1

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT ON

FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

DESIGN OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED BY

SREENATH V- 721419101085
TAMILARASAN D – 721419101090
THUKILAN S – 721419101092

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

NEHRU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE – 641 105.

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

JUNE 2022

2
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN OF FIGHTER

AIRCRAFT” is the bonafide work of SREENATH V (721419101085),

TAMILARASAN D (721419101090) AND THUKILAN S (721419101092)

who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

DR. B. R. SENTHILKUMAR Dr. S. RATHINAVEL

Professor Assistant Professor
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Nehru Institute of Engineering & Technology Nehru Institute of Engineering & Technology
Coimbatore – 641 105 Coimbatore – 641 105

Submitted for the Aircraft design project-I viva voice held on _______________________ at
Nehru Institute of Engineering & Technology Coimbatore – 641 105

Internal Examiner External Examiner

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

3
Firstly, I would like to thank the ALMIGHTY GOD for always being my
side and providing me with strength and capability to face all types of situations
during this project tenure.

We thank our beloved CEO & Secretary DR. P. KRISHNA KUMAR,

Nehru Group of Institutions, Coimbatore for providing the facilities.

We extend our fullest and ever owing thanks to DR. P. MANIIARASAN,

Principal, Nehru Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore for the
academic freedom and inspiration.

We owe a debt of gratitude to, DR. B. R. SENTHILKUMAR, Head of

the Department, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, for being a
source of constant encouragement.

We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to Dr. S. RATHINAVEL for

his constant help, erudite guidance and immense passion which enthused us to
do the project better.

4
 VISION OF THE INSTITUTION

Our vision is to mould the youngsters to acquire sound knowledge in

technical and scientific fields to face the future challenges by continuous
up gradation of all resources and processes for the benefit of humanity as
envisaged by our great leader Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION

M1 To build a strong centre of learning and research in engineering

and technology.

M2 To produce quality engineers, dedicated scientists and leaders.

M3 To encourage entrepreneurship.

M4 To face the challenging needs of the global industries.

M5 To facilitate the youth to learn and imbibe discipline, culture and

spirituality.

5
 VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

Producing competent and exemplary Aeronautical Engineers to meet the needs

of global industries.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

MD 1 To impart quality education in cutting edge technologies, in state of art

laboratories with intellectual and ethical principles.

MD 2 To propel the young students to face the challenges of global industries

through their sound technical knowledge.

MD 3 To build formidable skills in aeronautical engineering and turn the

students into entrepreneurs and global leaders.

6
 STATE THE PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
(PEOS)

The Program Educational Objectives (PEOs) of the department represent major

accomplishments that the graduates are expected to achieve after three to five
years of graduation. Graduates of Aeronautical Engineering will able

PEO1: To employ comprehensive knowledge in Aeronautical Engineering and

analytical skills to work towards solving complex problems so as to excel in the
professional career.

PEO2: To design, analyse and produce cutting edge engineering solutions by

employing modern techniques and adhering to moral values for sustainable
development.

PEO3: To assume global careers and leadership responsibilities through

consistent learning with idealistic managerial practices.

7
 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOS)

PSO1: To gather data using modern tools and apply design techniques to
develop solutions for Aeronautical Engineering challenges with professional
ethics.
PSO2: To function as engineering solution providers or entrepreneurs, who are
able to manage, innovate, communicate, train and lead a team for continuous
improvement.

Program Curriculum - Regulation - 2017

PO-Program Outcomes

Engineering Graduates will be able,

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

PO 1 engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution
of complex engineering problems.

Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and

PO 2 analyse complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions
using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.

Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problems and design system components or processes that meet the
specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
PO 3 safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

8
 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
PO 4 knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis
and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.

Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,

PO 5 resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modelling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.

PO 6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual

knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

PO 7 engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and
demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and

PO 8 responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.

Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a

PO 9 member or leader in diverse teams and in multidisciplinary settings.

Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities

with the engineering community and with society at large such as being able
to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
PO 10 effective presentations and give and receive clear instructions.

Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and

understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply
these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
PO 11 projects and multidisciplinary environments.

9
 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and
PO 12 ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest
context of technological change.

AE8613 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT I

CO COURSE OUTCOMES PO PSO

At the end of this lab, Students should be
able to
CO 1 Compare the different types of aircraft and PO 1, PO 2, PO 3,PO 6, PO 8, PSO 1/
identify its specifications PO 9,PO 10,PO 11 PSO 2
CO 2 PO 1, PO 2, PO 3,PO 4,PO 6, PSO 1/
Select the aircraft and to collect the
PO 8,PO 9,PO 10,PO 11,PO PSO 2
specification of the selected aircraft
12
CO 3 Position the power plant, aerofoil, landing PO 1, PO 2, PO 3,PO 4,PO 6, PSO 1/
gear, wing and control surface as per the PO 8,PO 9,PO 10,PO 11,PO
PSO 2
specification. 12
CO 4 PO 1, PO 2, PO 3,PO 6, PO PSO 1/
Estimate the weight ,Drag and calculate the
performance of selected aircraft 8,PO 9,PO 10,PO 11 PSO 2
CO 5 Prepare the layout of the aircraft and to PO 1, PO 2, PO 3,PO 6, PO PSO 1/
demonstrate the performance of the 8,PO 9,PO 10,PO 11,PO 12
PSO 2
design

10
 Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................13
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................................14
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION TO AIRPLANE DESIGN ......................................................................17
1.1CONCEPTUAL DESIGN STUDIES ...............................................................................................................19
1.2PRELIMINARY DESIGN STUDIES ...............................................................................................................19
1.3 DETAILED DESIGN STUDIES .....................................................................................................................20
CHAPTER-2 INTRODUCTION TO FIGHTER AIRCRAFT ..................................................................21
CHAPTER-3 COMPARATIVE DETAILS .................................................................................................24
CHAPTER-4 SELECTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS .......................................................................29
CHAPTER-5 MEAN DATA SHEET ............................................................................................................30
CHAPTER-6 PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION ........................................................................33
MISSION PROFILE..........................................................................................................................................37
CHAPTER-7 POWER PLANT SELECTION.............................................................................................39
TURBOFAN ENGINE: .....................................................................................................................................39
Efficiency: ................................................................................................................................................39
Components: ...........................................................................................................................................39
Stages: ......................................................................................................................................................39
COMPARISON OF TURBOFAN ENGINES:.......................................................................................................40
ENGINE SELECTION: ......................................................................................................................................40
DETAILS OF THE SELECTED ENGINE:: ............................................................................................................41
PW F100 -200: .........................................................................................................................................41
Specifications: .........................................................................................................................................42
CHAPTER-8 AEROFOIL SELECTION .....................................................................................................44
AIRFOIL GEOMETRY: .....................................................................................................................................44
ANGLE OF ATTACK (α):..................................................................................................................................46

