IB Biology Higher Level Year II

End of the Year Review

Part One: Topics Covered

1. Cell
2. Biochemistry
3. Cellular Respiration
4. Photosynthesis

* Please review each section with a pen and

highligher.

*Check off title that you have a clear

understanding with a pen.

*Highlight subtopic that need further review.

When answer review questions at the end of

each section please think about using all
resources available to you.
 Topic 1.1: Cell Theory
Cell Theory Functions of Life

According to the cell theory: Organisms consisting of only one cell carry
out all the life functions in that single cell
1.  Living organisms are composed of cells (or cell products)
2.  The cell is the smallest unit of independent life
•  Metabolism
3.  Cells can only arise from pre-existing cells
•  Reproduction
•  Sensitivity
Caveats to the cell theory include:
•  Homeostasis
•  Striated muscle – composed of fused cells that are multinucleated •  Excretion
•  Giant algae – unicellular organisms that are very large in size (~7 cm) •  Nutrition
•  Aseptate hyphae – lack partitioning and have a continuous cytoplasm •  Growth

Cell Size

Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size Small SA:Vol Ratio
Cells need to exchange materials with the environment in order to produce ︎ metabolic rate
the chemical energy required for survival (via metabolism) ➡︎ material exchange
•  The rate of metabolism is a function of a cell’s mass / volume Low survival chances
•  The rate of material exchange is a function of a cell’s surface area
Large SA:Vol Ratio

As a cell grows, volume (units3) increases faster than surface area (units2) ➡︎ metabolic rate
•  If metabolic requirements exceed material exchange, a cell will die ︎ material exchange
•  Hence, cells must stay small or increase their SA:Vol ratio to survive High survival chances

Magnification Microscopes

Calculating Magnification (MIA): Light microscopes use lenses to bend light

Magnification = Image Size ÷ Actual Size
Calculating Actual Size (AIM):
Actual Size = Image Size ÷ Magnification
Cellular Organization
In multicellular organisms:
•  Cells may be grouped together to form tissues
•  Tissues may interact to form functional organs
•  Organs may combine to form body systems
•  Can view living specimens in natural colour
•  Have lower magnification and resolution
Electron microscopes use electromagnets to focus electrons
•  Can only view dead specimens in monochrome
•  Have higher magnification and resolution
•  Can show cross-sections (TEM) or surface renderings (SEM)
Emergent Properties
An emergent property is a function that is present in multicellular
organisms, but is not present in its individual component cells

Emergent properties arise from synergistic interactions between

the individual cells to produce entirely new aggregate functions
An example of an emergent property is the increased levels of
antibiotic resistance that can be seen in bacterial biofilms
Muscle Cardiac Heart Vascular
(Cell) (Tissue) (Organ) (System) ‘The whole is greater than the sum of its parts’ – Aristotle
 Topic 1.1: Cell SPECIALIZATION
Stem Cells

Stem cells are unspecialised cells that have two key qualities:
Embryonic Totipotent
1.  Self-Renewal – They can continuously divide and replicate Stem Cells
2.  Potency – They have the capacity to differentiate
Pluripotent
Fetal
There are four main types of stem cells during human development: Stem Cells Multipotent
•  Totipotent – Can form any cell type, as well as extra-embryonic tissue
Adult Unipotent
•  Pluripotent – Can form any cell type (e.g. embryonic stem cells)
Stem Cells
•  Multipotent – Can differentiate into closely related cell types
•  Unipotent – Cannot differentiate, but are capable of self-renewal Types of Stem Cells

Stem Cell Therapy Therapeutic Examples

Stem cells can replace damaged or diseased cells with healthy ones Example Condition Treatment

The therapeutic use of stem cells involves: Stargardt’s Macular Replace defective
disease degeneration retinal cells
•  Harvesting stem cells from appropriate sources
•  Using biochemical solutions to trigger cell differentiation Parkinson’s Death of Replace damaged
•  Surgically implanting new cells into patient's own tissue disease nerve tissue nerve cells
•  Suppressing the host immune system to prevent rejection
Cancer of Replacement of
•  Monitoring new cells to ensure they do not become cancerous Leukemia
the blood bone marrow

Ethics of Stem Cell Use

Source Growth Potential Tumour Risk Harvesting Disadvantages

Can be generated Requires destruction of the embryo

Embryo High (pluripotent) Higher risk
artificially by SCNT (results in the loss of a potential life)

Umbilical Easily obtained and Cells must be stored from birth at cost
Low (multipotent) Lower risk
Cord Blood stored / preserved (raises issues of financial accessibility)

