory
system and the human nervous system.
Irukandji syndrome - It is a painful and
potentially fatal condition caused by the sting
and envenomation of various jellyfish species.
It was distinguished by severe pain,

45
 hypertension, muscle cramping, and chronic
cardiac complications.

Mollusk Schistosomiasis
Is a disease caused by a parasitic worm that
lives in certain types of freshwater snails.

Paralytic shellfish poisoning

This disease is caused by eating
toxins-containing bivalve shellfish such as
mussels, oysters, and clams. These toxins can
have severe and life-threatening neurological
effects.

Crustaceans Paragonimiasis
Paragonimus infection can be very serious if
the fluke travels to the central nervous
system, where it can cause symptoms of
meningitis.

Pubic (“crab”) lice disease

This is like a tiny insect found in the genital
area. Also, Pubic lice feed in the blood, and
their bites can cause severe itching.

46
 Annelids Neurocysticercosis
Tapeworm taenia solium disease can affect
people who ingest this. Parasitic infection is
the most common of the central nervous
system. and when the larvae of the worm
develop in the muscles, eyes, skin, and CNS. It
will evolve.

Arthropods Chikungunya virus

This disease is imperceptible; it is also a new
viral disease caused by an Alphavirus. The
most common form of this can cause a fever
and severe muscular and joint pains.

Dengue fever
The flavivirus causes the disease dengue fever.
It is experiencing a strong resurgence, and it is
transmitted by the bite of an Aedes mosquito,
which reproduces in stagnant water near
habitats

Yellow Fever
This is a viral hemorrhagic fever caused by the
yellow fever virus, a Flavivirus. It is spread
through the bite of an Aedes mosquito.

Latrodectism
widespread and clinically significant
throughout the world. The
mammalian-specific toxin in the venom that
causes toxic effects in humans is
alpha-latrotoxin. Symptoms can be
incapacitating, with severe pain that can last
for days.

Loxoscelism

47
 Is a democratic illness caused by the bite of
Loxosceles spiders.

Funnel-web Spider Envenoming

Neurotoxins in funnel-web spider venom
stimulate neurotransmitter release, resulting
in sensory disturbances and muscle paralysis.

Let’s Try This

I. Multiple Choice

Encircle the best answer and read it carefully to fully understand and answer it perfectly.

1. What kind of invertebrate has the disease Schistosomiasis?

A. Snails
B. Jellyfish
C. Spider
D. Lobster

2. Spine fragments can cause local tissue reactions and migrate into deeper tissues. What kind
of invertebrates can cause this disease?

A. Insect
B. Sea Urchin
C. Sea stars
D. Crabs

48
3. What is disease in Jellyfish?

A. Ciguatera
B. Irukandji syndrome
C. Chlamydiosis
D. Septicemia

4. What is the definition of loxoscelism?

A. It is a painful and potentially fatal condition caused by the sting.

B. A tiny insect found in the genital area.
C. A democratic illness.
D. This is imperceptible; it is also a new viral disease caused by an Alphavirus.

5. This is a viral hemorrhagic fever caused by ____?

A. Dengue Fever
B. Pubic lice disease
C. Yellow fever
D. Schistosomiasis

49
II. Fill in the blanks

Instructions: Below you will find the correct answers, look carefully for the correct answer to
each question and write it on the blank.

● Latrodectism
● Trauma Injuries
● Epilepsy
● Pubic "crabs" lice disease
● Tapeworm taenia solium

1. ____ is sudden injuries that can cause systemic shock, and it requires immediate medical
attention.
2. ____ disease that can affect people who ingest this. It is a parasitic infection that is the
most common of the central nervous system.
3. ____ is like a tiny insect found in the genital area.
4. ____ is a brain disorder characterized by repeated seizures caused by a temporary
change in the brain's electrical functioning.
5. ____ is widespread and clinically significant throughout the world.

50
 LESSON 4

TAKING CARE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

You learned about some of the injuries and diseases that can affect the nervous system
in the previous lesson.
This lesson will teach you how to care for your nervous system, which is essential to life.
It is simple to care for the nervous system.

Pre-Assessment

Direction: Check true if the statement shows a proper way of taking care of the nervous

system while tick false if not.

1. Exercising regularly activates your nervous system and makes it perform essential
functions.
True
False
2. Getting plenty of sleep doesn’t affect the way you think, react, learn, and converse with
others.
True
False
3. Exposing yourself to sunlight is one of the best ways of fortifying the health of the
central nervous system.
True
False
4. Eating a balanced diet doesn’t affect your nervous system
True
False

51
 5. Drinking water is bad for the neurological system.
True
False
6. Decreasing the intake of caffeine rich drinks helps the nervous system.
True
False
7. The health of your nervous system can be preserved by drinking a cup of green tea at
least once every day.
True
False
8. Your heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, and all other sympathetic nerves can be
regulated with meditation.
True
False
9. The nervous system is not harmed by excessive alcohol and tobacco use.
True
False
10. Injuries are a major source of nerve damage.
True
False

Let’s Learn

4.1 Vertebrates
Observe the following practices to make sure that your nervous system remains healthy
and functioning well.

