Abstract

Electrical Power constitutes a major component of the manufacturing cost in

industry. In an electrical installation, power factor may become poor because of
induction motors, welding machines, power transformers, voltage regulators, arc
and induction furnaces, choke coils, neon signs etc. A poor power factor for the
plant causes huge amount of losses, leading to thermal problem in switchgears.
However power factor is controllable with a properly designed power factor
improvement capacitors system. The power factor correction obtained by using
capacitor banks to generate locally the reactive energy necessary for the transfer of
electrical useful power, allows a better and more rational technical-economical
management of the plants. Wasted energy capacity, also known as poor power
factor, is often overlooked. It can result in poor reliability, safety problems and
higher energy costs. The lower your power factor, the less economically your
system operates. The actual amount of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit
is called true power. Reactive loads such as inductors and capacitors make up what
is called reactive power. The linear combination of true power and reactive power
is called apparent power. Power system loads consist of resistive, inductive, and
capacitive loads. This paper describes different aspects of power factor
improvement in a typical industrial plant with the help of Inductive, Capacitive and
Resistive Load.

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Introduction

Most of the electric energy used in world is generated, distributed and utilized in
sinusoidal form. Sources of this type are frequently called alternating current ( ac)
source. The figure-1 shows the typical voltage and current vectors in an ac circuit.
The angle θ between voltage and current is called power factor angle and the
cosine of this angle is called the power factor. The cosine θ depicts that component
of current which is in phase with voltage.

Fig-1, Vector diagram for ac voltage & current

The resistive loads in an electric circuit has a power factor of unity, whereas for a
purely inductive load the power factor is zero. However, in practice, the actual
loads in an electric circuit are partly resistive and partly inductive. This
combination of inductive and resistive loads makes the power factor of the plant to
a value between zero and one. Lower the power factor, more are the losses, or in
other words for an efficient operation of the plant, the power factor should be close
to unity. To improve the power factor, shunt capacitors are used. The value of
capacitance required is a function of the type of electrical load in the plant. In view
of the capital cost involved for installation of capacitors, a reasonably high power
factor of the order of 0.8 to 0.9 is considered while designing the capacitors for
power factor control.

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Types of Power

The actual amount of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit is called true
power. It is measured in watts and is symbolized mathematically by the capital
letter P. True power is a function of the circuit’s dissipative elements, such as
resistances (R). B.E.Dikki, (August 11, 2014). Update –Privatization Issues, A
presentation at the 1st National Council on Power conference (NACOP) Abuja
Nigerian.

Reactive loads such as inductors and capacitors dissipate zero power, but the fact
that they drop voltage and draw current gives the perception that they do dissipate
power. This “dissipated power” is called the reactive power and is measured in
Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR). Reactive power is represented by the capital letter Q,
and is a function of a circuit's reactance (X). (E.Wirth and A. Kara, 129-140,2000).
Innovative power flow management and voltage control technologies, Power
Engineering Journal vol 14.

The combination of true power and reactive power is called apparent power. It is
the product of a circuit's voltage and current, without reference to phase angle.
Apparent power is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA) and is symbolized by
the capital letter S. Apparent power is a function of a circuit's total impedance (Z).
(H. Saadat, 2009). Power system Analysis (2nd)Edition.

There are equations relating the three types of power to resistance, reactance, and
impedance (all using scalar quantities):

P = True Power P = I2R , P = V2/R

Where P is measured in watts.
Q = Reactive power Q = I2X , Q = V2/X
Where Q is measured in Volt Amps-Reactive (VAR)
3 | P a g e S =Apparent power S = I X ,Q = V /X
2 2

Where S is measured in Volt Amps (VA)

Power System features

Power system loads consist of resistive, inductive, and capacitive loads. Examples
of resistive loads are incandescent lighting and electric heaters. Examples of
inductive loads are induction motors, transformers, and reactors. Examples of
capacitive loads are capacitors, variable or fixed capacitor banks, motor starting
capacitors, generators, and synchronous motors. (L. Furby, P. Slovic, B. Fischhoff,
and R. Gregory, 1988). Public perceptions of electric power transmission lines,
Journal of Environmental Psychology

