CHEM 111 MIDTERMS

CMLS
Lesson 1 / Acids and Bases
01

Chapter 01: Acids and Bases

are produced from a molecular

OUTLINE
compound dissolved in a solution.
1. Acids and Bases
➢ Arrhenius Acids and Base Theory b. Arrhenius Base (OH-ions)
2. Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases - Also referred to as hydroxide base, it is
Theory a hydroxide-containing compound
➢ -protic Acids that produces hydroxide ions in water.
3. Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs - Dissociation – process where an
➢ Amphiprotic Substance individual positive and negative ion
4. Strengths of Acids and Bases are released from an ionic compound
➢ Strong and Weak Acids dissolved in a solution.
➢ Strong and Weak Bases The acidic species in Arrhenius theory is the hydrogen ion
➢ Ph Levels and the basic species is the hydroxide ion.
5. Salt
6. Neutralization

Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

Acids and Bases
• Proposed by Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted
• Two of the most common and important
and Thomas Martin Lowry, in which acids
compounds known.
and bases can be applied in both aqueous
• Acid is any hydrogen-containing and non-aqueous solutions.
substance capable of donating a proton to
• Hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution do
another substance.
not exist in the free state but, rather, react
• Base is a molecule or ion able to accept a with water to form hydronium ions (H3O+).
hydrogen ion from an acid.

a. Bronsted-Lowry Acid
ARRHENIUS ACIDS AND BASES - Substance that can donate a proton
to other substances.
• Proposed by Svante August Arrhenius where
b. Bronsted-Lowry Base
acids and base are defined in terms of the
- Substance that can accept a proton
chemical species they form when dissolved
from other substances.
in water.
H+ ions and protons are used interchangeably in acid-base
a. Arrhenius Acid (H ions)
+
discussions.
- A hydrogen-containing compound
that produces hydrogen ions in water.
- Ionization – process where an
individual positive and negative ion
CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
CMLS
Lesson 1 / Acids and Bases
01

Chapter 01: Acids and Bases

-PROTIC ACIDS - Always has one fewer hydrogen atom

and one more negative charge than
a. Monoprotic Acid
the acid.
- Supplies one proton per molecule
during the acid-base reaction.
b. Diprotic Acid
- Supplies two protons per molecule. AMPHIPROTIC SUBSTANCES
c. Triprotic Acid
• Functions either as a Bronsted-Lowry acid
- Supplies three protons per molecule
or base and can lose or accept a proton.
during an acid-base reaction.
d. Polyprotic Acid Water is the most common amphiprotic substance.
- Supplies two or more protons in an
acid-base reaction.

Strengths of Acids and Bases

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs

• Produces an equilibrium situation when a
forward reaction and a reverse reaction
occur at the same rate.
• Two species that differ from each other
through the loss or gain of a proton.
HCl + H2O → Cl- + H3O+
H2O & H3O+ = conjugate pair (H2O – conjugate base;
H3O+ - conjugate acid)
STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS
Strong Acids – 100% ionizes completely and forms
strong electrolytes in water and conduct
electricity.
Weak Acids – acid that transfers only a small
percentage of its protons, usually < 5%. They form
weak electrolytes when dissolved in water.

HCl & Cl- = conjugate pair (HCl – conjugate acid; WRITING CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF WEAK AND
Cl- - conjugate base) STRONG ACIDS

1. When writing the chemical reaction, one

arrow is enough.
a. Conjugate Acid
2. For weak acids, double arrows facing away
- Substance formed when a proton is
from each other are added since they exist
added to a base.
in an equilibrium and the reaction is
- Always has one more hydrogen atom
reversible.
and one fewer negative charge than
the base.
b. Conjugate Base
- Substance that remains after a proton
is removed from the acid.
CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
CMLS
Lesson 1 / Acids and Bases
01

Chapter 01: Acids and Bases

STRONG AND WEAK BASES

Strong Bases – soluble in water and ionizes

completely.
Acid-Base Neutralization Chemical Reactions
Weak Bases – insoluble in water and does not ionize
• It is a chemical reaction between an acid
completely.
and a hydroxide base in which a salt and
water are the products.

pH LEVELS

• Also known as potential hydrogen; NEUTRALIZATION PROCESS

measurement of how many protons is
Double replacement reaction – the salt formed
present in a solution.
contains a negative ion from the acid ionization
• The more the hydrogen ions there are, the
and the positive ion from the base dissociation.
lower pH will be.
Proton transfer viewpoint – the formation of water
pH < 7 = acidic solution
results from the transfer of protons from
pH > 7 = basic solution hydronium ions to hydroxide ions.

