AMTE113 - Theory of Flight

Theory of Flight
PATTS COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

Introduction
Flight is a phenomenon that has long been a part of the natural
world. Birds fly not only by flapping their wings, but by gliding
with their wings outstretched for long distances. Smoke, which is
composed of tiny particles, can rise thousands of feet into the air.
Both these types of flight are possible because of the principles
of physical science. Likewise, man-made aircraft rely on these
principles to overcome the force of gravity and achieve flight.
Difference between Aircraft and Airplane
What do you think is the difference between an AIRCRAFT from an
AIRPLANE?
Major Components of an Aircraft (Fixed-
Wing)
Fuselage
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the aircraft and carries the
aircraft payload i.e. the passengers and/or freight as well as the flight
crew and cabin staff in safe, comfortable conditions.
Types of Fuselage
1. Truss-Type
The framework consists of light gauge steel tubes welded together to form a
space frame of triangular shape to give the most rigid of geometric forms
with each tube carrying a specific load the magnitude of which depends on
whether the aircraft is airborne or on the ground.
Types of Fuselage
Truss-Type
Types of Fuselage
Types of Fuselage
2. Monocoque Construction
In a monocoque structure all the loads are taken by the skin with just
light internal frames or formers to give the required shape. Even slight
damage to the skin can seriously weaken the structure.
Types of Fuselage
Monocoque Construction
Types of Fuselage
3. Semi-Monocoque Construction
As aircraft became larger and the air loads greater the pure monocoque
structure was not strong enough and additional structural members
known as stringers (stiffeners) and longerons were added to run
lengthwise along the fuselage joining the frames together. The light
alloy skin is then attached to the frames and stringers by riveting or
adhesive bonding. Stringers stiffen the skin and assist the sheet
materials to carry loads along their length.
Types of Fueslage
Semi-Monocoque Construction
Powerplant/Engine
In simple terms, an aircraft power plant is an engine. It is made up of many
components, such as cylinders, pistons, and fans, which help produce the
energy needed to propel an aircraft. The power plant may be a jet engine
or a combination of propellers and an engine. Additionally, there are
numerous types of engines for a variety of aircraft, such as helicopters or
commercial jets. Jet engines are typically one of the more common types
of aircraft power plant.
Types of Powerplant/Engine
1. Piston-Type Engine
Piston airplanes have one or more piston-powered engines connected

to the propeller(s), which provide thrust to move the aircraft on the
ground and through the air. Piston-powered aircraft most commonly
use 100 octane low-leaded fuel and fly at altitudes below 15,000 feet.
Piston-Type Engine
2. Gas Turbine Engines
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous

and internal combustion engine. The main elements common to all gas
turbine engines are: an upstream rotating gas compressor a combustor a
downstream turbine on the same shaft as the compressor.
Empennage
The empennage, also known as the tail or tail assembly, is a structure at
the rear of an aircraft that provides stability during flight, in a way similar
to the feathers on an arrow. The term derives from the French language
word empenner which means "to feather an arrow".
Types of Tail Designs
Wings
The wings support the weight of the aircraft in the air and so must have
sufficient strength and stiffness to be able to do this. The strength and
stiffness are determined by the thickness of the wing, with the thickness
and type of construction used being dependent on the speed
requirements of the aircraft.
Types of Wing Attachment Points and
Configuration
Types of Wing Planform
Landing Gear
Aircraft landing gear supports the entire weight of an aircraft during
landing and ground operations. They are attached to primary structural
members of the aircraft. The type of gear depends on the aircraft design
and its intended use. Most landing gear have wheels to facilitate operation
to and from hard surfaces, such as airport runways.
Types of Landing Gear
1. Tricycle-Type
2. Conventional
3. Pontoons/Floats
4. Skis
Axes acting on an Aircraft
Aircraft Movements
Flight Controls
Aerodynamics
⮚ Aerodynamics is derived from the Greek word “AERO” means
AIR and “Dynamis” which means POWER.
⮚ Aerodynamics also defined as “the branch of science which

treats of the motion of air and other gaseous fluids and forces
acting in motion relative to such fluids.”
Physical Properties of Air
⮚ AIR is a mixture of several gases.
⮚ AIR has mass, weight, and indefinite shape.
⮚ Air, like any fluid, is able to flow and change its shape
when subjected to even minute pressures because of
the lack of strong molecular cohesion.
⮚ The earth’s atmosphere is composed of:
○ 78% NITROGEN
○ 21% OXYGEN
○ 1% OTHER GASES, such as argon or helium.