Inductive and capacitive loads are opposite in nature. Equal amounts of inductive
and capacitive loads within the same system will offset each other leaving only real
power. This is defined as a power factor of 1 or unity. When a unity power factor is
achieved the real power (KW) or demand is equal to the apparent power (KVA).
Achieving a unity power factor will provide the most efficient power system.
According to H. Saadat (2009). In a purely resistive circuit, all circuit power is
dissipated by the resistor, voltage and current are in phase with each other, and the
true power is equal to the apparent power (as seen in Figure 2). Ralph A. Frye III,
P.E., (2004) Power Factor Correction.

In a purely reactive circuit, no circuit power is dissipated by the load. Rather,

power is alternately absorbed from and returned to the AC source. Voltage and
current are 90o out of phase with each other, and the reactive power is equal to the
apparent power (as seen in Figure 3). Ralph A. Frye III, P.E., (2004) Power Factor
Correction.

In a circuit consisting of both resistance and reactance, there will be more power
dissipated by the load than returned, but some power will definitely be dissipated
and some will merely be absorbed and returned. Voltage and current in such a
circuit will be out of phase by a value somewhere between 0 o and 90o. The

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apparent power is vector sum of the true power and the reactive power (as seen in
Figure 4). Tony R. Kuphaldt, (2007) Lessons In Electric Circuits Volume II , Sixth
Edition,

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Power Factor Defined

In power systems, wasted energy capacity, also known as poor power factor, is
often overlooked. It can result in poor reliability, safety problems and higher
energy costs. The lower your power factor, the less economically your system
operates. Power factor is the ratio between the real power and the apparent power
drawn by an electrical load. Like all ratio measurements it is a unit-less quantity
and can be represented mathematically as ( PF = True Power/ Apparent Power =
KVA / KW), where PF is power factor, kW is the real power that actually does the
work, KVA is the apparent power and KVAR (not included in the equation) is the
reactive power. In an inductive load, such as a motor, active power performs the
work and reactive power creates the electromagnetic field. The three types of
power relate to each other in a trigonometric form as seen in Figure 5 below.

C.C. Okoro and K. C. Achugbu, (2015). Performance Analysis and Indices for
the Existing Nigerian 330kv National Power Grid, Abuja Nigeria.

The Power Triangle

Figure 5: The Power Triangle

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For the purely resistive circuit, the power factor is 1 (perfect), because the reactive
power equals zero. Here, the power triangle would look like a horizontal line,
because the opposite (reactive power) side would have zero length.

For the purely inductive circuit, the power factor is zero, because true power equals
zero. Here, the power triangle would look like a vertical line, because the adjacent
(true power) side would have zero length.

The same could be said for a purely capacitive circuit. If there are no dissipative
(resistive) components in the circuit, then the true power must be equal to zero,
making any power in the circuit purely reactive. The power triangle for a purely
capacitive circuit would again be a vertical line (pointing down instead of up as it
was for the purely inductive circuit).

Power factor can be an important aspect to consider in an AC circuit; because any

power factor less than 1 means that the circuit's wiring has to carry more current
than what would be necessary with zero reactance in the circuit to deliver the same
amount of (true) power to the resistive load. The poor power factor makes for an
inefficient power delivery system.

Poor power factor can be corrected, paradoxically, by adding another load to the
circuit drawing an equal and opposite amount of reactive power, to cancel out the
effects of the load's inductive reactance. Inductive reactance can only be canceled
by capacitive reactance, so we have to add a capacitor in parallel to our example
circuit as the additional load. The effect of these two opposing reactance in parallel
is to bring the circuit's total impedance equal to its total resistance (to make the
impedance phase angle equal, or at least closer, to zero). C.C. Okoro and K. C.
Achugbu, (2015). Performance Analysis and Indices for the Existing Nigerian
330kv National Power Grid, Abuja Nigeria.