52

Consume nutritious foods.
Avoid risky activities that could result in falls
or accidents. Climbing tall structures, for
example, can result in accidents that can
harm the nervous system.
Consume foods high in proteins, which serve
as brain building blocks.
Always follow safety rules whether
you are in your workplace or playing a
sport. Make sure that you wear protective
gear that is appropriate for the activity
you’re doing.
53
 When driving, be cautious. Don't forget to wear a helmet when riding a motorcycle or
bicycle, or even when skating. Remember that your helmet is your friend, and it can save your
life if you suffer a serious head injury. Wear your seatbelt when inside a vehicle. Many people
suffer brain and spinal cord injuries in car accidents because they do not wear their seat belts.

54
 Properly dispose of your chemicals. Insecticides, pesticides, and cleaning solutions are
examples of chemicals. Do not simply flush these down the toilet. These chemicals have the
potential to poison the nervous system, resulting in serious diseases. Make sure to keep these
wastes in separate containers from the rest of your garbage. Label the containers so that
garbage collectors can find them.

Consult a doctor. Rest whenever you need to.

55
 Learn to manage stress well. Get a good night’s sleep.

To avoid infections, keep your nose and ears

Avoid using drugs, such as alcohol and clean.

cigarettes. They contain substances that can Remember that these infections can lead to

enter and damage the nervous system. meningitis.

56
 Let’s Try This

Every day, many people are killed or injured in car accidents. In such accidents, brain
and spinal cord injuries can be severe, resulting in lifetime disorders or even death. Most of
these accidents could have been avoided if safety rules had been followed. Create a poster to
encourage people to drive safely. It should be posted in the NFE Learning Center.

Let’s Review

Encircle the number of the phrase that illustrates how to properly take care of the
nervous system.
1. taking a bath regularly to avoid infections
2. smoking and drinking
3. getting enough sleep and rest
4. consulting a doctor only when really needed
5. taking illegal drugs such as shabu and cocaine
6. wearing a helmet in construction sites
7. avoiding activities that can cause injuries
8. eating only fatty foods
9. relaxing when stressed
10. cleaning ears and nose regularly and properly

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 63.

57
 Let’s Remember

♦ Taking care of the nervous system requires the observation of some very simple
habits.
♦ Prevent injury to the nervous system by avoiding risky activities. If these
activities cannot be avoided, use protective gear such as helmets and face
guards.
♦ Avoid drugs, including alcohol and cigarettes, that can affect the nervous
system.
♦ Rest and avoid stress.
♦ Eat healthy foods especially those rich in vitamin B.
♦ Consult a doctor if you notice something wrong with your body

4.2 Invertebrates

Almost every element of our health and wellbeing is influenced by the neurological
system. It directs simple processes like waking up, automatic ones like breathing, and intricate
ones like thinking, reading, remembering, and experiencing emotions. This is why we must take
care of the nervous system.
Invertebrates are essential to supporting life on our planet because they pollinate,
disperse seeds, provide food for animals, recycle nutrients, clean water, and form reefs. Whole
ecosystems would fail without them. Yet, invertebrates are frequently under danger due to
human activity.

58
 Some examples of taking care of Invertebrates:
1. Taking Care of Tarantulas
If they are a tropical species, feed them once or twice a week depending on how hungry
they are, maintain high humidity in the cage, and make sure there are no crickets present in the
cage when the spider is molting because the cricket will devour the spider.

2. Taking Care of Scorpions

Scorpions' exoskeletons, hard body casing, and venomous stingers give them great
protection, and their low food and water needs allow them to survive in the harshest
environments. They can even slow down their metabolism, the processes that work together to
keep you living, to go without food for a year.

59
 Let’s See What You Have Learned

If you were to have a pet tarantula, how would you take care of its nervous system?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

You've made it to the end of the module. Congratulations! Did you enjoy learning about
this module? Did it teach you anything new?
To help you remember the main points of the module, the following is a summary:

Let’s Sum Up

♦ The nervous system has four major functions: autonomic, motor, cognitive and sensory.
♦ The nervous system has two main divisions: the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system. The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The
peripheral nervous system is composed of nerve cells that branch off from the brain and spinal
cord.
♦ The brain is the control center of the body. It receives information from different parts of the
body, processes this information and sends back signals that tell these parts of the body how to
react to a particular stimulus.
♦ The spinal cord serves as the bridge between the brain and the nerve cells.