The Atmosphere
⮚ The atmosphere is the whole mass of air extending upward
for hundreds of miles.
⮚ It may be compared with a pile of blankets.
⮚ Air in the higher altitudes like top blanket of the pile, it

under less pressure than the air in the lower altitudes.
The Atmosphere
Air
⮚ Air has weight and it can be weighed.
⮚ Air has molecules which are separated from one another

the reason why we cannot see it with our eyes.
⮚ Air have different characteristics such as pressure, density,

temperature, humidity, and viscosity.
Pressure
⮚ Pressure may be defined as FORCE acting upon a unit AREA.
⮚ For example, if a force of 5lb is acting against an area of 1 square in.,

we say that there is a pressure of 5 pounds per square inch (psi).
⮚ We can conclude that as the atmosphere which contains air goes

nearer the earth surface, the pull of gravity presses that molecules
of air going down creating more mass than at the higher altitude.
Pressure
⮚ Standard Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level (SL) is
equivalent to:
▪ 29.92 inches of mercury
▪ 14.7 pounds per square inch
▪ 1013.2 millibars
▪ 101325 pascal
Pressure
Pressure
Temperature
⮚ Temperature is defined as the Hotness or Coldness measured on a
different scale.
⮚ Temperature is the amount of agitation of kinetic energy of the molecules.
Temperature can be measure by the following:

○ Celsius Scale
○ Fahrenheit Scale
○ Kelvin Scale
○ Rankine Scale
Temperature
Temperature
International Standard Atmospheric Condition (ISAC)
Standard atmospheric conditions are based on a sea level temperature

of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit).
Standard Temperature Lapse Rate
Under standard conditions, temperature decreases at approximately

1.98 degrees Celsius for each 1,000 feet of altitude until reaching up to
38,000 feet. Above this altitude the temperature remains at approx. – 57
degrees Celsius.
Temperature
Density
⮚ Density may defined as the MASS per unit VOLUME. Thus, it is
a measurement that compares the AMOUNT of MATTER an
object has to its VOLUME.
⮚ For example, An object with MUCH MATTER (molecules) in a

certain volume has HIGH DENSITY. An object with LITTLE
MATTER (molecules) in a certain volume has LESS DENSITY.
Density
⮚ We can conclude that the content of molecules of air as
altitude goes higher can result to LESS DENSITY (thinner) than
at lower altitude which is HIGH DENSITY (thicker).
⮚ Density is also in relation to Pressure and Temperature in

certain Altitude.
Density
Density
⮚ In a HIGH ALTITUDE, the molecules of Air are LESS DENSE
which can result to GREATER SPEED and DISTANCE with
certain AMOUNT of Power.
⮚ In a LOW ALTITUDE, the molecules of Air are MUCH DENSE

which can result to LESS SPEED and DISTANCE with certain
AMOUNT of Power.
Density Altitude
Density Altitude is the altitude relative to the standard atmospheric conditions at
which the air DENSITY would be equal to the INDICATED air density at the place of
observation. The DENSITY ALTITUDE is the air density given as a height above mean sea
level.
When the conditions are standard: PRESSURE ALTITUDE = DENSITY ALTITUDE
If the TEMPERATURE is ABOVE STANDARD: PRESSURE ALTITUDE < DENSITY ALTITUDE
If the TEMPERATURE is BELOW STANDARD: PRESSURE ALTITUDE > DENSITY ALTITUDE