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Power factor measures how efficiently the current is being converted into real
work—with a low power factor, more electrical current is required to provide the
same amount of real power. All current causes dissipation in a distribution system.
These losses can be modeled as (Loss =I2*R) , where R is the resistance. A power
factor of 1 will result in the most efficient loading of the supply; a load with a
power factor of 0.5 will result in higher losses in the distribution system. C.C.
Okoro and K. C. Achugbu, (2015). Performance Analysis and Indices for the
Existing Nigerian 330kv National Power Grid, Abuja Nigeria.

The reactive load of an industrial power system typically consists of a large

number of AC induction motors. This can cause the total load to be up to 50%
inductive. Large inductive loads cause the apparent power to be 25% to 41%
higher than the real power. If the utility billing is based on real power (KW) only,
the utility must provide up to 41% more capacity than they are billing for. Since it
takes more capacity and is more expensive to serve a customer with a low power
factor, that customer has to pick up the tab. Most electrical rate tariffs contain
provisions that include a minimum power factor. Customers who fall short of the
minimum power factor level receive a power factor charge. Power factor charges
may range from $5 to thousands of dollars per month. C.C. Okoro and K. C.
Achugbu, (2015). Performance Analysis and Indices for the Existing Nigerian
330kv National Power Grid, Abuja Nigeria.

Overall there are several consequences of a low power factor; these consequences
include decreased system capacity, increased system losses, and extra cost.
Benefits of increasing a low power factor include eliminated or reduced power
factor charges on utility bills, more efficient operations with increased capacity and
reduced current draw.

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Methods of Power Factor Correction

In the real world, utilities normally only require a power factor of 0.9. Although a
unity power factor provides the most efficient power system, a unity power factor
leaves the power system susceptible to harmonic problems. Harmonic problems
cause excessive heating in motors, nuisance tripping, and premature failure of solid
state components.

Power factor correction (PFC) is usually achieved by adding capacitive load to

offset the inductive load present in the power system. The power factor of the
power system is constantly changing due to variations in the size and number of
the motors being used at one time. This makes it difficult to balance the inductive
and capacitive loads continuously.

In addition, harmonic problems can be introduced if the capacitors are not sized
with the specific power system characteristics in mind. The utility company may
also restrict or deny the introduction of KVARs into their power system. These are
all considerations that need to be addressed prior to making any decisions about the
size or type of power factor correction.

Figure 6: Power Triangle illustrating effects of capacitor PFC

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The most inexpensive and widely used method of correcting the power factor is
through the use of one fixed capacitor bank connected to the incoming transformer
or switchgear bus. The fixed capacitor bank is sized to regulate a 0.9 power factor
during maximum operational inductive loading. This means that during periods of
operation where less than maximum inductive loading is utilized, extra KVAR
capacity will be introduced into the utility power system. The only draw backs to
this method are utility restrictions and future inductive loads that change the
maximum operational inductive loading. C.C. Okoro and K. C. Achugbu,
(2015). Performance Analysis and Indices for the Existing Nigerian 330kv
National Power Grid, Abuja Nigeria.

A variation of the above method can be used only if a discrete number of motors
are causing the power factor problems. Individual capacitors can be connected in
parallel with each motor. When the motor is energized, the capacitor bank is also
energized to provide power factor correction while the motor is being used (as seen
in Figures 3 and 4 located on the next page). The benefit of this method is that the
amount of capacitive load is regulated with the amount of inductive load. The
drawbacks to this method are that it may not be feasible physically or economically
to have an individual capacitor for each motor, and maintenance of multiple units
may be costly and difficult. Ralph A. Frye III, P.E., (2007). Power Factor
Correction, Retrieved from

http://www.wagesterlease.com/aboutus/articles/powerfactor.html

Another method of power factor correction is the use of a variable capacitor bank.
This bank would be connected just like the fixed bank. The advantage of the
variable capacitor bank is that the bank monitors the system power factor and
automatically regulates the amount of capacitive load connected to the system to
offset the inductive load. Since the capacitive load is regulated, there would be no
conflict with the utility. The variable capacitor banks normally come with internal

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protection, provide space for additional banks, and provide a centrally located
easily maintained unit. The draw backs to the variable capacitor bank are an
increased chance of harmonic problems due to the variations in capacitance, initial
cost, and maintenance costs of internal parts used for capacitor switching. [2]