11
 NACA SERIES: ................................................................................................................................................47
MAXIMUM THICKNESS (T/C): .......................................................................................................................48
WING GEOMETRY DETERMINATION: ...........................................................................................................48
NACA 64209 Airfoil: .................................................................................................................................50
NACA 64206 Airfoil: .................................................................................................................................51
CHAPTER-9 WING SELECTION...............................................................................................................53
Lift Estimation: ..............................................................................................................................................54
Drag Estimation: ...........................................................................................................................................55
CHAPTER-10 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS .........................................................................58
CALCULATION ...............................................................................................................................................58
Minimum Turn Radius: .........................................................................................................................58
Pull up manoeuver:.................................................................................................................................59
Pull down manoeuver: ............................................................................................................................60
Rate of Glide: ..........................................................................................................................................60
Load factor (ƞ): .......................................................................................................................................61
CHAPTER-11 LANDING GEAR SELECTION .........................................................................................62
DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR...........................................................................................................................62
Landing gear System: .............................................................................................................................62
Landing Gear Configuration: ................................................................................................................62
Preliminary landing gear strut disposition: .........................................................................................62
Angles of Pitch and Roll during Takeoff and Landing: ......................................................................64
Pitch and Roll Angles during Landing: ................................................................................................64
CHAPTER-12 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM .................................................................................................64
FRONT VIEW .................................................................................................................................................65
SIDE VIEW .....................................................................................................................................................65
TOP VIEW ......................................................................................................................................................65
Initial Sketch For designed Fighter ...............................................................................................................65
THREE VIEWS OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT ...........................................................................................................67
COMPARITIVE GRAPHS ...........................................................................................................................68
CHAPTER-13 CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................................77
REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................................................78
WEBSITE REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................79

12
 ABSTRACT

Through this project, we intend to design and conceptualize a FIGHTER

AIRCRAFT that can cater to a wide range of needs. Fighter aircraft is a term
describing an aircraft, usually of smaller size, designed for military purposes and
combat. The project involves the design of a fighter jet that can carry heavy
weapons, providing the amenities with sophisticated care while incorporating
the design specifications and performance parameters of a fighter jet. The
aircraft allows for better efficiency and reduced fuel consumption and noise
levels owing to a state of the art engine and design features.

13
 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
R -Range
V -Velocity
C -specific fuel consumption
E -Loitering time
L/D -lift to drag ratio
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 - Velocity at altitude
𝜌𝑎𝑙𝑡 - Density at altitude S - wing surface area b - wing span µ𝑎𝑙𝑡
-coefficient of viscosity at altitude
𝐶𝐻𝑇 - Horizontal tail volume coefficient
𝐿𝐻𝑇 - Horizontal tail arm length
𝑆𝐻𝑇 - Horizontal tail area
𝑆𝑊 - Wing area
𝐶𝑊 - Wing mean chord
LVT - Vertical tail arm length
SVT – Vertical tail area
CVT -Vertical tail volume coefficient b
- Wing span
SW - Wing area
VTO - Vertical take-off distance

14
STO - Take-off distance
FTO - Take-off thrust
VA- Approach Velocity
Sπ – Wetted area
Λ-Sweep angle α
- Angle of attack
Β - Climb angle ρ
- Density factor
ϒ - Dihedral angle

Ф - Glide angle

Θ - Turn angle c

- Chord length

ĉ - Mean chord

CD - Drag coefficient

CD0 - Zero lift drag co-efficient

Cl - Rolling moment coefficient

Clf - Function of airfoil chord over which the flow in laminar

CLmax - Maximum Lift coefficient

Cr - Root chord

Ct- Tip chord D -

Drag force d -

Tire diameter

E - Endurance

15
E - Oswald efficiency factor

G - Acceleration due to gravity

L - Lift force

LE - Leading edge of wing

Lf - Length of fuselage

Q - Dynamic pressure

R - Turn radius

R/C - Rate of climb Rr -

Rolling radius of tyre t/c

- Wing thickness ratio

T/W - Thrust loading

V - Velocity of air/aircraft

Vcruise - Velocity at cruise

Vf - Volume of fuel

Vstall - Velocity at stall

W/S - Wing loading

W0 - Gross weight of aircraft

Wcrew - Crew weight

We - Empty weight of aircraft

Wf - Weight of fuel

Wpayload - Aircraft payload weight

λ - Taper ratio of wing

16
 CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION TO AIRPLANE DESIGN

Modern aircraft are a complex combination of aerodynamic

performance, lightweight durable structures and advanced system
engineering. Air passengers demand more comfort and more environmentally
friendly aircraft. Hence many technical challenges need to be balanced for an
aircraft to economically achieve its design specification. Aircraft design is a
complex and laborious undertaking with a number of factors and details that
are required to be checked to obtain optimum the final envisioned product.
The design process begins from scratch and involves a number of
considerations, and a level head to meet any hurdle head on.
Every airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally
built in a factory. These steps between the first ideas for an airplane and the
time when it is actually flown make up the design process. Along the way,
engineers think about four main areas of aeronautics: Aerodynamics,
propulsion, structures and materials, and stability and control.

Aerodynamics is the study of how air flows around an airplane.to fly at all,
air must flow over and under its wings. The more aerodynamic, or streamlined
the airplane is, the less resistance it has against the air. If air can move around
the airplane easier, the airplane’s engines have less work to do.
This means the engines do not have to be big or eat up as much fuel which
makes the airplane more lightweight and easier to fly. Engineers have to think
about what type of airplane they are designing because certain airplanes need
to be aerodynamic in certain ways. For example, fighter jets manoeuver and
turn quickly and fly faster than sound (supersonic flight) over short distances.
Most passenger airplane, on the other hand, fly below the speed of sound
(subsonic flight) for long periods of time.

Propulsion is the study of what kind of engine and power an airplane needs.
An airplane needs to have the right kind of engine for the kind of job that it has.
A passenger jet carries many passengers and a lot of heavy cargo over long
distances so its engines need to use fuel very efficiently. Engineers are also

17
trying to make airplane engines quieter so they do not bother the passengers
on board or the neighbourhoods they are flying over. Another important
concern is making the exhaust and more environmentally friendly. Just like
automobiles, airplane exhaust contains chemicals that can damage the earth’s
environment.

Structures and materials is the study of how strong the airplane is and what
materials will be used to build it. It is really important for an airplane to be as
lightweight as possible. The less weight an airplane has, the less work the
engines have to do and the farther it can fly. It is tough designing an airplane
that lightweight and strong at the same time. In the past, airplanes were
usually made out of lightweight metals like aluminium, but today a lot of
engineers are thinking about using composites in their designs. Composites
look and feel like plastic, but are stronger than most metals. Engineers also
need to make sure that airplanes not only fly well, but are also easy to build
and maintain.