Adult Tissue Low (multipotent) Lower risk Invasive to extract May be restrictions in scope / availability

Differentiation Gene Packaging

All cells of an organism contain an identical genome – each cell Within the nuclei of eukaryotic cells, gene instructions
contains the entire set of genetic instructions for that organism (DNA) are packaged with proteins as chromatin

Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not •  Active genes are loosely packed as euchromatin
others in the cell’s genome (i.e. selective gene expression) •  Inactive genes are packed tight as heterochromatin
The activation of different genes within a given cell will cause it Nucleus Micrograph:
to develop differently from other cells (i.e. cell specialisation)
Heterochromatin (inactive)
Red cell (gene A)

Green cell (gene B) Euchromatin (active)

Single cell
 Topic 1.2: PRokAryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cell Structure

Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack a nucleus

•  They belong to the kingdom Monera (i.e. bacteria) Pilus
Cytoplasm
Prokaryotic cells share the following structures: Genophore Cell wall
•  A single, circular DNA molecule (genophore)
•  A peptidoglycan cell wall and 70S ribosomes Cell membrane
70S Ribosome
Prokaryotic cells may also contain the following:
•  Pili (for attachment or bacterial conjugation) Plasmid
Flagellum
•  Flagella (a long whip-like tail for movement)
•  Plasmids (autonomous DNA molecules) Glycocalyx

Prokaryote Micrographs

Nucleoid (yellow) Bacterial Conjugation (pili = red) Cell Wall (purple) Flagella (white)

Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic Cells Bacterial Cell Division

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ
according to a number of key features:
•  DNA (composition and structure)
•  Organelles (types present and sizes)
•  Reproduction (mode of cell division)
•  Average Size (exceptions may exist)
Prokaryote
Prokaryotes divide via a process of asexual
reproduction known as binary fission
In this process
•  The circular DNA is copied
•  The DNA loops attach to the membrane
•  The cell elongates, separating the loops
Eukaryote •  Cytokinesis occurs to form two cells

DNA is naked DNA bound to protein

DNA DNA is circular DNA is linear
Usually no introns Usually contains introns DNA replication

No nucleus Has a nucleus

Organelles Cell growth
70S ribosomes 80S ribosomes

Via binary fission Via mitosis and meiosis

Reproduction Cytokinesis
Single chromosome Paired chromosomes

Average Size Smaller (~1 – 5 µM) Larger (~10 – 100 µM)

 Topic 1.2: EuKAryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cell Structure

Golgi body Smooth ER Nucleus Rough ER

Lysosome
Mitochondrion

Rough ER Cytosol
Smooth ER
Nucleolus Ribosome
Cytosol
(80S)
Nucleus
Membrane
Golgi body Membrane
80S Ribosome
Mitochondrion Vacuole Chloroplast Cell wall

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Eukaryote Micrographs

Golgi complex Chloroplast

Animal Cell (exocrine gland cell) ER (rough) Mitochondrion Plant Cell (palisade mesophyll)

Organelles Animal versus Plant Cells

Organelles are compartmentalised structures that serve specific purposes Animal Cells Plant Cells

Examples of eukaryotic organelles include: ︎No chloroplast Have chloroplast

•  80S ribosomes – Responsible for protein synthesis (translation)
•  Nucleus – Stores genetic information (site of transcription) No cell wall Cell wall (cellulose)
•  Mitochondria – Site of aerobic respiration (ATP production)
•  Endoplasmic reticulum – Transports materials between organelles No plasmodesmata Plasmodesmata
•  Golgi complex – Sorts, stores, modifies & exports secretory products
•  Centrosomes – Involved in cell division (mitosis and meiosis) Temporary vacuoles Large central vacuole

Organelles found only in specific cell types include: Cholesterol present No cholesterol in
•  Chloroplasts – Site of photosynthesis (plant cells only) in the cell membrane the cell membrane
•  Lysosomes – Breakdown of macromolecules (animal cells)
Glucose → glycogen Glucose → starch
 Topic 1.3: membrAne Structure
Phospholipid Bilayer

Structure of Phospholipids:
•  Contain a polar (hydrophilic) head composed of phosphate (+ glycerol) Polar head
Hydrophilic
•  Contain two non-polar (hydrophobic) tails, each composed of a fatty acid chain
•  Hence, phospholipids are amphipathic (have hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts) Non-polar tail
Hydrophobic
Arrangement in Membranes:
•  Phospholipids spontaneously arrange into a bilayer Phospholipid
•  The hydrophilic phosphate heads face out into the surrounding solution, while
the hydrophobic fatty acid tails face inwards and are shielded from the polar fluids

