Checklist:

Pressure
Fluid Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
Archimedes Principle
Measuring buoyancy
Density
How buoyancy changes with a change in fluid density.
Parts of A Plane
Forces Involved in Flight
Types of Flight -
Lighter than Air Flight using examples like hot air balloons, zeppelins, etc -
Heavier than Air Flight using examples gliders, kites, etc.
Bernoulli’s Principle
Bernoulli’s Equation
Types of Engines (Propulsion System)
Rotor blades Helicopter blades No Air Aircraft (Rocket)
Temperature
specific heat capacity
latent heat
Triple Point
Heat Energy transfer by conduction, Convection and Radiation
Energy transformations
Law of conservation of energy
Measuring temperature
Types of thermometers: In liquid:
alcohol
Mercury
Thermistor
thermocouple with their sensitivity
range
Newton's law of cooling
Formulas:
Change in temperature: Q=mc∆t
Change in the state: Q=Lm
𝑄
L= 𝑚
𝐹
Atmospheric pressure = 𝐴
Liquid pressure: p=⍴gv
𝐶 𝐹−32
C and F: 5
= 9
𝐹−32 𝐾−273
F and K: 9
= 5
K and C: 𝐶 = 𝐾 − 273
Q= (h)(A)(T(t) -Tenv)

Unit 4: Pressure and flight dynamics

Pressure:
Unit: Pa
Formula:
Pressure=Force/Area

- If force is constant pressure is inversely proportional to acceleration.

- Pressure is scalar quantity
2
- SI unit for pressure is Pa= 𝑁/𝑚
- in C.G.S system unit=bar
- 1 pa= 10^-5 bar

Atmospheric pressure:
𝐹
P= 𝐴
Pressure in atmosphere= force/surface area

Liquid pressure:
P=ρgh
Pressure in liquids= liquid density*gravity*height
Archimedes Principle:

Archimedes' principle is used in the design principle of ships and submarines. Hydrometers are
based on the principle of Archimedes.

Statement: Archimedes' principle states that an object submerged in a fluid, fully or partially,
experiences an upward buoyant force that is equal in magnitude to the force of gravity on the
displaced fluid.

Simple language:
The force exerted by the buoyant force = liquid dispersed

Buoyant force= weight of the fluid displaced

e0=density of the object
ef=density of fluid
e0>ef=sink
e0<ef=float
e0=ef=partially emerged

Experiment:

RQ: How does the weight of an object affect the amount of water displaced?
Hypothesis: If the weight of the object is increased, then the volume of displaced water
will also increase because they are directly proportional.

Variable:
IV: Weight of object
DV: Volume of displaced water
CV: Density and amount of water initially.

Procedure:
- Measure the weight of the object and record
- Fill water in the measuring cylinder and record the volume
- Immerse the object in the beaker and collect the displaced water
- Record the volume of the displaced water
- Record the volume of displaced water
- Repeat for all objects and compare the results.
Bernoulli’s Principle
The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational potential energy of
elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic energy of the fluid
motion, remains constant.

Density

Buoyancy
- The upward force exerted on objects submerged in fluids is the buoyant force.

Sometimes there's a difference between the top and bottom density of an object.
Ex: an apple in water.
Formula: p=ρgv
Formula:

(pressure in liquids)
- p=⍴gh
Pressure in liquids= liquid density*gravity*height

If we increase the density of the fluid in such a way that the

density of the object is still greater, then the buoyant force on
the object will increase.

Types of thermometers
Thermometers are heat sensitive. Materials inside a thermometer have a high melting point and
freezing point depending on the material.

An alcohol thermometer
is an alternative to the mercury-in-glass thermometer and has similar functions. Unlike mercury,
alcohol is less toxic and will evaporate away quickly if subjected to high temperatures.
Therefore, it is used to measure low temperatures.

Mercury thermometer:
Mercury thermometers can be used to determine body, liquid, and vapour temperature. Mercury
thermometers are used in households, laboratory experiments, and industrial applications
however cannot be used in cold areas.

