Topic: Fire Resistance In Structures ,Materials And Preventative Measures

Institutional Affiliation: The Technical University of Kenya

Course Title:

Due Date: 3rd March 2023

Name of Students:

 Elizabeth Harriet Omondi EABI/01013/2019

 James Kahango EABI/00994/2019

 Sam Mwaura EABI/00988/2019

 Rachel Sitati EABI/01002/2019

 Dennis Mwangi EABI/00989/2019

Fire Resistance In Structures ,Materials And Preventative Measures

Introduction

Fire is the visible effect of the process of combustion – a special type of chemical reaction. It

occurs between oxygen in the air and some sort of fuel. The products from the chemical reaction

are completely different from the starting material. The fuel must be heated to its ignition

temperature for combustion to occur. The reaction will keep going as long as there is enough

heat, fuel and oxygen. Oxygen, fuel and heat are needed for fire to occur. This is known as the

fire triangle.

Classes of Fire

Class A – Fires involving solid materials. Class A fires involve ordinary combustible materials,

such as cloth, wood, paper, rubber, and many plastics. Extinguishers with an A rating are

designed to extinguish fires involving these ordinary combustible materials.

Class B – fires involving flammable liquids. Class B fires involve flammable and combustible

liquids such as gasoline, alcohol, oil-based paints, lacquers. Therefore, extinguishers with a B

rating are designed to extinguish fires involving flammable and combustible liquids.

Class C – fires involving gases. Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment.

Extinguishers with a C rating are designed for use with fires involving energized electrical

equipment

Class D –Class D fires involve combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, and sodium.

Extinguishers with a D rating are designed to extinguish fires involving combustible metals.
Class E or Electrical fires – fires involving live electrical apparatus. This is not strictly a class

(Class E) of fire, because electricity is more of a source of ignition than a fuel. However, fires in

live electrical equipment are an additional hazard. Making sure electrical equipment and

installations are installed, inspected, and maintained correctly, will help to reduce the risk of this

type of fire.

Class F – Fires involving cooking oils such as in deep-fat fryers. Though technically a sub-class

of fires caused by flammable liquids or gases, they differ from conventional fires due to the

extremely high temperatures involved. Whereas flammable liquids, such as petrol, usually have

low flash and auto ignition temperatures, cooking oil or fats require temperatures in excess of

340°C to ignite. As such, the special characteristics of cooking oil and fat fires – specifically

their higher flash point – have been recognized as important enough to categorize them

separately. Due to their nature, Class F fires occur in kitchens and food preparation facilities.

Most of these fires are as a result of negligence in the kitchen – such as leaving pans unattended,

not cleaning oil and fat from surfaces and not regularly changing the oil in deep fat fryers.

What Causes Fire in Buildings

Cooking – Cooking is statistically the highest cause of fires in buildings worldwide. Pots and

pans can overheat and cause a fire very easily if the person cooking gets distracted and leaves

cooking unattended. Always stay in the room, or ask someone to watch your food, when cooking

on hotplates.

Electrical faults or equipment - An electrical appliance, such as a toaster can start a fire if it is

faulty or has a frayed cord. A power point that is overloaded with double adapter plugs can cause

a fire from an overuse of electricity. A power point extension cord can also be a fire hazard if not
used appropriately. Double check the appliances and power points in your home. Homes with

inadequate wiring can cause fires from electrical hazards. Some signs to see if you’ve bad wiring

are: Lights dim if you use another appliance; For an appliance to work, you have to disconnect

another; Fuses blow or trip the circuit frequently Have a license electrician come and inspect you

house, or contact your landlord if you have any of the above occurrences.

Negligence and human error - One of the most common causes of fires in the workplace is

simply human error. Negligence through such things as improper use of equipment, accidents,

spilling drinks over electrical equipment and leaving cooking unattended are just some of the

simple ways fires can start. Although human error can’t be removed entirely, ensuring staff are

properly trained in fire safety can reduce the risk.

Arson/terrorism – Terrorists use fire as a weapon. Fire as a weapon (FAW) attacks are intended

to cause harm. Fire and smoke alone can provide a lethal mix, when combined with other

terrorist attack methods as part of a Marauding Terrorist Attack (MTA), this can create an

extremely challenging and complex situation. Starting fires, during such attacks can be relatively

easy and may require limited planning and preparation.