Stability and control is the study of how an airplane handles and interacts
to pilot and feed. Pilots in the cockpit have a lot of data to read from the
airplane’s speed, altitude, direction, and fuel levels as well as upcoming
weather conditions and other instructions from ground control. The pilot
needs to be able to process the correct data quickly, to think about what kind
of action needs to be taken, and to react in an appropriate way. Meanwhile,
the airplane should display information to the pilot in an easy-to-read and easy-
to-understand way. The controls in the cockpit should be within easy reach and
just where the pilot expects them to be. It is also important that the airplane
responds quickly and accurately to the pilot’s instructions and manoeuvers.

“A beautiful aircraft is the expression of the genius of a

great engineer who is also great artist.”

18
 The project design process is the means by which the competing factor
and constraints which affect the design are synthesized with the specialist
analytical inputs to produce the overall configuration. The process may be
considered in three parts:

❖ Conceptual design studies

❖ Preliminary design studies
❖ Detail design studies

1.1CONCEPTUAL DESIGN STUDIES

The first activity in the project design process is the ‘conceptual design study’
in this phase conventional and novel configurations are considered to determine
layouts which are technically feasible and commercially viable at the start of the
phase all options are considered during the concept design phase the quantity
of data generated on each design in the relatively limited and the man power
expended small. The outcome of study is the knowledge of the feasibility of the
various concepts and an estimate of the rough size of the most likely
configurations established by the prospective customer or a generated guess as
what the future customer need.

1.2PRELIMINARY DESIGN STUDIES

At the end of the conceptual design phase all the design layouts will have
been analysed. Those which are regarded as unfeasible or too commercially risky
will be eliminated. The remainder will be compared after careful consideration
of a suitable selection criterion. It is important not to carry too many options
forward to the next stage as this will dissipate the available effort and slow down
the detailed definition of the preferred design. However, care must be taken to
avoid discarding design layouts too quickly as some may lead to evolutionary
configurations which could give the aircraft a competitive advantage over
aircraft from other companies.

19
1.3 DETAILED DESIGN STUDIES
The detailed design phase is started towards the end of the parametric
analysis. In this part of the design process the layout is refined to a greater level
of detail. With the external shape fixed, the structural framework will be
defined. In this phase, there will be an increasing reluctance to make radical
geometric changes the overall layout of the aircraft. Throughout this phase, the
aircraft weight and performance estimates will be continuously updated as more
details of the aircraft layout becomes available.

The design
Design of any system is of successful application of fundamentals of
Physics. Thus the airplane design incorporates the fundamentals of
aerodynamics, structures, performance and stability and control and basic
physics. These are based on certain degree of judgments and experience. Design
is a process of usage of creativity with the knowledge of science where we try to
get most the best things available and to overcome the pitfalls the previous
deign has. It is an iterative process to idealism toward with everyone marching
still.
Here the preliminary design has been done of cargo aircraft. The basic
requirements are the high endurance, low weight, high accuracy and long range.
Here the most possible considerations have been taken. The flight parameters
and limitations are studied.
This design project also looks at the aspects like improving the
aerodynamic characteristics as well as the payload. The design project has been
classified into different stages in our design will be as follows.

• Collection of comparative data

• Selection of aircraft parameters
• Preliminary weight estimations
• Selection of Power plant
• Airfoil selection, flaps, t/c, etc.
• Wing layout
• Layout of landing gear, loads and tyre selection
• Critical performance parameters
• 3 view diagram
20
 CHAPTER-2 INTRODUCTION TO FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air

combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose
main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed,
manoeuvrability, and small size relative to other combat aircraft.
Many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are
designed as dual purpose fighter-bombers; often aircraft that do not fulfil the
standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national
security reasons, for advertising purposes, or other reasons.
A fighter's main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield.
Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been
considered essential for victory in conventional warfare .The success or failure
of a belligerent's efforts to gain air supremacy hinges on several factors including
the skill of its pilots, the tactical soundness of its doctrine for deploying its
fighters, and the numbers and performance of those fighters. Because of the
importance of air superiority, since the dawn of aerial combat armed forces have
constantly competed to develop technologically superior fighters and to deploy
these fighters in greater numbers, and fielding a viable fighter fleet consumes a
substantial proportion of the defence budgets of modern armed forces

Fighter effectiveness criteria, energy-manoeuvrability, and OODA loop

Highly effective fighter aircraft design has been recognized since the
1970s to be based upon four main generation transcending criteria. These
criteria in order of importance are:
1. Achieve superiority in the element of surprise, meaning the tendency to
surprise the enemy more often than being surprised by the enemy. Surprise is
the most important advantage any fighter can have since historically in about
80% of air-to-air kills the victim was unaware of the attacker until too late.
Surprise advantage is mostly based upon small visual and radar signatures,
having good visibility out of the cockpit, having little or no engine smoke, and
having higher cruise speed in order to come on the enemy from behind rather
21
than vice-versa. In more modern fighters the tail-less delta wing configuration
provides a higher cruising speed advantage to better support surprise. Smaller
light fighters have tended to statistically enjoy the element of surprise more
than heavy fighters due to smaller visual and radar signatures. A small fighter
like the Northrop F-5 with a planform area of about 300 square feet, or the F-16
at about 400 square feet, compared to about 1050 square feet for the F-15, has
a much lower visual profile. The small fighter is typically invisible to opposing
pilots beyond about 4 miles, whereas a larger fighter such as the F-15 is visible
to about 7 miles, and much farther if the engines smoke. Additionally, smaller
targets take longer to visually acquire even if they are visible. These two factors
together give the pilot of the smaller fighter better statistical odds of seeing a
larger fighter first. Once the small fighter sees and turns towards the opponent
its very small frontal area reduces maximum visual detection range to about 2.0
to 2.5 miles. If not detected by radar (common when attacking from the rear),
this allows the small fighter to set up a high reliability short range heat-seeking
missile shot by ambush while still invisible to the target. This effect is so
pronounced that even elderly subsonic fighters can often use the element of
surprise to defeat more advanced supersonic fighters. For example, in the 1965
U.S. Feather Duster trials the 1st generation F-86 was found to statistically
dominate over the 3rd generation Mach 2 F-4 Phantom by superior surprise.