Density Altitude
Factors Affecting Density
⮚ The water content of the air has a SLIGHT EFFECT on the
DENSITY of the Air.
⮚ It should remember that HUMID AIR at a given TEMPERATURE

and PRESSURE is LIGHTER than DRY AIR at the same
TEMPERATURE and PRESSURE.
Humidity
⮚ Humidity is a condition of MOISTURE or DAMPNESS.
⮚ The maximum AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOR that the air can hold
depending on the temperature.
Humidity
Humidity
⮚ Flying an airplane in DRY DAY where the air vapor is less is
more advantageous than flying at HUMID DAY.
⮚ The reason is that the water vapor in the air gives additional
weight thus giving longer time for the aircraft to take off.
Humidity
Absolute Humidity
⮚ ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY refers to the ACTUAL AMOUNT OF
WATER VAPOR in a mixture of air and water.
⮚ The AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOR the air can hold VARIES with
AIR TEMPERATURE.
⮚ The HIGHER the air temperature the MORE water vapor the
air can HOLD.
Absolute Humidity
Relative Humidity
⮚ RELATIVE HUMIDITY is the RATIO between the amount of moisture in the
air to the RELATIVE HUMIDITY is the RATIO between the amount of
moisture in the air to the amount that would be present if the air is
SATURATED.
⮚ For example, a relative humidity of 95% that the air is holding 95 percent
of total water vapor it is capable of holding.
⮚ This means that in HIGH HUMIDITY conditions the density of the air is
LESS than of the DRY air.
Relative Humidity
Dew Point
⮚ It is the temperature at which air REACHES a state where it CAN
HOLD NO MORE water.
⮚ When the dew point is reached, the air contains 100 percent of the
moisture it can hold at that temperature, and is said to be
SATURATED.
Dew Point
Viscosity
⮚ It is the state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency, due
to internal friction.
⮚ Viscosity is a measure of fluid’s resistance to flow. It describes the

internal friction of a moving fluid.
⮚ If the TEMPERATURE of AIR is HIGHER, the VISCOSITY is GREATER

than the air at LOW TEMPERATURE.
Viscosity
Air Current
⮚ Air current are movements of the air with respect to the earth.
⮚ If Air is RISING from the earth, it is called a VERTICAL CURRENT or
THERMAL.
⮚ THERMAL CURRENTS (also called convection currents, air pockets,
and air bumps) are often occur over sandy beaches and freshly
plowed fields, in desert areas, and in other places where the air is
unstable.
Air Current
Relative Motion
⮚ Relative motion is the relationship of two entities (object) as
it moves.
⮚ Therefore, if the airplane is flying the relative motion is
between the airplane itself and the air in order for it to fly.
Relative Motion
Newton’s First Law of Motion - Law of
Inertia
⮚ States that the body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will remain
moving at the same speed and in the same direction unless another force will tend
to disturb it.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
⮚ States that when the body is acted upon by a
constant force, its resulting acceleration is
inversely proportional to the mass of the
body and is directly proportional to the
applied force.
⮚ This means that the force is the product of
the mass of any object that acts against the
pull of earth’s gravity. (F = ma)
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
⮚ States that one body exerts a force on another, the second body always exerts on
the first, a force that is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
⮚ If there’s an ACTION, there is Always EQUAL and OPPOSITE REACTION.

Bernoulli’s Principle (Pressure, Velocity, Temperature
Differential)
⮚ Half a century after Sir Newton
presented his laws, Mr. Daniel Bernoulli,
a Swiss Mathematician, explained how
the pressure of a moving fluid (liquid or
gas) varies with its speed of motion.
⮚ It is stated that an INCREASE in the SPEED