60
♦ The nerve cell or neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system. It is built in such a way that
enables it to transmit electrical impulses.
♦ The nervous system is prone to various disabling injuries and disorders. The skull and
vertebrae, which protect the brain and spinal cord respectively, could suffer from fractures. The
discs that protect the vertebrae may also suffer injuries. Among the disorders that can affect the
nervous system are stroke, meningitis, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease,
Parkinson’s disease and mental retardation.
♦ Recent developments in neuroscience have led to improvements in diagnostic and treatment
techniques for disorders of the nervous system.
♦ We should always take care of our nervous system by eating nutritious foods, wearing
protective gear when necessary, and relaxing whenever we feel stressed

What Have You Learned?

I. Identification Test

Neurocysticercosis Nervous system Sensory function

Seizure Disorders Send, receive Eyes, brain
Sea urchin stings Cerebrum Brainstem
Protein

1. The stimulus is interpreted into a signal that your____ sent to your _____.
2. The nervous system helps people detect stimuli from their environment.
3. Neurons are cells that can____ and____ electrical impulses and relay information
throughout the body.
4. The largest part of the brain.
5. The brain’s backbone.
6. What are the diseases of echinoderms?

61
 7. What is the disease of mammals?
8. Consume foods high in ____, which serve as brain building blocks.
9. These chemicals have the potential to poison the _____, resulting in serious diseases.
10. What is the disease of annelids?

II. Check the box beside the phrase that illustrates how to properly take care of the nervous
system.
Avoiding drugs, alcohol and cigarettes
Not getting enough rest and sleep
Disposing of harmful chemicals
Eating only fatty foods

62
 Key To Correction

Lesson 1

LET’S SEE WHAT YOU ALREADY KNOW

1. Name the four major function of the nervous system
a. Somatic or Voluntary function
b. Sensory function
c. Autonomic or involuntary function
d. Cognitive function
2. Give at least three parts of the nervous system in both vertebrates and invertebrates
a. Nerve nets, ganglia, and nerve cord.
b. Prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon.
3. Describe how the nervous system works.
The nervous system takes in information through our senses, processes the information
and triggers reactions, such as making your muscles move or causing you to feel pain.
4. Name three diseases that can affect the nervous system.
a. Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy)
b. Venom and Poison of jellyfish
c. Paragonimiasis
5. Give three ways of taking care of your nervous system.
a. Learn to manage stress well
b. Get a good night’s sleep
c. Consume nutritious foods.

63
LET’S SEE WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED
1. B
2. A
3. A
4. C
5. D
6. B
7. A
8. B
9. D
10. C

Lesson 2

PRE-ASSESSMENT
1. Peripheral nervous system
2. Visceral
3. Muscles close to the shell
4. Nerve coed
5. Cerebral, Visceral, Pedal
6. Nerve nets, ganglia, and nerve cords
7. Cerebral
8. Foot
9. To receive sensory information, process information, send out motor signals
10. Pedal

64
LET’S REVIEW
Fill in the blanks with the correct word or group of words.
1. Two
2. Brain and Spinal cord
3. Peripheral nervous system
4. Brain
5. Cerebral cortex
6. An outer or surrounding layer of an organ or body
7. Gyri or sulci
8. Cognitive function
9. Balance
10. Autonomic

LET’S REVIEW
Encircle the volunteer activities. Highlight the involuntary activities.
1. Running
2. Jumping
3. Beating of the heart
4. Praying
5. Breathing
6. Singing
7. Digesting food
8. Talking
9. Trembling
10. Dancing

65
LET’S SEE WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED
A. Read the following statement. Write true in the blank before each correct statement and
false before each wrong statement.
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. True
6. True
7. True
8. True
9. True
10. False
B. Label the 3 major parts of a neuron.

66
LET’S TRY THIS
Fill in the crossword puzzle.
1. Invertebrates
2. Foot
3. Esophagus
4. Ganglia
5. Nerve net
6. Visceral
7. Pedal
8. Cerebral
9. Nerve cords

Lesson 3

PRE-ASSESSMENT
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. False
6. True
7. True
8. True
9. False
10. True
11. True
12. False
13. True
14. True

67
 15. True

LET’S THINK ABOUT THIS

Answer the following questions:
1.What caused some nervous diseases accidents?
Injuries (trauma), especially injuries to the head and spinal cord. Problems that are present at
birth (congenital). Mental health problems, such as anxiety disorders, depression, or psychosis.
Exposure to toxins, such as carbon monoxide, arsenic, or lead.
2. Why is it important to protect the Nervous System?
The nervous system plays a role in nearly every aspect of our health and well-being. It guides
everyday activities such as waking up; automatic activities such as breathing; and complex
processes such as thinking, reading, remembering, and feeling emotions.