A surprise advantage that can favour larger fighters is longer radar range. Given
similar technology, smaller fighters typically have about two thirds the radar
range against the same target as heavy fighters. However, this cannot always be
counted upon to give the large fighter a winning advantage, as larger fighters
with typical radar cross sectional area of about 10 m² are detectable by a given
radar at about 50% farther range than the 2m² to 3m² cross section of the light
fighter. This approximately balances these trade-offs, and can sometimes favour
the lightweight fighter. Also, airborne fighter radars are limited in coverage zone
(front only) and are far from perfect in detecting enemy aircraft. Despite
extensive use of radar in the Vietnam War by the United States, only 18% of
North Vietnamese fighters were first detected by radar of any kind, and only 3%
by air-to-air radar on board a fighter aircraft. The other 82% were visually
acquired, which explains why visual signature favouring the smaller fighters has
remained a significant advantage. The modern trend to stealth aircraft is an
attempt to maximize surprise in an era when Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missiles
are becoming more effective than the quite low effectiveness BVR has had in the
22
past. The cost of stealth has so far in its history limited it to more expensive
fighters, but as it becomes more commoditized and available it will likely
become a prominent feature of advanced lower cost fighters as well. For
example, as of 2016 India is planning a semi-stealthy version of its cost effective
HAL Tejas lightweight fighter.
"The F-22 costs 10 times as much as an early model F-16 fighter and, due to its
huge maintenance load, can fly only half as many sorties per day. Thus, for equal
investment, the F-22 delivers only one-twentieth as many airplanes over enemy
territory as the F-16--a crippling disadvantage, no matter whether the F-22’s
stealth and weapons work or don’t work."
Defence analyst and combat aircraft architect Pierre Sprey.
2. To have numerical superiority in the air, this implies the need for lower
procurement cost, lower maintenance cost, and higher reliability. Having high
sortie generation rates, and long range and combat persistence, are also strong
contributors to having superior numbers at the time and place that combat
occurs.
3. To have superior manoeuvrability, which in manoeuvring combat allows
getting into superior position to fire and score the kill. This is a function of
achieving lower wing loading, higher thrust to weight ratio, and superior
aerodynamics. The concepts of Energy– manoeuvrability theory (see below) are
key in modern fighter design in achieving superior manoeuvrability.
4. To have superior weapon systems effectiveness, as described in detail
below in fighter weapons. Larger fighters have the benefit of carrying a larger
weapons load. However, combat experience shows that weapons systems
"effectiveness" has not been dominated by the amount of weaponry, but by the
ability to reliably achieve split second kills when in position to do so.

23
 CHAPTER-3 COMPARATIVE DETAILS

In the designer’s perspective it is necessary to compare the existing

airplanes that are of same type as that of our desired airplane. Their important
parameters, positive aspects and pitfalls to be overcome are taken into
consideration. The data has been collected for military transport aircrafts.
Several parameters are compared for 15 aircrafts and different parameters are
plotted on the graph. The parameters compared are:

▪ Seating capacity
▪ Length
▪ Wingspan
▪ Height
▪ Wing loading
▪ Aspect ratio
▪ Service ceiling
▪ Rate of climb
▪ Range
▪ Cruise speed
▪ Maximum speed
▪ No of engines
▪ Maximum thrust capability
▪ Maximum take-off weight
▪ Empty weight
▪ Payload weight
▪ Engine type

24
 EURO SUPER DASSAULT MITSUBISHI
PARAMETER UNITS SUKHOI FIGHTER HORNET RAFALE F-15
SU-35 TYPHOON

- FIGHTER FIGHTER JET FIGHTER JET FIGHTER JET FIGHTER JET

JET
TYPE

NUMBER 1 1 2 2 1
CREW

m 21.9 15.96 18.31 1527 19.43

LENGTH

m 15.3 10.95 13.52 10.8 13.065

WINGSPAN

m 5.9 5.28 4.88 5.34 5.63

HEIGHT

- 1.1 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4

OPERATING
MACH NO

m2 62 51.2 46.5 45.7 56.5

WING AREA

Kg 25300 16000 21320 15000 20200

GROSS WEIGHT

25
 Kg 11500 4996 5914 4700 6100

FUEL WEIGHT

PARAMETER UNITS EURO SUPER DASSAULT MITSUBISHI

SUKHOI FIGHTER HORNET RAFALE F-15
SU-35 TYPHOON

Kg 18400 11000 14552 10300 12700

EMPTY WT.

Kg 25300 16000 21320 15000 20200

LOADED WT.

Kg 34500 23500 29937 24500 30845

MAX.TAKE OFF
WT

m/s 347.22 510.55 344.44 339.44 838.2

CRUISING
VELOCITY

Kg 8000 6486 8050 9520 9730

PAYLOAD

m/s 212 318 319 245 254

RATE OF
CLIMB

KN 86.3 60 62.3 50.4 77.62

DRY THRUST

26
 KN 142 90 98 75 111.2
THRUST WITH
AFTER BURNER

Km/h 2500 2495 19151 1912 2665

MAX SPEED

PARAMETER UNITS EURO SUPER DASSAULT MITSUBISHI

SUKHOI FIGHTER HORNET RAFALE F-15
SU-35 TYPHOON
Km 1580 1389 1200 1852 1524
COMBAT
RADIUS

Km 4500 3790 3330 3700 4700

RANGE

hr 4.5 3 2 3.30 5.15

ENDURANCE

M 18000 19812 15001 15235 20000

SERVICE
CEILING

Kg/m2 408 312 459 328 73.1

WING LOADING

L/D MAX - 7.1 6.3 6 6.7 7.5

27
L/D CRUISE - 5.2 4.7 4.3 4.9 5.8

- 1.13 1.15 0.93 0.988 1.12

THRUST /
WEIGHT

- Saturn Euro Jet EJ General Snecma M88- Pratt and

AL-41 FLS 200 Electric 4E Whitney
POWERPLANT
F414-GE-400 F100-220

PARAMETER UNITS EURO SUPER DASSAULT MITSUBISHI

SUKHOI FIGHTER HORNET RAFALE F-15
SU-35 TYPHOON
- AF TURBO AF TURBOFAN TURBOFAN AF
POWERPLANT FAN TURBOFAN TURBOFAN
TYPE

- 2 2 2 2 2
NO OF
POWERPLANTS

Kg/S 0.285 0.270 0.275 0.285 0.300

SPECIFIC FUEL
CONSUMPTION

- 3.77 2.19 4 2.55 3.04

ASPECT RATIO

m 5.3 5.28 1 4.3 -

FUSELAGE
DIAMETER

m 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

TAPER RATIO

28
 CHAPTER-4 SELECTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS

MATERIAL SELECTION : The next important task is to select the various materials
required to fabricate the entire aircraft such as the skin, fuselage, wings, control
surfaces etc. without any of its components failing due to higher rates of tensile
and compressive loads, stresses and strains our aircraft is inhibited to during its
flight. Failure of material will lead to damage which results to loss of life and
expensive component. Hence the material selected should be of very high
strength incompliance with lower costs and shouldn’t end to increase the overall
weight of the aircraft.

PAYLOAD: For a better performance we should select the maximum payload

condition of an aircraft.

RANGE: An aircraft with maximum range or long range condition will be suitably
apt for better design criteria.

ENDURANCE: A better mission will be accomplished by an aircraft with longer

endurance for a fighter jet type aircrafts.

CRUISING ALTITUDE & CRUISING SPEED: For a better performance we should

select the maximum cruising altitude and cruising speed condition of an aircraft.

29
 CHAPTER-5 MEAN DATA SHEET

PARAMETER UNITS MEAN

VALUES

Kg 25300

GROSS WEIGHT

Kg 11500

FUEL WEIGHT

Kg 18400

EMPTY WT.

Kg 25300

LOADED WT.

Kg 95

CREW WT.