Properties of the Phospholipid Bilayer:

•  The bilayer is held together by weak hydrophobic interactions between the tails
•  Individual phospholipids can move within the bilayer (fluidity and flexibility)
•  Amphipathic properties restrict passage of certain substances (semi-permeable) Bilayer

Cholesterol Membrane Proteins

Cholesterol is a fundamental component of animal cell membranes Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of
•  It is not present in plant cell membranes (as they have a rigid cell wall) their structure and position in a membrane
Cholesterol reduces membrane fluidity and permeability to some solutes Membrane proteins serve many functions:
•  It also anchors certain peripheral proteins and prevents crystallization
•  Junctions
•  Enzymes
•  Transport
•  Recognition
Cholesterol •  Anchorage
(amphipathic) •  Transduction

Fluid Mosaic Model Membrane Models

Cell membranes are represented as a fluid-mosaic model
•  Fluid – membrane components can move position
•  Mosaic – phospholipid bilayer is embedded with protein
This model was proposed by Singer-Nicolson in 1972,
following the falsification of the Davson-Danielli model
integral protein
cholesterol
Membranes appear trilaminar when viewed with an electron
microscope (trilaminar = three distinct layers)
Davson-Danielli proposed a model whereby a phospholipid
bilayer was flanked by two protein layers (sandwich model)
This model was falsified based on the following findings:
•  Fluorescent tagging showed the proteins are mobile
•  Not all membranes have a constant lipid : protein ratio
•  Freeze fracturing identified transmembrane proteins

phospholipid
peripheral protein Trilaminar appearance Sandwich Model
 Topic 1.4: membrAne TrAnsport
Properties of Membranes Types of Membrane Transport

Cell membranes have two key properties Membrane transport can either be:
•  Semi-permeable (only certain things can cross) •  Passive (along concentration gradient, no ATP expenditure)
•  Selective (membranes can regulate material passage) •  Active (against concentration gradient, ATP is required)

Passive Transport

Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion

The net movement of particles from a region of higher The passive movement of molecules across a cell membrane
concentration to a region of lower concentration (i.e. along via the aid of a membrane protein (carrier / channel protein)
the gradient) until equilibrium is reached •  Involves large / charged molecules (e.g. ions, glucose, etc.)
•  Involves small / lipophilic molecules (e.g. O2, CO2, steroids) •  E.g. Voltage-gated channels control the flow of ions in neurons

High [ ] Low [ ] Protein Channel Carrier Protein

Osmosis Osmolarity

The net movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable Osmolarity is a measure of solute concentration
membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region
Solutions can be measured as:
of higher solute concentration (diffusion of free water molecules)
•  Hypertonic: High solute concentration (gains water)
Low solute concentration High solute concentration •  Hypotonic: Low solute concentration (loses water)
12 H2O total ; 12 H20 free 12 H2O total ; 0 H2O free •  Isotonic: Same solute concentration (no net flow)

net

Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic

Active Transport Vesicular Transport

Active transport uses energy (ATP) to move molecules The fluidity of the plasma membrane allows it to break and
against a concentration gradient (i.e. from low to high) reform around certain materials (this process requires ATP)
•  Molecule binds to a transmembrane protein pump •  Exocytosis: Materials released from a cell via vesicles
•  Hydrolysis of ATP causes a conformational change, •  Endocytosis: Materials internalised within a vesicle
translocating the molecule across the membrane
•  E.g. Sodium-potassium pumps move ions in neuron Intracellular vesicles can move materials between cell organelles
•  E.g. rough ER → Golgi complex → plasma membrane
Sometimes molecules are passively coupled to an
actively transported molecule (co-transport)
•  Symport: Both molecules move the same direction
•  Antiport: Molecules move in opposite directions
 Topic 1.5: Origin of Cells
Abiogenesis

The formation of living cells from non-living materials

(abiogenesis) is theorised to involve 4 four key processes:
Inorganic Organic Polymer
•  Non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules compounds monomers
•  Assembly of organic molecules into complex polymers
•  Formation of polymers that can self-replicate
•  Packaging of molecules into membranes to create an
internal chemistry different from the surroundings
Self-replication
The Miller-Urey experiment replicated the conditions of a
pre-biotic Earth in order to synthesize organic molecules Formation of cell