of movement or flow would cause a
DECREASE in the fluid’s PRESSURE.
Bernoulli’s Principle
⮚ “As the PRESSURE INCREASES, the TEMPERATURE INCREASES and the VELOCITY
DECREASES .”
⮚ Applying the principle to the airplane’s wing, it will result to . . .
Effects using Aerodynamic Principles
⮚ Different types of Effects can be the result when Aerodynamic Principles is applied
these are:
○ Coanda Effect
○ Magnus Effect
○ Coriolis Effect
Coanda Effect
⮚ Coanda Effect is the phenomena in which a jet flow ATTACHES itself to a nearby
SURFACE and REMAINS attached even when the surface curves away from the initial
jet direction.
Coanda Effect
⮚ Applying this effect to the wing of the aircraft the result will be . . .
Magnus Effect
⮚ Magnus Effect is an observable phenomenon in which FORCE is exerted on a rapidly
SPINNING cylinder or sphere moving through air or another fluid in a direction at an
angle to axis of spin.
⮚ The air that passes to the object tends to drag around one side, creating a difference
in pressure that moves it in the direction of the lower pressure side.
Magnus Effect
Magnus Effect
Magnus Effect
⮚ Mostly bullets, rockets, rotor aircraft, wind mills, turbines are susceptible to
encounter Magnus Effect.
Coriolis Effect
⮚ Coriolis Effect is the apparent deflection of the objects (airplanes, wind, missiles,
and ocean currents) moving in a straight path relative to the earth’s surface.
⮚ This means that from the object in the air such as an airplane, the earth can be seen
rotating slowly below it that also tends to make the airplane curve off of its course.
Coriolis Effect
Four Forces of Flight
Four Forces of Flight
Lift – is the upward force created by the effect of airflow as it passes
over and under the wing. It Also support the airplane in flight.
Weight – which opposes lift, is caused by the downward pull of gravity.
Thrust – is the forward force which propels the airplane through the air.
It varies with the amount of engine power being used.
Drag – Opposing thrust. Which is a backward or retarding, force which

limits the speed of the airplane.
Types of Drag
1. Parasite Drag
A. Skin Friction Drag
B. Form Drag
C. Interference Drag
Types of Drag
1. Parasite Drag
It is the drag that is not associated with the production of lift. This
includes the displacement of the air by the aircraft, turbulence
generated in the airstream.
Types of Parasite Drag
A. Form Drag
It is the result of an object's general shape in relation to the relative wind.

B. Skin Friction Drag
It is the result of the aircraft's surface being rough. Olympic swimmers wear
swim caps on their heads, so hair doesn't create extra drag and they can
swim faster through the water. This same principle can be applied to most
aircraft, where a smooth skin reduces skin friction drag, improving
performance and fuel efficiency.
C. Interference Drag
It is generated by the mixing of airflow streamlines between airframe

components such as the wing and the fuselage or the landing gear strut and
the fuselage. As air flows around different aircraft components and mixes, a
localized shock wave is formed, creating a drag sum greater than the drag
that components would have by themselves. comes from the intersection of
airstreams that creates eddy currents, turbulence, or restricts smooth flow.
Types of Drag
2. Induced Drag
It is an inevitable consequence of lift and is produced by the passage of an

aerofoil (e.g. wing or tailplane) through the air. Air flowing over the top of a
wing tends to flow inwards because the decreased pressure over the top
surface is less than the pressure outside the wing tip.
Types of Drag
Airfoil
An airfoil is any structure or surface, such as wing , which provides
aerodynamic force when it interacts with a moving stream of air. Also a
surface designed to obtain a useful reaction from air passing over it.
Parts of an Airfoil
Parts of an Airfoil
1. Leading edge – Part of the airfoil meeting the airflow first
2. Trailing edge – Part of the airfoil where the airflow over the upper surface rejoining the lower surface
airflow.
3. Chord line – imaginary straight line drawn through an airfoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
4. Camber – Characteristic curve of its upper and lower surface.
5. Mean Camber Line – A line drawn that is drawn midway between the upper and lower camber of an airfoil
section.
Types of Airfoil
Symmetrical
An airfoil in which the airfoil has the same shape of both sides of its
center line. The center of pressure of a symmetrical airfoil has a very
small change in the location of its center of pressure as its angle of
attacks changes.
Types of Airfoil
Unsymmetrical/Asymmetrical
An airfoil in which upper and lower camber has different in shape. The
upper camber is more pronounce, while lower camber is comparatively
flat. This causes the velocity of the airfoil immediately above the wing to
be much higher than that below the wing.
Types of Airfoil
Inverted
It is where some points of the lower camber reach to the upper portion
of the chord line. Mostly used in the propeller and rotorcraft.
National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics
The NACA airfoils are(NACA)
airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics(NACA). The shape of the
NACA airfoils is described using a series of digits following the word
"NACA". The parameters in the numerical code can be entered into
equations to precisely generate the cross-section of the airfoil and
calculate its properties.
NACA Airfoil
NACA Four-Digit Series
First Digit - specifies maximum