Kg 34500
MAX.TAKE OFF WT

Kg 9520
PAYLOAD

30
 m/s 319
RATE OF CLIMB

KN 86.3

DRY THRUST

KN 142
THRUST WITH AFTER
BURNER

Km/h 19151

MAX SPEED

Km 4700

RANGE

hr 5.15

ENDURANCE

M 20000
SERVICE CEILING

Kg/m2 459
WING LOADING

m/s 838.2
CRUISING VELOCITY

m/s 50
STALL VELOCITY

31
 - 7.5
L/D MAX

- 5.8
L/D CRUISE

Kg/S 0.270
SPECIFIC FUEL
CONSUMPTION

- 3.77

ASPECT RATIO

32
 CHAPTER-6 PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The estimation of the weight of a conceptual aircraft is a critical part of

the design process. The weights engineer interfaces with all other engineering
groups, and serves as the "referee" during the design evolution. Weights analysis
per se does not form part of the aerospace engineering curriculum at most
universities. It requires a broad background in aerospace structures, mechanical
engineering, statistics, and other engineering disciplines. There are many levels
of weights analysis. Previous chapters have presented crude statistical
techniques for estimating the empty weight for a given take-off weight. These
techniques estimate the empty weight directly and are only suitable for "first-
pass" analysis. More sophisticated weights methods estimate the weight of the
various components of the aircraft and then sum for the total empty weight. In
this chapter, two levels of component weights analysis will be presented. The
first is a crude component builds up based upon plan form areas, wetted areas,
and per cents of gross weight. This technique is useful for initial balance
calculations and can be used to check the results of the more detailed statistical
methods. The second uses detailed statistical equations for the various
components. This technique is sufficiently detailed to provide a credible
estimate of the weights of the major component groups.
The take-off gross weight-the sum of the empty weight and the useful
load-reflects the weight at take-off for the normal design mission. The flight
design gross weight represents the aircraft weight at which the structure will
withstand the design load factors. Usually this is the same as the take-off weight,
but some aircraft are designed assuming that maximum loads will not be
reached until the aircraft has taken off and climbed to altitude, burning off some
fuel in the process.

Gross Weight 𝑾𝟎 = 𝑾𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 + 𝑾𝒑𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 + 𝑾𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚

= 2*95 + 9520 + 11500 + 18400

𝑾𝟎 = 39610 kg

33
 𝑾𝟏
= 0.990
𝑾𝟎

W1 = 0.990 * 39610
𝑾𝟏 = 39213.9

𝑾𝟐
= 0.990
𝑾𝟏

𝑊2 = 0.990 * 39213.9
𝑾𝟐 = 38821.761

𝑾𝟑
= 0.990
𝑾𝟐

𝑊3 = 0.990 * 38821.761
𝑾𝟑 = 38433.54

𝑾𝟒
= 0.994
𝑾𝟑

𝑊4 = 0.994 * 38433.54

34
 𝑾𝟒 = 38202.94

Range = 𝑽𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆 * (𝑳) * 𝐥𝐧 𝑾 𝒊−𝟏 [𝒊 = 𝟓]

𝑺𝑭𝑪 𝑫 𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑾𝒊

𝑊4 4700 = * 5.8
*ln
𝑊5 38202.94 4700
=18005.77 * ln
𝑊5
38202.94 =ln
𝑊5 38202.94

0.2610 =ln
𝑊5

𝑾𝟓 = 29426.95 kg

𝟏 𝑳𝑾𝒊−𝟏 [𝒊 = 𝟔]
Endurance = * (𝐥𝐧)
𝑺𝑭𝑪 𝑫 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑾𝒊

𝑊5
5.15 = * 7.5 * ln
0. 𝑊6
29426.95
5.15 = 27.77 * ln
𝑊6
29426.95 = ln
𝑊6 29426.95

0.185 = ln

35
 𝑊6

𝑾𝟔 = 24456.86 kg

𝑾𝟔
Fuel Fraction =
𝑾𝟓

=
Fuel Fraction = 0.831

𝑾𝟕
= 0.990
𝑾𝟔

W7 = 0.990 * 24456.86
𝑾𝟕 = 24212.29 kg

𝑾𝟖
= 0.995
𝑾𝟕

W8 = 0.995 * 24212.29
𝑾𝟖 = 24091.22 kg

Mission Fuel Fraction:

𝑾𝟖
𝑴𝒇𝒇 = 𝑾 𝟎

=
𝑴𝒇𝒇 = 0.608
36
 Fuel Used:

𝑾𝒇 = (𝟏 − 𝑴𝒇𝒇) * 𝑾𝟎
= (1 − 0.608) * 39610
𝑾𝒇 = 15527.12 kg

Fuel Weight:

𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = (𝟏 − 𝑴𝒇𝒇) * 𝑾𝟎 + (0.05 *𝑾𝒇)

= (1 − 0.608) * 39610 + (0.05 * 15527.12)

𝑾𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 = 16303.476 kg
MISSION PROFILE

1. Warm-up
2. Taxi
3. Take-off
4. Accelerate
37
5. Climb to altitude
6. Outbound Cruise
7. Descent
8. Manoeuvre
9. Weapon drop
10. Climb to altitude
11. Descent
12. Loiter
13. Landing
14. Shut Down
15. Towing

38
 CHAPTER-7 POWER PLANT SELECTION

TURBOFAN ENGINE:

A turbofan engine, sometimes referred to as a fanjet or bypass engine, is

a jet engine variant which produces thrust using a combination of jet core efflux
and bypass air which has been accelerated by a ducted fan that is driven by the
jet core.
The turbofan or fanjet is a type of air breathing jet engine that is widely
used in aircraft propulsion.

It has much higher power to weight ratio than the piston engine.
Turbojet engine can operate at very high temperatures. It can produce more
thrust than the propeller engine. Mating parts are less so less wear.

Efficiency:
For turbofan aircraft in service now, propulsive efficiency is 70-80
percent. Turboprops are about 10 percent more efficient at their current cruise
Mach numbers.

Components:
In the turbofan engine, the core engine is surrounded by a fan in the front
and an additional turbine at the rear. The fan and fan turbine are composed of
many blades, like the core compressor and core turbine, and are connected to
an additional shaft.

Stages:
There are four main stages in a turbofan engine; Intake; Compression;
Combustion; and Exhaust. Each of these four stages work together to ultimate
produce thrust. The intake stage of the turbofan engine feeds the compressor
of the engine with cold air.