pH = 7 = neutral solution

Formula:

pH = -log [H+]

where [H+] = [H3O+]

Salts

• An ionic compound produced by the

reaction of an acid with a base.
• It contains a metal acting as the positive
ion, and a nonmetal as the negative ion.
CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
CMLS
Lesson 2 / Functional Groups and Isomerism
02

Chapter 02: Functional Groups and Isomerism

OUTLINE

1. Functional Groups
➢ Kinds of Functional Groups Isomerism
2. Isomerism
➢ Kinds of Isomerism • Isomers – compounds with the same
3. Organic Chemistry molecular formula but different in the
➢ Types of Compounds arrangement of atoms.
➢ Hydrocarbons
4. Bonding Characteristics of the Carbon
Atom KINDS OF ISOMERISM
➢ Carbon Four-Bond Requirement
1. Constitutional Isomerism
- aka structural isomerism
- isomers differ in the connectivity of
Functional Groups
atoms, in the order which atoms are
• Specific groups of atoms or bonds within a attached to each other within
compound responsible for the molecules.
characteristic chemical reactions. 2. Stereoisomerism
- spatial isomerism
- isomers that have the same molecular
and structural formula but different
KINDS OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
orientations of atoms in space.
3. Conformational Isomerism
- rotational isomers
- Different spatial arrangements of
atoms of a molecule but have the same
bond connectivity and configuration.
4. Cis-Trans Isomerism
- geometric isomers
- isomers that have the same molecular
and structural formulas but different
orientations of atoms in space due to
restricted rotation about bonds.
➢ Cis – same side
➢ Trans – across from
5. Optical Isomerism
- a kind of stereoisomerism where two
objects are mirror images of each
other and cannot be superimposed.
- optical isomers or enantiomers
CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
CMLS
Lesson 2 / Functional Groups and Isomerism
02

Chapter 02: Functional Groups, Isomerism, and Alkanes

Chiral objects are not superimposable on their mirror

objects. Achiral objects are superimposable on its mirror
image.

Bonding Characteristics of the Carbon Atom

• The carbon atom has a unique ability to

Introduction to Organic and Inorganic Chemistry
• Organic Chemistry is the study of
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
• Inorganic Chemistry is the study of all
substances other than hydrocarbons.
bond to each other in a wide variety of
ways involving long chains of carbon
atoms or cyclic arrangements.
• Carbon atoms follow the octet rule.
Carbon atoms always form four covalent bonds.

FOUR-BOND REQUIREMENT
HYDROCARBONS
1. Four other atoms: Four single bonds
• Compound containing only carbon and
hydrogen atoms.
➢ Hydrocarbon Derivatives – compound
containing carbon and hydrogen
and one or more additional elements.
2. Three other atoms: Two single bonds and
a. Saturated Hydrocarbon one double bond
- Hydrocarbon where all carbon-carbon
bonds are single bonds.
- Simplest type of organic compounds

b. Unsaturated Hydrocarbon
- Hydrocarbon in which one or more C-
C multiple bonds are present.
3. Two other atoms: Two double bonds or a
Hydrocarbon Arrangements
single and triple bond
CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
CMLS
Lesson 3 / Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Halogenated Alkanes
03

Chapter 03: Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Halogenated Alkanes

OUTLINE

1. Alkanes
➢ Structural Formula
2. IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
3. Line-angle Structural Formula
4. Cycloalkanes STRUCTURAL FORMULAS
➢ IUPAC Nomenclature of
Cycloalkanes • Two-dimensional structural representation
5. Chemical Properties showing how the various atoms in a
6. Halogenated Alkanes molecule are bonded to each other.
➢ Nomenclature of Halogenated
Alkanes 1. Expanded Structural Formula
➢ Properties of Halogenated Alkanes - shows all atoms in a molecule and all
bonds connecting the atoms.

Alkanes

• A saturated hydrocarbon where the 2. Condensed Structural Formula

carbon atom arrangement is acyclic. - central atoms and atoms connected
to them are written as a group.
CnH2n + 2 - long chain of carbon atoms present is
n = number of carbon atoms present often condensed where a parenthesis
and a subscript are used to denote the
number of groups in the chain.
a. Continuous-chain Alkane
- Alkane where all carbon atoms are
connected in a continuous
nonbranching chain. 3. Skeletal Structural Formula
- Shows the arrangement and bonding
of carbon atoms without showing the
hydrogen atoms attached to it.