Smoking in unauthorized places - Cigarettes that are not put out properly can cause a flame, as

the butt may stay alit for a few hours. It could burst into flames if it came into contact with

flammable materials, such as furniture. There’s a reason that smoking is no longer allowed

indoors or within 25 feet of most buildings, and it’s not just the risk of health conditions like

lung cancer and asthma. Cigarettes, cigars, and other materials, especially when carelessly or

improperly disposed of, can ignite other materials and cause fires. While less people are

smoking, now that we are fully aware of the health risks, and cigarettes have reduced ignition

strength, they still pose a fire risk to commercial facilities. To mitigate this risk, ensure that if
smoking is prohibited fully on the property that the rule is carefully and fully enforced. If

smoking is not prohibited on the property, ensure that all smoking occurs at a safe distance from

any buildings and proper receptacles for cigarette butts are installed.

Improper layout and equipment in building - Electrical equipment that is improperly wired,

defective, or overloaded can be a major fire hazard, as can lighting that is faulty, overheats, or

throws off sparks. Making sure that all lighting and electrical is operational, up-to-code, and

adequate for the needs of your facility is crucial to preventing electrical fires.

Faulty fire detection alarms – They facilitate spread of the fire. Having a fire alarm system

installed is great, but is no use whatsoever if they don’t work or the batteries have run out.

Having a maintenance schedule and contract in place for your fire alarm system will ensure it

works when you need it most

Characteristics of Fire Resistant Materials

Should not be combustible -The material should be non-combustible as far as possible. It

should never be understood that non-combustible materials are good in heat resistant. For

example, mild steel is non-combustible but not good resistant against heat. Similarly, timber is a

combustible material but it is better heat resistant than mild steel.

Should not disintegrate under high heat - The composition of the material should be such that

it does not disintegrate or crumble under the effect of high temperature. This is possible if the

material has a high melting point.

Expansion and contraction of the material under heat or cooling should not be such that it

leads to instability - The contraction due to sudden cooling is more dangerous than the
expansion effect. A good fire resisting material should not be cooled rapidly as it may break into

pieces.

The material used in the construction should be a bad conductor of heat. When subject to
high temperatures, the material does not significantly lose their strength

Fire Properties Of Common Building Materials

Stone

Poor conductor of heat

Is noncombustible. However; it disintegrates into small pieces when exposed to heating or

cooling.

Bricks

Poor conductors of heat

Non-combustible

High heat resistance due to heat treatment in production

Concrete

Behavior varies depending with composition

Generally is non combustible

Crack due to the different behavior of component .

This is because cement will shrink on heating while most aggregates will expand resulting in the
cracking

Offers the best fire resisting properties especially reinforced concrete which can withstand high
heat for long periods of time.

Steel

Non-combustible.
High melting point. However Steel is a good conductor of heat. Unprotected steel members will
rapidly loose its tensile strength when exposed to heat and completely melt at 1400 degrees.

Glass

Poor conductor of heat.

Small thermal expansion. However ; Glass that is rapidly cooled cracks. When reinforced, has a
higher resistance to cracking due to difference in temperatures and even when cracked, pieces of
glass are held in place by the reinforcing mesh.

Timber

Combustible.

Poor conductor of heat. However thick pieces of timber burn slower than thin pieces of timber.

Aluminum

Non combustible due to the protective layer formed of Aluminum oxide

A good conductor of heat better even than steel. However As heat is diffused away from point of
origin, aluminum can heat up contiguous elements.

Mortar

Non combustible

Poor conductor of heat

Fire resistance can be increased by reinforcing with metal laths.

PVC

Poor conductor of heat

Higher combustion resistance compared to wood

Produces smoke and toxic gasses when burning such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride.

How Do We Achieve a Fire Resistant Structure In Construction?

Design

 Proper layout of buildings to reduce risk of fire and also allow for quick exit incase of
occurrence of a fire
 Proper ventilation
 Emphasis on lifts and stair wells should be thick enough to resist loss of strength due to
heat.
 Design for fire fighting and detection equipment.
 Flat roofs are preferred to pitched roof when putting up. It is easier to make a flat roof
fire resistant than a sloped roof .due to the complexity of the geometry of a pitched roof
and the presence of combustible material.