39
COMPARISON OF TURBOFAN ENGINES:
Engine Length Diameter Thrust Weight Bypass Pressure SFC
ratio ratio
T/W (hr-1)
(m) (m) (k-N) (kg)

CFM56-
7B
2.5 1.55 86.7 2366 3.7 5.5:1 32.8:1 0.56

PW6000 2.74 1.44 99-106 2289 4.7 5:1 28.2:1 0.68

CFM leap
-1A 123.5133.4
3.5 1.9 3762 3.6 11:1 40:1 0.44

10:1 -
110 -
PW1000G 3 2.1 3796 4 12:1 38:1 0.39
150

ENGINE SELECTION:

The thrust loading based on sea level static thrust is:

T/W = 1.15……. (From thrust loading calculation)
Thus, the thrust required is,
𝑻𝒓𝒆𝒒 = 1.15 x 84907 x 9.81 = 957.87 k-N

40
 It is observed that the maximum thrust requirements occurs from Vmax
consideration i.e. 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 957.87 k-N.

As a twin engine configuration has been adopted, the above requirement

implies a thrust per engine of 478.93 k-N.

The above comparison of high bypass turbofan engines shows the

competition between CFM LEAP-1C and PW F100-200 in various parameters.
Unlike fighter aircraft, business jets or any airliner in that case looks for an
important parameter which is lowest specific fuel consumption. Though LEAP1C
gives a pressure ratio higher than PW F100-200, it contains more number of
stages which adds weight to the aircraft. On the other hand, PW F100-200 has a
lowest TSFC of 0.39/hr.

PW F100-200 will be designed with a variable inlet duct and a Gearing

system (Geared turbofan), that will allow changes in bypass ratio by controlling
the rpm of the fan, whenever required as per the flight phase. In addition to the
geared turbofan, the current design includes a variable-area nozzle, which offers
reduction in noise. It also offers 15% reduction in CO2 emission and 55% reduced
NOx margin in accordance with CAEP/6.

Taking these advantages in consideration, PW F100-200 is selected.

DETAILS OF THE SELECTED ENGINE::

PW F100 -200:

The F100-PW-229 fighter aircraft engine is a higher thrust derivative of

the F100-PW-220 and in the same frame size. The engine was developed from
the F100 Engine Model Derivative (EMD) Program and parallel IR&D efforts. The
increased thrust was achieved by increasing the flow and pressure ratio of the
two-spool compression system accompanied by an increase in turbine
temperature. The increased length compression system was offset by an
41
innovative design intermediate case and a reduced length combustor to
maintain overall engine axial length. The –229 engine has a thrust-to-weight
ratio of 8.0 with a 20–30 percent performance increase over the –220 model
across the flight map. Significant improvements in maintainability have been
incorporated while retaining the proven durability and operability features of
the –220 engine. The Government-industry partnership is working well,
continually providing increased performance engines for our first-line fighters.
Due to the unsatisfactory reliability, maintenance costs, and service life of
the F100-PW-100/200, Pratt & Whitney was eventually pressured into upgrading
the engine to address these issues. The resulting engine, designated F100-PW-
220, almost eliminates stall-stagnations and augmenter instability as well as
doubling time between depot overhauls. Reliability and maintenance costs were
also drastically improved, and the engine incorporates a digital electronic engine
control (DEEC). The F100-PW-220 was introduced in 1986 and could be installed
on either an F-15 or F-16. A non-afterburning variant, the F100-PW-220U powers
the Northrop Grumman X-47B UCAV. The "E" abbreviation from 220E is for
equivalent. The abbreviation is given to engines which have been upgraded from
series 100 or 200 to 220, thus becoming equivalent to 220 specifications.

Specifications:

F100-PW-220

• Type: Afterburning turbofan

• Length: 191 inches (490 cm)
• Diameter: 34.8 inches (88 cm) inlet, 46.5 inches (118 cm) maximum external
• Dry weight: 3,234 pounds (1,467 kg)

Components

• Compressor: Dual Spool Axial compressor

• Bypass ratio: 0.71:1
• Combustors: annular
42
Performance

• Maximum thrust:
o 14,590 pounds-force (64.9 k N) military thrust, o
23,770 pounds-force (105.7 k N) with afterburner
• Overall pressure ratio: 25:1
• Specific fuel consumption: Military thrust: (0.73 lb/ (lbf -h))
• Thrust-to-weight ratio: 7.4:1

43
 CHAPTER-8 AEROFOIL SELECTION
AIRFOIL GEOMETRY:

An airfoil is a surface designed to obtain a desirable reaction from the air

through which it moves.

Chord line: Straight line connecting leading edge and trailing edge.
Thickness: Measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it.
Camber: Curvature of section – perpendicular distance of section mid-points
from chord line as a % of it.
The mean camber line is the locus of point midway between the upper and
lower surfaces as measured perpendicular to the chord line.
The most forward point of the mean camber line is the leading edge.
The most rearward point of the mean camber line is the trailing edge.
The actual distance between the leading and trailing edges, measured along the
chord line, is the chord, c.
The maximum camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line
and the chord line, measured perpendicular to the chord line.

44
W=L = S CL Wing
CL Wing

Where, V = stall velocity

S = wing area

= wing loading

CL Wing = CL Airfoil
= 1.43

The thickness is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces, also
measured perpendicular to the chord line. Having defined these fundamental
characteristics, additional properties are now defined, before proceeding to an
explanation of the NACA system. Because airfoil sections vary in size, the
following properties are generally stated in terms of the chord, c. The shape of

45
the airfoil section at the leading edge is usually circular, with a radius of
approximately0.02c.

ANGLE OF ATTACK (α):

It is the angle between the free stream and the chord line.

Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,

design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift
curve slope, characteristic curves.

46
The following are airfoil categories:

• Early on, airfoil selection was based on trial & error.

• NACA 4 digit was introduced during the 1930’s.
• NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for
increased CL max.
• NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar
flow.
The modern airfoil is mainly based upon need for improved aerodynamic
characteristics at speeds just below speed of sound.

NACA SERIES:

NACA 4 Digit:

▪ 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).

▪ 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from
leading edge (LE)).
▪ 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 5 Digit:

▪ 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.

▪ 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord
from LE).
▪ 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 6 Digit:

▪ 1st digit: identifies series type.

▪ 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from
leading edge (LE)).

47
 ▪ 3rd digit: indicates acceptable range of CL above/below design value
for satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).
▪ 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.
▪ 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)
MAXIMUM THICKNESS (T/C):

Maximum thickness of the airfoil desired to produce max Cl is 14%

WING GEOMETRY DETERMINATION:

To obtain a definite wing shape, aspect ratio, taper ratio, wing area, sweep angle
and twist angle should be determined. The relation between W0 and S gives the
area of the wing to be as S=34.72 m2.By continuing with such a value; from the
table 4.1 in Raymer Book a formula so called: AR=a*MmaxC is used and for
a=5.416 and for c=0.622 is used with Mmax=2.2. After applying this formula, AR
is found to be as 3.316 while it was equal to 3.132 in the first study. This is an
advantage for the design because high aspect ratio wing does not experience as
much of a loss of lift and increase of drag due to tip effects as a low aspect ratio
wing of equal area[1].After that from the formula: AR=b2/S. After putting the
values into equation; b is found to be equal to 10.731.