Biogenesis

Abiogenesis requires specific conditions in order to proceed Methodology Control Results Experimental
•  Including a reducing atmosphere (no oxygen) and either
high temperatures (>100ºC) or electrical discharges

As these conditions no longer commonly exist on Earth,

cells can only be formed from division of pre-existing cells
heat no growth growth
This law of biogenesis was demonstrated by Louis Pasteur
Broth boiled to Condensation Break to expose
•  Broths were stored in sealed vessels that were sterilised
kill organisms seals the flask contaminants
•  Bacterial growth occurred if vessel was unsealed, but
did not occur if vessel stayed sealed (no contamination) Conclusion: Cells only arise from pre-existing cells

Endosymbiosis Oxygenation of Earth

Eukaryotic cells are believed to have evolved from aerobic The appearance of photosynthetic organisms lead to the
prokaryotes that were engulfed by endocytosis rapidly increasing oxygenation of the Earth’s environment

The engulfed cell remained undigested and contributed new Oceans

functionality to the engulfing cell (i.e. it became an organelle) •  Originally, Earth’s oceans had high levels of dissolved
iron (released from crust by underwater volcanic vents)
•  Oxygen chemically reacted with the iron to form an
insoluble precipitate (iron oxide)

Ancestral Endosymbiosis Ancestral Rock Deposition

Prokaryote Eukaryote
Chloroplasts and mitochondria arose via endosymbiosis:
•  Membranes (have a double membrane)
•  Antibiotics (show susceptibility)
•  DNA (have naked and circular DNA)
•  Division (occurs via a fission-like process)
•  Ribosomes (have 70S ribosomes)
•  Insoluble iron formed banded iron formations (BIFs)
•  These deposits are not commonly found in rock that is
younger than 1.8 billion years (hence, identifies when
photosynthetic organisms first evolved)
Atmosphere
•  When dissolved iron was completely consumed, oxygen
started accumulating in the anoxic atmosphere
 Topic 1.6: Cell cycle RegulAtion

Cell Cycle Checkpoints Cyclins

A cell cycle contains numerous checkpoints that ensure Cyclins are proteins that control progression of the cell cycle
the fidelity and viability of continued cell divisions
•  Cyclins bind to cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs)

G1 checkpoint •  The activated complex phosphorylates proteins involved

•  Monitors potential growth conditions (nutrients, etc.) in specific cell cycle events (e.g. centrosome duplication)
•  Assesses level of DNA damage (from UV, etc.) •  After the event has occurred, the cyclin is degraded and
the cyclin dependent kinase is rendered inactive
G2 checkpoint
•  Monitors state of pre-mitotic cell (suitable size, etc.) Cyclin Cyclin active
Cyclin
•  Identifies and repairs any DNA replication errors P P
CDK CDK
Metaphase checkpoint CDK
•  Ensures proper alignment (prevents aneuploidy) Target protein

Cancer Cancer Development

Cancers are diseases caused by uncontrolled cell division Cancers can be caused by many different factors:
•  The resulting abnormal cell growths are called tumors
Mutagens
Tumor cells may remain in their original location (benign) Mutagens are agents that change the genetic material of cells
or spread and invade neighboring tissues (malignant) •  These agents may be either physical (e.g. UV), chemical
(e.g. arsenic) or biological in origin (e.g. certain viruses)
Metastasis is the spread of cancer from an original site to •  Mutagens that cause cancer are classified as carcinogens
a new body location (forming a secondary tumor)
Genetics
Most cancers are caused by mutations to two classes of genes:
•  Proto-oncogenes stimulate cell growth and proliferation
•  Tumor suppressor genes repress cell cycle progression
normal cancer
uncontrolled
cell cell tumor Proto-oncogene mutations create cancer-causing oncogenes
divisions

Cell Death Smoking

The death of a cell may occur by one of two mechanisms: There is a strong positive correlation between the
frequency of smoking and the incidence of cancer
Necrosis (uncontrolled ‘cell homicide’)
•  Cigarette smoke contains >60 known carcinogens
•  The cell loses functional control due to injury, toxins, etc.
•  There is a destabilization of the membranes, leading to swelling
500
•  The cell bursts and releases its contents (causing inflammation)
400
Incidence of cancer

Apoptosis (programmed ‘cell suicide’)

(per 100,000 men)