Thermistor:
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is strongly dependent on temperature, more
so than in standard resistors. The word thermistor is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor.
Thermistors are divided based on their conduction model.

NTC thermistors have very large sensitivity at low temperatures because of their exponentially
nonlinear decrease in resistance. At high temperatures, however, their sensitivity drastically
decreases, which can introduce incorrect temperature readings when combined with a high
resistance tolerance.
Thermocouple:
A thermocouple, also known as a "thermoelectrical thermometer", is an electrical device
consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors forming an electrical junction.

The sensitivity of the thermocouple is from 2000 to 300 /spl mu/V/K and does not change for a
long time. Special protection on the base of the ultrathin polymer layer permits use of the
thermocouple in an aggressive atmosphere.

Vehicles
Lighter than air vehicles

Hot air balloons:

- Made of silk- light material
- Basket is made of cane
- Hot air is less dense compared to the cold air/ surrounding air. This makes it rise
- Particles in hot air move apart, increasing the volume and decreasing the density.
Zeppelin:
- Hydrogen is a gas lighter than general air which when used in a zeppelin, it can make
the balloon float.

Heavier than air aircraft

Rotor aircraft:
- A rotor is an aerofoil that rotates
- The spinning causes the pressure to decrease.
- The pressure in front of the rotor is lower than the back- providing thrust
- Athe thrust moves the aircraft.
Kite:
Lift is the upward force that pushes a kite into the air. Lift is generated by differences in air
pressure, which are created by air in motion over the body of the kite. Kites are shaped and
angled so that the air moving over the top moves faster than the air moving over the bottom.
Aeroplane
Parts:

4 forces involved in flight:

● Gravity
● Thrust
● Lift
● Drag
 - Lift upward acting force
- Gravity: downward acting force
- Thrust: forward acting force
- Drag: and backward acting force

● Lift opposes gravity and thrust opposes drag.

● Airplane engine and propeller combination is designed to produce thrust to overcome
drag.
● The wings are designed to produce lift and overcome gravity
● Drag and gravity act on anything that is lifted from the earth and moves through the air.
● Thrust and lift are artificial forces used to overcome the forces used by forces of nature
and enable the airplane to fly.

Propulsion systems
The engines used to provide thrust may be of several types.

Reciprocating engines
Often an internal-combustion piston engine is used, especially for smaller planes. They are of
various types, based on the arrangement of the cylinders. Horizontally opposed engines employ
four to six cylinders lying flat and arrayed two or three on each side. In a radial engine the
cylinders (ranging from 5 to as many as 28, depending on engine size) are mounted in a circle
around the crankshaft, sometimes in banks of two or more. Once the dominant piston-engine
type, radials are now in only limited production; most new requirements are met by
remanufacturing existing stock.

Four to eight cylinders may be aligned one behind the other in an in-line engine; the cylinders
may be upright or inverted, the inverted having the crankshaft above the cylinders. V-type in-line
engines, with cylinders arranged in banks of three, four, or six, also are used.

An early type of engine in which the propeller is affixed to the body of the cylinders, which rotate
around a stationary crankshaft, is the rotary engine. Modern rotary engines are patterned after
the Wankel principle of internal-combustion engines.

Automobile and other small engines are modified for use in homebuilt and ultralight aircraft.
These include two-stroke, rotary, and small versions of the conventional horizontally opposed
type.

Early in aviation history, most aircraft engines were liquid-cooled, first by water, then by a
mixture of water and ethylene glycol, the air-cooled rotaries being an exception. After Charles
Lindbergh’s epic transatlantic flight in 1927, a trend began toward radial air-cooled engines for
reasons of reliability, simplicity, and weight reduction, especially after streamlined cowlings
(covers surrounding aircraft engines) were developed to smooth out air flow and aid cooling.
Designers continued to use liquid-cooled engines when low frontal drag was an important
consideration. Because of advances in engine cooling technology, there has emerged a minor
trend to return to liquid-cooled engines for higher efficiency.