LET'S TRY THIS

I. Multiple Choice
1. A
2. B
3. B
4. C
5. C
II. Fill in the blanks
1. Trauma Injuries
2. Tapeworm taenia solium
3. Public “crabs” lice disease
4. Epilepsy
5. Latrodectism

68
Lesson 4

PRE-ASSESSMENT
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. False
6. True
7. True
8. True
9. False
10. True

LET’S REVIEW
Encircle the number of the phrase that illustrates how to properly take care of the nervous system.

1. Take a bath regularly to avoid infections.

2. Smoking and drinking.
3. Getting enough sleep and rest.
4. Consulting a doctor only when really needed.
5. Taking illegal drugs such as shabu and cocaine.
6. Wearing a helmet in construction sites.
7. Avoiding activities that can cause injuries.
8. Eating only fatty foods.
9. Relaxing when stressed.
10. Cleaning ears and nose regularly and properly.

69
WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED?
I.
1. Eyes and Brain
2. Sensory function
3. Send and receive
4. Cerebrum
5. Brainstem
6. Sea urchin stings
7. Seizure Disorders
8. Protein
9. Nervous system
10. Neurocysticercosis
II.
1. /
2. x
3. /
4. x

70
 Glossary

WORDS DEFINITIONS

Amphibians Any organism that is able to live both on land

and in water

Annelids Any member of a phylum of invertebrate

animals that are characterized by the
possession of a body cavity, movable bristles,
and a body divided into segments by
transverse rings, or annulations, from which
they take their name.

Arthropods Any of a phylum of invertebrate animals

having a segmented body, jointed limbs, and
a shell of chitin that is shed periodically.

Axon The long threadlike part of a nerve cell along

which impulses are conducted from the cell
body to other cells.

Birds A warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrate

distinguished by the possession of feathers,
wings, and a beak and by being able to fly.

Brain An organ of soft nervous tissue contained in

the skull of vertebrates, functioning as the
coordinating center of sensation and
intellectual and nervous activity.

71
Brain Stem The part of the brain that is connected to the
spinal cord.

Cell Body The nucleus-containing central part of a

neuron exclusive of its axons and dendrites
that is the major structural element of the
gray matter of the brain and spinal cord, the
ganglia, and the retina.

Cerebellum Your cerebellum is a part of your brain

located at the back of your head, just above
and behind where your spinal cord connects
to your brain itself.

Cerebrum The largest part of the brain

Cnidarians The phylum Cnidaria includes soft-bodied

stinging animals such as corals, sea
anemones, and jellyfish

Crustaceans Any of a large class of mostly water-dwelling

arthropods having an exoskeleton of chitin or
chitin and a compound of calcium. crustacean
adjective.

Dendrites A dendrite is where a neuron receives input

from other cells.

Echinoderms Any of a variety of invertebrate marine

animals belonging to the phylum
Echinodermata, characterized by a hard,
spiny covering or skin

72
Fish A limbless cold-blooded vertebrate animal
with gills and fins and living wholly in water

Invertebrates An animal lacking a backbone

Mammals Any member of the group of vertebrate

animals in which the young are nourished
with milk from special mammary glands of
the mother.

Mollusks An invertebrate of a large phylum which

includes snails, slugs, mussels, and octopuses.
They have a soft unsegmented body and live
in aquatic or damp habitats, and most kinds
have an external calcareous shell.

Muscles A band or bundle of fibrous tissue in a human

or animal body that has the ability to
contract, producing movement in or
maintaining the position of parts of the body.

Nerve Cells A type of cell that receives and sends

messages from the body to the brain and
back to the body.

Nervous System The network of nerve cells and fibers which

transmits nerve impulses between parts of
the body.

Neurons Neurons are information messengers.

Organ System An organ system is a group of organs that

73
 work together to perform a certain function
in an organism's body.

Peripheral Nervous System Your peripheral nervous system (PNS) is that

part of your nervous system that lies outside
your brain and spinal cord. It plays a key role
in both sending information from different
areas of your body back to your brain, as well
as carrying out commands from your brain to
various parts of your body.

Reptiles Reptiles are a class of vertebrates made up

mostly of snakes, turtles, lizards, and
crocodilians. These animals are most easily
recognized by their dry, scaly skin. Almost all
reptiles are cold-blooded, and most lay
eggs—though some, like the boa constrictor,
give birth to live young.

Soma The cell body of a neuron contains the

nucleus and other structures common to
living cells.

Spinal Cord An essential feature of the central nervous

system (CNS), the spinal cord lies within the
spinal column and extends from the
brainstem to the lower back through the
vertebral foramen of the vertebrae.

Stimuli A thing or event that evokes a specific

functional reaction in an organ or tissue.

74
Synapses The places where neurons connect and
communicate with each other are called
synapses.

Vertebrates Vertebrates are organisms which have an

internal backbone surrounded by bone, also
called vertebrae.

75
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