camber in percentage of chord.
Second Digit - indicates position of

maximum camber in tenths of chord.
Last Two Digits - provide maximum

thickness of airfoil in percentage of
chord
NACA Airfoil
For example, the NACA 2415 airfoil has a maximum camber of 4%
located 20% (0.2 chords) from the leading edge with a maximum
thickness of 15% of the chord.
NACA Airfoil
The NACA 0015 airfoil is symmetrical, the 00 indicating that it has no
camber. The 15 indicates that the airfoil has a 15% thickness to chord
length ratio: it is 15% as thick as it is long.
Angle of Incidence
The angle of incidence is the acute angle between the longitudinal axis
of the airplane and the chord line of the wing.
Wing Twist or Washout
The terms 'wing twist' and 'washout' refer to wings designed so that the
outboard sections have a lower incidence, 3–4° or so, and thus lower
AOA than the inboard sections in all flight conditions.
Other Factors to consider in an Airfoil
Relative Wind
Whatever direction the airplane is flying, the relative wind is in the

opposite direction. If the airplane is flying due north, and someone in
the airplane is not shielded from the elements, that person will feel like
the wind is coming directly from the south.
Angle of Attack
The angle between the chord line and the relative wind is the angle of
attack. As the angle of attack increases, the lift on the wing increases. If
the angle of attack becomes too great, the airflow can separate from the
wing and the lift will be destroyed. When this occurs, a condition known
as a stall takes place.
Boundary Layer Airflow
The boundary layer is a very thin layer of air lying over the surface of the
wing and, for that matter, all other surfaces of the airplane.
The factors that affect the boundary layer is air viscosity (characteristic
of a fluid to attach itself to an object.) and air flow streamline in which
the air follows the shape of an object.
Types of Boundary Layer Airflow
1. Laminar Layer Airflow means that the smooth flow of air is following
the shape of the wing thus creating pressure due to the attachment of
the air molecules on the wing .
2. Turbulent Layer Airflow means that the airflow begins to lose speed
due to skin friction and it becomes thicker and turbulent.
3. Transition Point is the area at which the boundary layer changes from
laminar to turbulent.
Types of Boundary Layer Airflow
Boundary Layer
When the boundary layer becomes turbulent, drag due to skin friction is
relatively high. As speed increases, the transition point tends to move
forward. As the angle of attack increases, the transition point also tends
to move forward. With higher angles of attack and further thickening of
the boundary layer, the turbulence becomes so great the air breaks
away from the surface of the wing.
Boundary Layer
At this point, the lift of the wing is destroyed and a condition known as a
stall has occurred. In Figure below, view A shows a normal angle of
attack and the airflow staying in contact with the wing. View B shows an
extreme angle of attack and the airflow separating and becoming
turbulent on the top of the wing. In view B, the wing is in a stall.
Center of Pressure (CP)
It is the point at which the chord of an airfoil section intersects in the

line of action of the resultant aerodynamic forces and about which the
pressure balances. The CP moves when the Angle of Attack (AOA)
changes.
Aerodynamic Center
It is defined as a point in a cross section of the airfoil about which the

pitching moment remains practically constant with nearly all changes in
the angle of attack.
Types of Airspeeds
Indicated Air Speed (IAS)
Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)
Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)
Rectified Air Speed (RAS)
True Air Speed (TAS)
Ground Speed (G/S)

Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
The reading on the Airspeed Indicator is the Indicated Airspeed.
The Airspeed Indicator converts the dynamic pressure of the relative air flow
sensed by the pitot static system to velocity in knots.
Calibrated Airspeed
“CAS is IAS corrected for instrument and position error”.
Pressure error corrections can be obtained from the Aircraft Flight Manual.
CAS was once termed Rectified Air Speed (RAS) and this term may well be
discovered in old texts and etched on the circular slide rules of some
navigational computers.
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)
“EAS is CAS corrected for compressibility error”.
Below 200 Knots compressibility is very small and may be discounted.
Note:
Knots is a unit of speed equivalent to one nautical mile per hour. Where 1
nm is equivalent to 1852 meters.
True Airspeed (TAS)
“TAS is EAS corrected for Density Error”.
Almost all ASIs are calibrated so that the EAS equals TAS at ISA MSL
density.
Ground Speed
Ground Speed is TAS corrected for wind
Mach Number
The Mach number is the ratio of flow velocity after a certain limit of the
sounds speed. In simple words, it is the ratio of the speed of a body to the
speed of sound in the surrounding medium.
Since the previous equation shows that the speed of sound is only a function of
temperature, we can see that the higher in altitude an aircraft travels, the lower
the speed of sound. Because the aircraft’s speed in relation to the speed of
sound is so important in high-speed flight, airspeeds are usually measured as
Mach number (named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach). Mach number is
the aircraft’s true airspeed divided by the speed of sound.
Aircraft/Spacecraft Speed Ranges
Subsonic: Mach is below 0.8.
Transonic: Mach value is between 0.8-1.2.
Supersonic: Mach levels are between 1.2 and 5.0.
Hypersonic: Mach values are between 5.0 and 10.0.
High-Hypersonic: Mach levels are between 10.0 -25.0.
Re-entry speeds: Mach speed is above 25.0.
Classification of Mach Regimes
Shock Wave
Shock Wave is a type of propagating disturbance that moves faster than
the local speed of sound in the medium. Shock waves are formed when a
pressure front moves at supersonic speeds and pushes on the
surrounding air. At the region where this occurs, sound waves travelling
against the flow reach a point where they cannot travel any further
upstream and the pressure progressively builds in that region; a high
pressure shock wave rapidly forms.
Shock Wave
Shock Wave
Speed of Sound
The speed of sound varies with temperature. Under standard temperature
conditions of 15 °C, the speed of sound at sea level is 661 knots. At 40,000
feet, where the temperature is –55 °C, the speed of sound decreases to 574
knots.
In high-speed flight and/or high-altitude flight, the measurement of speed is

expressed in terms of a “Mach number”—the ratio of the true airspeed of the
aircraft to the speed of sound in the same atmospheric conditions.
An aircraft traveling at the speed of sound is traveling at Mach 1.0.

Normal Shock Wave
If the shock wave is perpendicular to the flow direction it is called a normal
shock. Shock waves are generated which are very small regions in the gas
where the gas properties change by a large amount. Across a shock wave,
the static pressure, temperature, and gas density increases almost
instantaneously.
Normal Shock Wave
Oblique Shock Wave
When a shock wave is inclined to the flow direction it is called an oblique
shock. Oblique shocks are generated by the nose and by the leading edge
of the wing and tail of a supersonic aircraft. Oblique shocks are also
generated at the trailing edges of the aircraft as the flow is brought back to
free stream conditions.
Oblique Shock Wave
Expansion Wave
The third kind of wave that occurs in supersonic flow is the expansion wave.
Unlike the normal and oblique shock waves, the expansion wave is not a shock
wave. In fact, the expansion wave is just the opposite of a compression wave.
Density, pressure, and temperature all decrease as the air flows through an
expansion wave. Air velocity increases through this wave and no energy is lost.
Expansion Wave
Wings
Aircraft wings are airfoils that create lift when moved rapidly through the air.
Aircraft designers have created a variety of wings with different
aerodynamic properties. Attached to the body of an aircraft at different
angles, these wings come in different shapes.
Wing Bending Test
Wing External Structure
Aircrafts wings are often of complete cantilever design. What this means is
that they are built in such a way that they don’t require any external bracing.
They are internally supported by structural members and the aircraft’s skin.
Wing External Structure
Wings External Structure
In some aircraft wings, external wires or struts are used to support the wing
and carry the landing and aerodynamic loads. Wing support struts and
cables are mostly made from steel.
Short, almost vertical supports referred to as jury struts are often found on
struts that are attached to the aircraft wings at a significant distance from
the plane’s fuselage. They subdue strut oscillation and movement caused
by the air that flows around the strut during flight.
Wings External Structure
Wings Internal Structure
The internal structures of aircrafts wings are usually made of stringers and
spars running spanwise and formers or bulkheads and ribs running
chordwise – leading edge to trailing edge.
Spars are important structural members of an aircraft wings. The spar

carries flight loads and the weight of the wings while on the ground.
The skin carries part of the load imposed during flight. It is also responsible
for transferring the stress to wing ribs.
Wings Internal Structure
Types of Aircraft Wings
1. Rectangular Wing
The rectangular wing is the simplest to manufacture. It is a non-tapered,

straight wing that is mostly used in small aircrafts. This wing extends out
from the aircraft’s fuselage at right angles
Piper PA-38
2. Elliptical Wing
The elliptical wing is aerodynamically most efficient because

elliptical spanwise lift distribution induces the lowest possible drag.
However, the manufacturability of this aircraft wing is poor.
Supermarine Spitfire
3. Tapered Wing
The tapered wing was designed by modifying the rectangular wing. The
chord of the wing is varied across the span for approximate elliptical lift
distribution.
North American Aviation P-51 Mustang