Jet engines
The gas turbine engine has almost completely replaced the reciprocating engine for aircraft
propulsion. Jet engines derive thrust by ejecting the products of combustion in a jet at high
speed. A turbine engine that passes all the air through the combustion chamber is called
a turbojet. Because its basic design employs rotating rather than reciprocating parts, a turbojet
is far simpler than a reciprocating engine of equivalent power, weighs less, is more reliable,
requires less maintenance, and has a far greater potential for generating power. It consumes
fuel at a faster rate, but the fuel is less expensive. In simplest terms, a jet engine ingests air,
heats it, and ejects it at high speed. Thus in a turbojet, ambient air is taken in at the engine inlet
(induction), compressed about 10 to 15 times in a compressor consisting of rotor and stator
blades (compression), and introduced into a combustion chamber where igniters ignite the
injected fuel (combustion). The resulting combustion produces high temperatures (on the order
of 1,400 to 1,900 °F [760 to 1,040 °C]). The expanding hot gases pass through a multistage
turbine, which turns the air compressor through a coaxial shaft, and then into a discharge
nozzle, thereby producing thrust from the high-velocity stream of gases being ejected to the rear
(exhaust).

turbofan
A turbofan is a turbine engine having a large low-pressure fan ahead of the compressor section;
the low-pressure air is allowed to bypass the compressor and turbine, to mix with the jet stream,
increasing the mass of accelerated air. This system of moving large volumes of air at a slower
speed raises efficiency and cuts both fuel consumption and noise.

turboprop engine driving a single rotation propeller

A turboprop is a turbine engine connected by a reduction gearbox to a propeller. Turboprop
engines are typically smaller and lighter than a piston engine, produce more power, and burn
more but cheaper fuel.

Propfans, unducted fan jet engines, obtain ultrahigh bypass airflow using wide chord propellers
driven by the jet engine. Rockets are purely reactive engines, which usually use a fuel and an
oxidizing agent in combination. They are used primarily for research aircraft and as launch
vehicles for spacecraft and satellites.
ramjet
A ramjet is an air-breathing engine that, after being accelerated to high speeds, acts like a
turbojet without the need for a compressor or turbine. A scramjet (supersonic combustion
ramjet) is an engine designed for speeds beyond Mach 6, which mixes fuel into air flowing
through it at supersonic speeds; it is intended for hypersonic aircraft.

Unit 5: Heat
Heat is a form of energy in transit, which always flows from a warmer body to a cooler body.

Conversations:
𝐶
Celsius = 100
𝐹−32
Fahrenheit = 180
𝐾−273
Kelvin = 100

(optional)
𝐶 𝐹−32
C and F: 5
= 9
𝐹−32 𝐾−273
F and K: 9
= 5
K and C: 𝐶 = 𝐾 − 273

Newton’s law of cooling:

Law:
Newton's law of cooling explains the rate of cooling of a body. The rate at which an object cools
down is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the object and its
surroundings.

The rate of loss of heat from a body is directly proportional to the difference in the temperature
of the body and its surroundings.
The rate of cooling is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the body and
the surroundings.

Formula:
Q= (h)(A)(T(t) -Tenv)
Q = rate of heat transfer out of the body
h = heat transfer coefficient
A = heat transfer surface area
T = temperature of the object's surface
Tenv = temperature of the environment
T(t) = time-dependent temperature

Specific Heat Capacity:

Quantity of heat ∝ mass of object
● Q∝∆t
● Q=mc∆t
The quality of heat received by a body is directly proportional to its mass q ∝ m
The quantity of heat is directly proportional to the rose in temperature q ∝ m∆t
∆t: change in temperature
Q: heat
m: mass
c: specific heat capacity

Definition:
Specific heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg
of a substance through 1ºC.