Aspect ratio, AR = 3.316

48
 𝑏2
AR =
𝑆
𝑏2
3.316 =
34.72

b = 10.731
Sweep angle = 56°

TAPER RATIO, λ:
λ = 𝑪𝒕/𝑪𝒓
For rectangle wing, λ = 1
For elliptical wing, λ = 0.9
For tapered wing, λ = 0.5

𝐂𝐫
= 4.977
𝐂𝐭 = λ* 𝐂𝐫
= 1.493 λ=
𝑪𝒕/𝑪𝒓 =

λ=
0.3

Mean aerodynamic centre:

Ŷ
= 1.5917
2 1+ 𝛌+ 𝛌𝟐
Ĉ =3 ∗ Cr ∗ ( 1+ 𝛌 )

= 3.547
Location of Mean Chord:
𝑏∗(1+2𝛌)

𝑦̅

49
 = 2.2012

NACA 64206 Airfoil:

To show the flow behaviour of the airfoil for the constraint of critical Mach
number, the airfoil has been analyzed at 0.7 M and zero angle of attack.

zero Cl = Cd =
angle 1.6712e- 8.7746e-03
of attack 01

4° angle Cl= Cd=

of attack 5.4969e01 1.3742e-02

6° angle Cl = Cd =
of attack 7.5201e- 2.4986e-02
01

7° angle Cl = Cd =
of attack 7.8193e- 4.1034e-02
01

8° angle Cl= Cd=

of attack 8.1469e01 8.9763e-02

10° angle Cl= Cd=

of attack 6.4460e01 1.1185e-01

50
 Cl, Cd vs Angle of attack for NACA 64209

Airfoil shape (ANSYS)

𝐶𝑙 = 7.4055e-01 𝐶𝑚 = -2.5256e-02

𝐶𝑑 = 1.9264e-02 Stall angle=7-8 𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 0.8046

NACA 64209 Airfoil:

minimum Cp value;
𝐶𝑚 = - 𝑀𝑐𝑟= (Cp0)min= 0.3685
2.5256e02 0.7578

𝑀𝑐𝑟, (Cp0) min, Cm for NACA 64209

The aircraft stalls an angle between 8°-10°

NACA 64206 Airfoil:

zero angle of Cl = 1.2846e01 Cd = 9.5309e-03
attack

51
 4° angle of Cl = 5.4626e01 Cd = 1.3742e-02
attack

6° angle of Cl = 6.4941e01 Cd = 3.6696e-02

attack

7° angle of Cl = 6.7986e01 Cd = 5.5390e-02

attack

8° angle of Cl = 6.9827e01 Cd = 8.3897e-02

attack

9° angle of Cl = 6.9698e01 Cd = 1.0455e-01

attack

According to historical data and fighter aircraft trend, 4 airfoil have

been selected but two of them are not suitable for the maximum
speed of aircraft. Other airfoils have been analysed at different
speed and angle of attack to find aerodynamic coefficient. As a
result NACA 64209 Airfoil has been determined for root chord and
NACA 64206 Airfoil has been determined for tip chord. 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 can
be determined as their average;

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.7558
𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 = 0.0865
2W
𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = ρ V2S

𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.0162

52
 CHAPTER-9 WING SELECTION

Low wing with dihedral

Low wing:
A low wing is one which is located on or near the base of the fuselage.
Placing the wing low down allows good visibility upwards and frees up the
central fuselage from the wing spar carry-through. By reducing pendulum
stability, it makes the aircraft more manoeuvrable, as on the Spitfire; but aircraft
that value stability over manoeuvrability may then need some dihedral. A low
wing allows a lighter structure because the fuselage sides carry no additional
loads, and the main undercarriage legs can be made shorter.
A feature of the low wing position is its significant ground effect, giving
the plane a tendency to float further before landing. Conversely, this very
ground effect permits shorter take off.

Dihedral angle and dihedral effect:

Dihedral Angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings of a
fixedwing aircraft, or of any paired nominally-horizontal surfaces on any aircraft.
The term can also apply to the wings of a bird. Dihedral Angle is also used in
some types of kites such as box kites. Wings with more than one Angle change
along the full span are said to be polyhedral.

53
 Dihedral Angle has important stabilizing effects on flying bodies because
it has a strong influence on the dihedral effect.
Dihedral effect of an aircraft is a rolling moment resulting from the vehicle
having a nonzero angle of sideslip. Increasing the dihedral angle of an aircraft
increases the dihedral effect on it. However, many other aircraft parameters also
have a strong influence on dihedral effect. Some of these important factors are:
wing sweep, vertical centre of gravity, and the height and size of anything on an
aircraft that changes its side wards force as sideslip changes.

Lift Estimation:
Take Off:

L = * 𝜌∞ * 𝑉∞2 * S *𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
= 0.5*1.225*838.2*838.2*56.5*0.0865
L = 430.38*103

𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 1.2*𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
= 1.2*50

𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 60 m/s

54
 𝑉𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1.3*𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
= 1.3*50

𝑉𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 65 m/s

Drag Estimation:

D = * 𝜌∞ * 𝑉∞2 * S *𝐶𝐷

𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0+ K𝐶𝐿2

1 𝐿 2

𝐶𝐷0 =4*C*(𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥

= 0.25*0.04765*7.52
𝐶𝐷0= 0.670

1
K=
𝜋∗𝑒∗(𝐴𝑅)

K = 0.1011

𝐶𝐷 = 0.670 + (0.1011 ∗ 0.0162 )

𝐶𝐷 = 0.671

D = * 𝜌∞ * 𝑉∞2 * S *𝐶𝐷
D = 163.14*103

55
 D=

+ =

CALCULATION:

= 0.00003

= 0.000031+0.240
= 0.24

TAKE OFF DRAG:

D=
V = 1.15

= 1.225 kg\ , S=50 , =0.54

Take off drag = 90.706 KN

LANDING DRAG:

56
 D=
V = 1.3

= 1.225 kg\ , S=50 , =0.24

Landing drag = 115.911KN

CRUISE DRAG:
L= ρ v2SCL

= 68.87 KN

V = 178.194 m/s

D=

= 68.586 KN

RESULT:

LANDING DRAG = 115.911KN

CRUISE DRAG = 68.586KN

TAKE OFF DRAG = 90.706KN

57
 CHAPTER-10 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually comes from the generation of lift
during high-g manoeuvers. Even the fuselage is almost always structurally sized
by the lift of the wings rather than by the pressures produced directly on the
fuselage. Aircraft load factor (n) expresses the manoeuvring of an aircraft as a
standard acceleration due to gravity.
At lower speeds the highest load factor of an aircraft may experience is
limited by the maximum lift available. At higher speeds the maximum load factor
is limited to some arbitrary value based upon the expected use of the aircraft.
The maximum lift load factor equals 1.0 at levels flight stall speed.

CALCULATION
The load factor for different manoeuvers found out and load factor during
critical performance like minimum turning radius, pull up etc., to be found.