Figure 7: Induction motor without a capacitor in parallel

Figure 8: Induction motor with a capacitor in parallel

A combination of the previously mentioned methods seems to be the normal

configuration that is used once correction is decided upon. Normally, capacitors
are connected to the largest motors to provide correction while they are running. In
addition, a variable or fixed capacitor bank is connected to the main transformer or
switchgear. The advantage of this is regulation of the capacitive load and a
reduction in the size of the capacitor bank connected to the main transformer or
switchgear. L M Photonics Ltd, (1995). Power Factor, Retrieved from

http://www.lmphotonics.com/pwrfact.htm?
gclid=CJbHjdTMjosCFSUeGAodtRe8VQ

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It should be noted that too much capacitance in an AC circuit will result in a low
power factor just as well as too much inductance. You must be careful not to over-
correct when adding capacitance to an AC circuit. You must also be very careful to
use the proper capacitors for the job (rated adequately for power system voltages
and the occasional voltage spike from lightning strikes, for continuous AC service,
and capable of handling the expected levels of current). If a circuit is
predominantly inductive, we say that its power factor is lagging (because the
current wave for the circuit lags behind the applied voltage wave). Conversely, if a
circuit is predominantly capacitive, we say that its power factor is leading. Thus,
our example circuit started out with a power factor of 0.705 lagging, and was
corrected to a power factor of 0.999 lagging. E.B. Benjamin Casidy, (1996), Multi
Dimensional Issues in International Electric Power Grid.

All in all poor power factor in an AC circuit can be corrected to a value close to
unity (1), by adding a parallel reactance opposite to the effect of the load's
reactance. If the load's reactance is inductive in nature (which is almost always will
be), parallel capacitance is what is needed to correct poor power factor.

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Results

1. The primary benefit of power factor correction is the elimination of charges

related to reactive power-consumption.
2. If the utility is adding a power factor penalty or billing for apparent power
(KVA), reduction in reactive power will net savings.
3. The amount of savings seen will depend on the size, configuration, and
operation of the power system. Typically, the costs for correction are paid
back inside of one year, and after that, the savings will reduce operating
costs.
4. In addition, power factor correction will improve the overall performance of
the power system which can increase switchgear, starter, and motor life.
5. The bottom line which is protection, efficiency, and savings will reduce.

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Conclusions

The low power factor is highly undesirable as it causes an increase in current,

resulting in additional losses of active power in all the elements of power system
from power station generator down to utilization devices. In order to ensure most
favorable conditions for a supply system from engineering and economical
standpoint, it is important to have power factor as close to unity as possible

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References

[1] B.E.Dikki, Update –Privatization Issues, A presentation at the 1st National

Council on Power conference (NACOP) Abuja Nigerian. (August 11, 2014).

[2] E.Wirth and A. Kara, Innovative power flow management and voltage
control technologies, Power Engineering Journal vol 14.( 129-140,2000).

[3] H. Saadat, Power system Analysis (2nd)Edition. (2009)

[4] L. Furby, P. Slovic, B. Fischhoff, and R. Gregory, Public perceptions of

electric power transmission lines, Journal of Environmental Psychology(1988)

[5] Ralph A. Frye III, P.E ,Power Factor Correction. ., (2004)

[6] Tony R. Kuphaldt, Lessons In Electric Circuits Volume II , Sixth Edition,

[7] C.C. Okoro and K. C. Achugbu, (2015). Performance Analysis and

Indices for the Existing Nigerian 330kv National Power Grid, Abuja Nigeria.
(2007)

[8] Ralph A. Frye III, P.E., Power Factor Correction, (2007). Retrieved from

http://www.wagesterlease.com/aboutus/articles/powerfactor.html

[9] E.B. Benjamin Casidy, Multi Dimensional Issues in International Electric

Power Grid. (1996),

[10] L M Photonics Ltd, Power Factor, (1995). Retrieved from

http://www.lmphotonics.com/pwrfact.htm?
gclid=CJbHjdTMjosCFSUeGAodtRe8VQ

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