𝑄
Formula: 𝑐 = 𝑚∆𝑡
Unit: J/kgK or cal/gºC
1 calorie = 4.2J

Graphs:
∆t vs Q:
c&m stay constant
∆𝑡 1
Gradient = 𝑄
= 𝑚𝑐
From: 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑡
∆𝑡 1
𝑄
= 𝑚𝑐
∆t vs m:
Q&c stay constant
𝑄 1
Gradient: ∆𝑡 𝑚𝑐
inverse relationship T∝ 𝑚

Thermal Inertia:
Thermal inertia is the property of a material that expresses the degree of slowness with which its
temperature reaches that of the environment.

Example of HIGH specific heat capacity: water and plastic (can hold heat)
Example of LOW specific heat capacity: oil and copper (can’t hold heat)
Phase Change:
Example: water
● When particles separate they mainly have KE but also a bit of PE
○ Solid has KE and PE
○ Liquid has KE and PE
○ Gas has higher KE than PE
● Internal energy
○ The sum of KE and PE of molecules in a state of matter when heat is supplied

While transitioning, the temperature doesn't increase. This is called “latent heat”.

Phase change in water:

Latent heat of Fusion:

● Water exists in a solid state below 0ºC in which molecular attraction is very high
● As we increase the temperature by supplying heat, at 0ºC, it exists in both solid & liquid
states of equilibrium
● At 0ºC, the heat energy supplied is used up in breaking the bonds between molecules.
At this stage, the temperature doesn't increase. The heat energy is known as latent heat
of fusion
● Latent heat of fusion: the amount of heat energy required to convert 1kg of mass of ice
to liquid
𝑄
● L= 𝑚
● (optional) Lf of ice = 334000 J/kg OR 334 J/g
Melting point:
The constant temperature at which a substance changes from solid state to liquid state
For water, it’s 0ºC

Latent heat of Vapourization:

● The amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of liquid into vapor/gas is latent heat of
vapourization
● LV of water = 2.25 x 106 J/kg

Gas Laws:
The physical quantities of gas are:
● Mass
● Volume
● Pressure
● Temperature
For a fixed mass of gas; pressure, volume, and temperature can be related using the gas laws

Boyle’s Law:
States that the pressure of a fixed temperature of a gas inversely proportional to its volume
1
P∝ 𝑣

Charles's Law:
States that the volume of a gas enclosed is directly proportional to its temperature at a given
pressure
V∝T

Gay-Lussac’s Law:
States that the pressure of a given amount of gas at a constant volume is directly proportional to
absolute temperature
P∝T

Avagadro’s Law:
States that at constant temperature & pressure, the volume of all gasses constitutes to an equal
number of molecules. The number of molecules in a mole of any gas is Avagadro’s constant:
NA = 6.623 x 1023

Triple point:
It is a point where all the three states of matter, solid, liquid and vapour co-exist in the same
temperature and pressure.

273.15k and 0.46mm of mercury(Hg)

Melting point:
Point where solids and liquids co-exist together
Boiling point:
Liquid and vapour co-exist together.
Sublimation:
Solid and vapour co-exist together.

Heat transfer:
https://youtu.be/HpCvWuvCUoA
https://byjus.com/physics/heat-transfer-conduction-convection-and-radiation/#what-is-conductio
n

Conduction: The process of transmission of energy from one particle of the medium to another
with the particles being in direct contact with each other.
Ironing of clothes is an example of conduction where the heat is conducted from the iron
to the clothes

Convection: The movement of fluid molecules from higher temperature regions to lower
temperature regions.
In boiling of water, that is molecules that are denser move at the bottom while the
molecules which are less dense move upwards resulting in the circular motion of the
molecules so that water gets heated
 Radiation: Energy that comes from a source and travels through space at the speed of
light. This energy has an electric field and a magnetic field associated with it, and has wave-like
properties. Microwave radiation emitted in the oven is an example of radiation.

Law of conservation of energy:

The amount of energy is neither created nor destroyed. For example, when you roll a toy car
down a ramp and it hits a wall, the energy is transferred from kinetic energy to potential energy.