•  It is a controlled event triggered by mitochondrial proteins 300

•  Cell contents are packaged in membranous protrusions (blebs) 200

•  The cell fragments into apoptotic bodies which are recycled
100

Disintegration Fragmentation
0
10 20 30 40

NECROSIS APOPTOSIS Cigarettes per day

 Topic 1.6: Cell Division
Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is an ordered set of events that culminates in cell division
M phase
C Interphase
T
A G1
An active phase of the cell cycle where many metabolic reactions occur
M Growth and
•  Consists of G1, S and G2 stages
metabolism
P
G2 S M phase
and
Growth Replication The period of a cell cycle in which the cell and contents divide
preparation of DNA
•  Consists of mitosis (P, M, A, T) and cytokinesis
Interphase
Some cells may also enter a non-proliferative quiescent phase (G0)

Interphase Supercoiling

Normal metabolism cannot occur during M phase, so key During mitosis, chromatin condenses via supercoiling to
events must occur during interphase to prepare for division: become tightly packed chromosomes
•  Due to replication (S phase), chromosomes consist of
•  DNA replication (during S phase)
identical sister chromatids (joined at a centromere)
•  Organelle duplication
•  Cell growth
•  Transcription / translation S phase Mitosis
•  Obtaining nutrients
•  Respiration (cellular)

Mitosis Cytokinesis

Mitosis is the division of a diploid nucleus Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasm division, whereby a cell splits in two
into two genetically identical diploid nuclei •  It occurs concurrently with telophase and differs in plants and animals

This process of cell cloning is needed for Animals:

many important processes: •  Microtubules form a concentric ring and
contract towards the centre (centripetal)
•  Tissue repair
•  Organism growth Plants:
•  Asexual reproduction •  Vesicles form at the cell centre and fuse
•  Development of embryos outwards to form a cell plate (centrifugal)

Mitotic Index Mitosis Micrographs

The mitotic index is a measure of the proliferative

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
status of a cell population (i.e. number of dividing cells)

The mitotic index will be elevated during growth and

repair processes and acts as a prognostic tool for cancer

Cells in mitosis*
Mitotic Index =
Total number of cells
*Mitotic cells have no nucleus and have visible chromosomes
 Topic 1.6: STAGES of miTosis
Stage Diagram Key Events

•  DNA is uncondensed (chromatin)

Before: After:
Interphase
•  DNA is replicated (S phase) to form
(2n) S phase
genetically identical sister chromatids

•  Cell grows in size and organelles are

duplicated (G1 and G2)

Nuclear •  DNA supercoils and condenses

membrane (forms visible chromosomes)
Prophase dissolves
•  Nuclear membrane dissolves
(2n)
Centrosomes
move to poles •  Centrosomes move to poles and
begin to produce spindle fibres

•  Centrosome spindle fibres attach to

Spindle fibres
the centromere of each chromosome

Metaphase •  Spindle fibres contract and move the

(2n) chromosomes towards the cell centre
•  Chromosomes form a line along the
M = Middle
equator (middle) of the cell

Chromatids
•  Spindle fibres continue to contract
•  Sister chromatids separate and move
Anaphase
to opposite sides of the cell
(2n → 4n)
•  Sister chromatids are now regarded as
A = Apart two separate chromosomes

Nuclear
membranes •  Chromosomes decondense
reform (DNA forms chromatin)
Telophase
•  Nuclear membranes form around the
(4n)
two identical chromosome sets
•  Cytokinesis occurs concurrently

•  Cytoplasmic division occurs to divide

the cell into two daughter cells
Cytokinesis
•  Each daughter cell contains one copy
(2n × 2)
of each identical sister chromatid
•  Daughter cells are genetically identical
Name:

CELL TOPIC QUESTIONS

Section A: Multiple Choice Section (12 marks)
Choose the most correct answer by circling the appropriate letter.

Question 1
If cells of a multicellular organism have the same genes, how can there be many different cell
types in the body?
A. Some genes but not others are expressed in each cell type.
B. Cells lose some genes as development occurs.
C. Genes do not determine the structure of a cell.
D. Cells must practise division of labour in order to survive.

Question 2
The electron micrograph shows part of a cell. Which organelle is the site of aerobic respiration?

A. A.
B. B.
C. C.
D. D.

Question 3
The images are drawings of microscopic views of the
same cell.

What is a reason for the difference between the two

drawings?
A. The lower image has a higher magnification.
B. The lower image has greater resolution.
C. Mitochondria can only be seen in the lower
image.
D. The lower image is an electron micrograph.
Question 4
What does the image below represent?

A. The phospholipid bilayer

B. 2 glycerol and 1 fatty acid
C. A phospholipid molecule
D. A triglyceride molecule

Question 5
Consider the image below of a plasma membrane.