4. Delta Wing
This low aspect ratio wing is used in supersonic aircrafts. The main
advantage of a delta wing is that it is efficient in all regimes (supersonic,
subsonic, and transonic). Moreover, this type of wing offers a large area for
the shape thereby improving maneuverability and reducing wing loading.
Dassault Mirage 2000

5. Trapezoidal Wings
The trapezoidal wing design offers outstanding flight performance.
This configuration offers highly efficient supersonic flights and has good
stealth characteristics. The only problem is that the wing loading is high
which results in reduced maneuverability.
Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor

6. Ogive Wings
The ogive wing design is used in very high-speed aircrafts. The complex
mathematical shape of this aircraft wing is derived to minimize drag at
supersonic speeds. Ogive wings offer excellent performance at supersonic
speeds with minimal drag.
Aerospatiale BAC Concorde

7. Swept-Back Wings
The aircraft wings whose leading edges are swept back are called swept
back wings. Swept back wings reduce drag when an aircraft is flying at
transonic speeds. The majority of high-speed commercial aircrafts use
swept back wings.
Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner

8. Forward-Swept Wings
The aircraft wings whose leading edges are swept forward are called swept
forward wings. One disadvantage of this type of configuration is that
because of the flow characteristics of the wings, the outboard wings stall
before the flaps. This can cause controllability issues.
Sukhoi SU-47 Berkut

9. Variable Sweep Wings
Swept wings are mostly suitable for high speeds, like supersonic and
transonic, while unswept wings work best for low speeds i.e. subsonic.
Variable sweep wings were designed to optimize flight experience over a
range of speeds.
General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark

Wing Tip Vortices
The action of the airfoil that gives an aircraft lift also causes induced drag. When
an airfoil is flown at a positive AOA, a pressure differential exists between the
upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil. The pressure above the wing is less than
atmospheric pressure and the pressure below the wing is equal to or greater than
atmospheric pressure. Since air always moves from high pressure toward low
pressure, and the path of least resistance is toward the airfoil’s tips, there is a
spanwise movement of air from the bottom of the airfoil outward from the
fuselage around the tips. This flow of air results in “spillage” over the tips,
thereby setting up a whirlpool of air called a “vortex.”
Wing Tip Vortices
Wake Turbulence
Wake turbulence is a disturbance in the atmosphere that forms behind an
aircraft as it passes through the air.
The size and strength is greatest when the aircraft is:
● Slow
● Heavy
● Clean
Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
Wake Turbulence
Ground Effect
Ground Effect is the name given to the positive influence on the lifting
characteristics of the horizontal surfaces of an aircraft wing when it is close
to the ground. This effect is a consequence of the distortion of the airflow
below such surfaces attributable to the proximity of the ground.
Weight Control
Weight is the force with which gravity attracts a body toward the center
of the Earth. It is a product of the mass of a body and the acceleration
acting on the body. Weight is a major factor in aircraft construction and
operation and demands respect from all pilots.
Weight Control
The force of gravity continuously attempts to pull an aircraft down
toward Earth. The force of lift is the only force that counteracts weight
and sustains an aircraft in flight. To assure that the lift generated is
sufficient to counteract weight, loading an aircraft beyond the
manufacturer’s recommended weight must be avoided. If the weight is
greater than the lift generated, the aircraft may be incapable of flight.
Effects of Weight
Any item aboard an aircraft that increases the total weight is
undesirable for performance. Manufacturers attempt to make an
aircraft as light as possible without sacrificing strength or safety.
The pilot should always be aware of the consequences of overloading. An