Materials used

 Bricks should be used in place of stones where possible

 Reinforcement should be done to concrete and mortar where fire risk exists.
 When using timber;
 Use thicker sections at wider spacing
 Consider using a protective cladding
 Avoid use of flammable paints and furnishes

Compartmentalization A fire-resistant structure should be compartmentalized to prevent the

spread of fire from one area to another. This can be achieved through the use of fire-rated walls,
doors, and windows, which can contain fires to a single area and prevent them from spreading to
other parts of the building

Maintenance and inspection: Regular maintenance and inspection of a fire-resistant structure

can help ensure that it remains in good condition and continues to provide adequate protection
against fire. This may include regular cleaning of fire protection systems, testing of fire alarms
and sprinkler systems, and inspection of structural components for damage or wear.

Education and training: Building occupants should be educated on fire safety procedures and
trained on how to use fire protection systems such as fire extinguishers. This can help prevent
fires from starting in the first place and ensure that occupants are prepared to respond in the
event of a fire.

By following these steps, it is possible to achieve a fire-resistant structure that provides a high
level of protection against fire. It is important to note that fire-resistant structures cannot
completely eliminate the risk of fire, but they can significantly reduce the likelihood of a fire
occurring and mitigate its impact if it does occur.

General Fire Safety Requirements For Buildings

 The building should allow for easy escape of occupational in the event where a fire starts
within the building.
 The building’s design should be compliant with building code within the country to
ensure it is fire resistant.
 fire resistant materials should be used in building the building or in furnishing the
building to give added protection against fire.
 The building should have a good ventilation.
 There should be a fire plan and sensitization of users of the building of what to do when a
fire occurs.
 There should be high vigilance due to cases of arson within the building.

Fire Detection, Alarm And Extinguishing Systems

Fire Detection Equipment

Smoke detector – A smoke detector is an electronic fire-protection device that automatically

senses the presence of smoke, as a key indication of fire, and sounds a warning to building

occupants. There are two basic types of passive smoke detectors: photoelectric (optical) and

ionization (physical process). A combination of the two types of alarm (dual sensor smoke

alarm) is recommended for maximum protection from both fast flaming and slow smoldering

fires. Combined optical smoke and heat alarms and combined smoke and carbon monoxide

alarms are also available

Heat detectors – A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the converted

thermal energy of a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element. The thermal mass

and conductivity of the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element. All heat detectors

have this thermal lag. Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation, "rate-of-rise"

and "fixed temperature". The heat detector is used to help in the reduction of property damage

Flame detectors-These devices detect the presence of flames and can trigger an alarm in case of

a fire. They are commonly used in areas where a fire can quickly spread, such as chemical

storage rooms and manufacturing facilities.

Alarms

Include sirens. They can be manually triggered or automatically triggered. Fire sirens are fire

safety products that are specifically designed to sound the alert in the event of a fire-related

emergency. Standard fire safety systems are likely to incorporate a smoke detector that’s linked

up to an audible alarm function.

It's important to regularly inspect and maintain fire detecting equipment to ensure they are in

good working condition and can effectively detect and alert occupants of a fire.

Fire Extinguishing systems

Sprinklers-Fire sprinklers are automatic fire suppression systems that can extinguish fires in

their early stages. They are typically activated by heat and can quickly put out a fire before it

spreads.
Fire extinguishers These are handheld devices that can be used to extinguish small fires. They

are typically located in accessible areas throughout the building, such as near exits and in

common areas.

Circuit breakers. In the event of a fire, circuit breakers can also be used to help extinguish the

fire by cutting off the flow of electricity to the affected area. This can be particularly useful in

electrical fires where the source of the fire is an electrical circuit or appliance.

Stand pipes attached to hoses for firefighting purposes. They consist of vertical pipe that is

attached to a water supply typically a municipal water system and equipped with outlets for

attaching hoses and nozzles. They are strategically placed normally in high rise buildings where

water pressure from ground level fire hydrants may not be sufficient to reach upper floors.

Fire hydrants. Fire hydrants are connected to a network of underground water mains and are

typically located along roads or sidewalks in areas where fires are most likely to occur.