Minimum Turn Radius:

Where,

K= , e = 0.81, AR = 9.16

K=

K = 0.0429

58
 K= SCL

CL

CL

D= SCD

CD

CD

R
R min = 14.62

Pull up manoeuver:

Load factor can be found from,

R=

=
59
Pull down manoeuver:

Load factor can be found from,

R=

R=

Rate of Glide:

60
 SL.N0 MANEUVERS LOAD FACTOR (n)

1 Minimum Turning Radius 14.62

2 Pull up 14964

3 Pull down 8829

4 Rate of Glide 634.83

Load factor (ƞ):

Ƞ=L/W

= 1/2 ρ v2 S C L max / W
= ½ (0.413*3502*15*1.5)/26000
= 21.89

61
 CHAPTER-11 LANDING GEAR SELECTION

The landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not flying, allowing it to
take off, land and usually to taxi without damage. Landing gear placement is
essential for ground stability and controllability. A good landing gear position
must provide superior handling characteristics and must not allow overbalancing
during take-off or landing.

DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR

We have designed the landing gear characteristics by following a step by

Step method.
Landing gear System:
We have chosen a Retractable system landing gear which will be retracted
in to the fuselage after the take off.

Landing Gear Configuration:

The landing gear configuration we have adapted is the Tri-cycle type with
a nose wheel in front. From an ease of ground manoeuvring view point as well
as ground looping the nose wheel configuration is preferred.

Preliminary landing gear strut disposition:

There are two geometric criteria which are required to be considered on
deciding the disposition of landing gear struts are:

1. Tip-over criteria
2. Ground clearance criteria

For a better C.G estimation landing gear analysis need to conduct. Tricycle
landing gear configuration has been selected because of suitability for fighter
jets.
Firstly, the upswept angle should be determined. For most of the fighter,
upswept angle is 6°.
62
There is a figure show the upswept angle for and different type of aircraft;

Up swept angle for different type of aircrafts.

Up swept visualization and ground clearance

Recommended clearance for various aircraft components

63
 Wheel load geometry

Angles of Pitch and Roll during Takeoff and Landing:

The available pitch angle at lift off and touchdown must be equal, or
preferably exceed, the requirements imposed by performance or flight
characteristics. A geometric limitation to the pitch angle is detrimental to the lift
off speed and hence to the takeoff field length. Similarly, a geometric limitation
to the roll angle could result in undesirable operational limit under cross-wind
landing condition.

Pitch and Roll Angles during Landing:

With the flaps in the fully-deflected position, the critical angle of attack of
the wing during landing is smaller than in takeoff. Consequently, the pitch angle
during landing is generally less than that during takeoff. In the absence of
detailed information, the pitch angle on touchdown (_TD) may be assumed
equal to LOF. As for the roll angle upon touchdown, an upper limit of between
five and eight degrees is generally applied to large transport aircraft.

A Mooney M20J with a retractable tricycle landing gear

64
 CHAPTER-12 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM
FRONT VIEW

SIDE VIEW

TOP VIEW

Initial Sketch For designed Fighter

65
66
THREE VIEWS OF FIGHTER AIRCRAFT

67
 COMPARITIVE GRAPHS

The comparative graphs are plotted for various parameters from the
comparative sheets of various military transport aircrafts. Comparison of data’s
of similar aircrafts of same classification are necessary to know the strengths and
weakness of every aircraft and develop an aircraft such that it would be more
superior than other aircrafts of the same classification. Using these graphs, the
mean value from each graph is recorded with the help of a circle. The circle
should be plotted such that most no of points are covered by the circle. The circle
with same dimensions as that of the first graph is to be used in all other graphs.
The co-ordinates of the centre of the circle gives us the mean value of the
parameters that are plotted. Here, using the cruise speed of the aircraft, other
parameters are compared. The list of graphs that are used to compare the
parameters are:

1. Length vs. max speed

2. Height vs. max speed
3. Fuselage diameter vs. max speed
4. Wing span vs. max speed
5. Wing area vs. max speed
6. Wing loading vs. max speed
7. Aspect ratio vs. max speed
8. Service ceiling vs. max speed
9. Rate of climb vs. max speed
10. Range vs. max speed
11. Maximum speed vs. max speed
12. No of engines vs. max speed
13. Max thrust capability vs. max speed
14. Max take-off weight vs. max speed
15. Empty weight vs. max speed
16. Payload weight vs. max speed

68
Graph 1

69
70
Graph 5

Graph 6

71
Graph 7

72
Graph 9

Graph 10

73
Graph 11

Graph 12

74
 2
THRUST/WT VS SPEED
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
SPEED
THRUST/WEIGHT

Graph 13

Graph 14

75
76
 CHAPTER-13 CONCLUSION

It has been seen that the aircraft design is a very high disciplinary area for
and engineering point of view and it has taken very precisely. This can be seen
with a wider perspective after all those analysis and hard work for the purpose
of creating a fighter jet that can compete with current generation competitor
aircraft. All these processes are became and experience for designer even if the
aircraft is not succeed in the market or a as engineering point of view. The lesson
has been learn and skills are gained thought-out this design process.

At the end of this design project there are some qualities earned as such
versatility, obtaining efficient working process, hard work and at some points of
the work there are some questions that are require to designer to see from
outside of the box so that obtain the solution from a different perspective. This
is the most founded way of success in the industry and the academic works. Even
dough the design process that we go through in this report are generally based
on historical data and findings and as it can be called “simplified” version of a
real process it still has lots of influence on the students to precede on their goals
of becoming a better engineers through their lifetimes.

77
 REFERENCES
1. Introduction to Flight by J. D. Anderson.

2. Aircraft Performance and Design by J.D. Anderson.

3. Design of Aircraft by Thomas. C. Corke.

4. Aircraft Structures by T. H. G. Megson.

5. Aircraft Structures by D. J. Peery

6. Airframe Structural Design by Michael Chun-Yung Niu

7. FAA Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

8. Raymer D., P. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach. Second ed.

Washington: American institute of aeronautics and astronautics, 1992.
9. Sadraey M., H. Aircraft design: a system engineering approach.1st ed. John
Wiley & Sons, 2013

10. Airplane design parts I-VII: Dan Roskam, 1985

11. Anderson J., D. Aircraft Performance and Design. 2nd ed. WCB/McGraw-Hill,
1999. (1946, accessed 11 November 2016)

78
WEBSITE REFERENCES

1. http://www.turbokart.com/about_f135.htm
2. http://ciurpita.tripod.com/rc/notes/neutralPt.html
3. http://www.usinflationcalculator.com
4. www.worldofkrauss.com/foils/search?contains=0003
5. www.nasa.gov
6. www.worldaircraftdierctory.com
7. www.airliners.net
8. www.globalsecurity.org
9. www.antonovAN-225Mriya.com
10. www.passionforaviation.com
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
12. https://booksite.elsevier.com
13. www.boeing.com
14. www.airbus.com
15. www.airliner.net
16. www.airfoiltools.com

79