b. Branched-chain Alkane
- One or more branches are attached to
a continuous chain of carbon atoms.
CHEM 111
Lesson 3 / Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Halogenated Alkanes
Chapter 03: Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Halogenated Alkanes
4. Line-angle Structural Formula
- Line represents a C-C bond, and a
carbon atom is present at every point
and end of a line.
IUPAC Nomenclature for Alkanes
• International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry is a formulated systematic rule
for naming organic compounds, also
known as IUPAC rules.
• It assigns each compound a name that
identifies and enables one to draw its
structural formula.
IUPAC RULES FOR CONTINUOUS-CHAIN ALKANES
All alkane names end in -ane.
1. Starting from the five-carbon alkane,
Greek numerical prefixes are used to denote
the actual number atoms in the continuous
chain.
MIDTERMS
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03
IUPAC RULES FOR BRANCHED-CHAIN ALKANES
1. Name first the branch(es) attached to the
main carbon chain.
➢ Substituents – atom or group of
atoms attached to the parent chain.
➢ Alkyl Groups – substituents of
alkanes. These are group of atoms
obtained by removing a hydrogen
atom from an alkane. Two most
common alkyl groups are ethyl and
methyl. The suffix -yl is added to the
end of the stem name of the alkane.
2. Identify the parent chain which may
either be in a straight line or not, and
name with its corresponding alkane.
3. Start numbering the carbon atoms from
the end of the chain near a substituent.
Note! If both ends of the chain have
equivalent distance of substituents,
number from the end closest to the second
substituent.
CHEM 111
Lesson 3 / Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Halogenated Alkanes
Chapter
Chapter 03:02: Functional
Alkanes,
Cycloalkanes,
4. If only one alkyl group is present, name
and locate it by its number, and prefix the
number and name to the parent chain.
5. If two or more of the same kind of alkyl
group are present, indicate the number
with a Greek numeral prefix.
Note! A number specifying the location of
each identical alkyl group must be
included.
6. When two different kinds of alkyl groups
are present, number each group separately
and list the names in alphabetical order.
Note! If there are substituents equidistant
from each end but there is no third
substituent, begin numbering at the end
nearest to it whose name has alphabetical
priority.
MIDTERMS
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03
Groups, Isomerism,
and Alkanes
and Halogenated Alkanes
7. Follow the IUPAC punctuation rules.
a. Separate the numbers using commas.
b. Separate the numbers from the word
with a hyphen.
c. Do not add a hyphen or space between
the last-named substituent and the
name of the parent chain.
Cycloalkanes
• Saturated hydrocarbon in which the
carbon atoms are connected to one
another in a cyclic arrangement.
CnH2n
• Line-angle structural formulas are
generally used to represent cycloalkane
structures.
IUPAC RULES FOR CYCLOALKANES
1. The ring portion of a cycloalkane serves as
the name base, and the prefix cyclo- is used
to indicate the presence of the ring.
2. Alkyl substituents are named in the same
manner as in alkanes.
CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
CMLS
Lesson 3 / Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Halogenated Alkanes
03

Chapter 03: Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Halogenated Alkanes

3. Numbering conventions to locate the - The alkane is said to undergo

substituents.
a. If only one ring substituent is present,
it is not necessary to locate by
number.
b. For two ring substituents, the carbon
atoms are numbered starting with the
substituent of the higher alphabetical
priority, then proceed with a direction
giving the other substituent the lower
number.
c. In three or more ring substituents,
numbering begins at the substituent
leading to the lowest set of location
numbers.
fluorination, chlorination,
bromination, or iodination, depending
on the identity of the halogen
reactant.
Halogenated Alkanes and Cycloalkanes
Halogenated Alkane – alkane derivative in which
one or more halogen atoms are present.
Halogenated Cycloalkane – cycloalkane derivative
in which one or more halogen atoms are present.

IUPAC RULES OF HALOGENATED ALKANES

Chemical Properties of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 1. Halogen atoms are treated as substituents
are called fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, and
a. Combustion Reaction
iodo-.
- Chemical reaction between a
2. When a carbon chain bears both a halogen
substance and oxygen that proceeds
and alkyl substituent, these two are
with the evolution of heat and light.
considered of equal rank. The chain is
All alkanes and cycloalkanes are flammable.
numbered from the end closer to a
substituent.
➢ Products: 3. Alphabetical priority determines the order
complete combustion – carbon of listing.
dioxide and water
incomplete combustion – carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide
b. Halogenation
- Chemical reaction between a
substance and a halogen where one or
more halogen atoms are incorporated
into molecules of the substance.
- Substitution reaction: Hydrogen
atoms are replaced with halogen
atoms
- Requires the presence of heat or light
CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
CMLS
Lesson 3 / Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Halogenated Alkanes
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CHEM 111 MIDTERMS
CMLS
Lesson 3 / Alkanes, Cycloalkanes, and Halogenated Alkanes
03