overloaded aircraft may not be able to leave the ground, or if it does
become airborne, it may exhibit unexpected and unusually poor flight
characteristics. If not properly loaded, the initial indication of poor
performance usually takes place during takeoff.
Effects of Weight
Excessive weight reduces the flight performance in almost every respect.
For example, the most important performance deficiencies of an
overloaded aircraft are:
Effects of Weight
• Higher takeoff speed
Effects of Weight
• Longer takeoff run
Effects of Weight
• Reduced rate of climb
Effects of Weight
• Lower service ceiling
Effects of Weight
• Shorter range
Effects of Weight
• Reduced cruising speed
Effects of Weight
• Reduced maneuverability
Effects of Weight
• Higher stalling speed
Effects of Weight
• Higher approach and landing speed
Effects of Weight
• Longer landing roll
Effects of Weight
• Excessive weight on the nose wheel or tail wheel

AMTE113 - Theory of Flight

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AMTE113 - Theory of Flight

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Theory of Flight

PATTS COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

Piston airplanes have one or more piston-powered engines connected

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous

⮚ Aerodynamics also defined as “the branch of science which

⮚ AIR has mass, weight, and indefinite shape.

○ 1% OTHER GASES, such as argon or helium.

⮚ It may be compared with a pile of blankets.

⮚ Air in the higher altitudes like top blanket of the pile, it

⮚ Air has molecules which are separated from one another

⮚ Air have different characteristics such as pressure, density,

⮚ For example, if a force of 5lb is acting against an area of 1 square in.,

⮚ We can conclude that as the atmosphere which contains air goes

⮚ Temperature is the amount of agitation of kinetic energy of the molecules.

Temperature can be measure by the following:

Standard atmospheric conditions are based on a sea level temperature

Standard Temperature Lapse Rate

Under standard conditions, temperature decreases at approximately

⮚ For example, An object with MUCH MATTER (molecules) in a

⮚ Density is also in relation to Pressure and Temperature in

⮚ In a LOW ALTITUDE, the molecules of Air are MUCH DENSE

When the conditions are standard: PRESSURE ALTITUDE = DENSITY ALTITUDE

If the TEMPERATURE is ABOVE STANDARD: PRESSURE ALTITUDE < DENSITY ALTITUDE

If the TEMPERATURE is BELOW STANDARD: PRESSURE ALTITUDE > DENSITY ALTITUDE

⮚ It should remember that HUMID AIR at a given TEMPERATURE

⮚ Viscosity is a measure of fluid’s resistance to flow. It describes the

⮚ If the TEMPERATURE of AIR is HIGHER, the VISCOSITY is GREATER

⮚ If there’s an ACTION, there is Always EQUAL and OPPOSITE REACTION.

⮚ It is stated that an INCREASE in the SPEED

Weight – which opposes lift, is caused by the downward pull of gravity.

Drag – Opposing thrust. Which is a backward or retarding, force which

A. Skin Friction Drag

It is the result of an object's general shape in relation to the relative wind.

It is generated by the mixing of airflow streamlines between airframe

It is an inevitable consequence of lift and is produced by the passage of an

4. Camber – Characteristic curve of its upper and lower surface.

First Digit - specifies maximum

Second Digit - indicates position of

Last Two Digits - provide maximum

Whatever direction the airplane is flying, the relative wind is in the

It is the point at which the chord of an airfoil section intersects in the

It is defined as a point in a cross section of the airfoil about which the

Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)

Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)

Rectified Air Speed (RAS)

True Air Speed (TAS)

Ground Speed (G/S)

Below 200 Knots compressibility is very small and may be discounted.

In high-speed flight and/or high-altitude flight, the measurement of speed is

An aircraft traveling at the speed of sound is traveling at Mach 1.0.

Spars are important structural members of an aircraft wings. The spar

The rectangular wing is the simplest to manufacture. It is a non-tapered,

The elliptical wing is aerodynamically most efficient because

North American Aviation P-51 Mustang

Dassault Mirage 2000

The trapezoidal wing design offers outstanding flight performance.

Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor

Aerospatiale BAC Concorde

Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner

Sukhoi SU-47 Berkut

General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark

The size and strength is greatest when the aircraft is:

The pilot should always be aware of the consequences of overloading. An