What part of the plasma membrane is fluid, allowing the movement of proteins in accordance with
the fluid mosaic model?
A. A.
B. B.
C. C.
D. D.

Question 6
Which of the following are properties of cholesterol found in plasma membranes?
I. Reduces permeability of the membrane to hydrophilic ions
II. Acts as a channel for ion movement
III. It is amphipathic
IV. Reduces fluidity of the membrane

A. I and III only

B. II and IV only
C. I and IV only
D. I, III and IV only
Question 7
In the diagram below, the apparatus on the left shows a set-up by some Biology students at
10:00am. The apparatus on the right shows the observations made four hours later.

If fluid A was blood plasma, then in order to produce the results on the right, fluid B was most
likely:
A. a dilute sports drink.
B. a sugary soft drink.
C. a cold, sugarless tea.
D. distilled water.

Question 8
Which statement best describes the movement of water molecules in osmosis?
A. From a dilute to a more concentrated solution across a membrane.
B. From a concentrated solution to a dilute solution across a membrane.
C. From a dilute to a concentrated solution across a membrane using energy from ATP.
D. From a concentrated solution to a dilute solution using energy from ATP.

Question 9
How did Pasteur’s experiment with sterile broth in open flasks demonstrate the principle that cells
only come from pre-existing cells?
A. By demonstrating that sterile broth would not ferment in contact with air alone.
B. By demonstrating that the air contains microbes.
C. By demonstrating that broth would not ferment if sterile.
D. By demonstrating that sterile broth fermented in contact with air.

Question 10
Consider the diagram on the right.
This diagram represents:
A. A pair of homologous chromosomes.
B. Two chromosomes.
C. Two chromatids.
D. Four chromatids.
Question 11
What happens during the process of mitosis?
A. The chromosome number is halved.
B. Identical DNA molecules are separated.
C. The cell grows until its volume has doubled.
D. All of the DNA in the nucleus is replicated.

Question 12
Which of the following can cause the formation of a primary tumour, or cancer?
I. Oncogenes
II. Mutagens
III. Proto-oncogenes
IV. Metastasis
A. All of the above.
B. II and IV only.
C. I and II only.
D. I, II and III only.

Section B: Structured Answer Section (28 marks)

Answer all questions in the spaces provided.

Question 1
Outline two similarities between the structure of prokaryote cells and eukaryote cells.

Total: 2 marks
Question 2
List four functions of membrane proteins.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Total: 4 marks
Question 3
Consider the diagram below showing the transport of substances into a cell.

a) Name the mode of transport that is transporting each substance into the cell.

Process A:

Process B:

Process C:
3 marks

b) Name the process(es) that would require energy input from the cell.

1 mark
Total: 4 marks

Question 4
The endosymbiotic theory describes how a large host cell ingested bacteria and over millions of
years both the large host cell and the bacteria became dependent upon each other.

a) Which organelles from a eukaryotic cell provide evidence of the endosymbiotic theory?

1 mark

b) State two pieces of evidence that support the endosymbiotic theory.

2 marks
Total: 3 marks
Question 5
The graph below represents the mass change over 60 minutes of two potato tuber “chips” in distilled
water (blue dotted line) and 15% sucrose (red solid line). The chips were cylinders of 5 cm length
and 1 cm diameter.

a) Calculate the percentage loss in mass of the potato chip in 15% sucrose at 20 minutes.

2 marks

b) Compare the results in 15% sucrose with those in distilled water.

2 marks

c) Explain why the potato chip in distilled water gained mass.

2 marks

d) State two variables that should be controlled to give valid results in this experiment.

2 marks
e) Suggest why data collection was stopped at 60 minutes?

1 mark
Total: 9 marks

Question 6
All forms of life undertake cell division. The diagram
on the right represents the living cycle of the cell.

a) At what point on the above diagram would you

expect replication of DNA to take place?

1 mark

b) In which circumstances would a cell be undergoing mitosis?

1 mark
The following image shows cells in the root tip of a garlic bulb.

c) Identify and label clearly one cell in prophase and one cell in anaphase. 2 marks
d) Calculate the mitotic index of the tissue in the micrograph above. Show you working.
There are 75 cells clearly visible.

2 marks
Total: 6 marks

Question 7
Cyclins control the progression of cells through the cell cycle. Look at the graph below.

a) Identify the cyclin that is required throughout the cell cycle.

1 mark

b) State which cyclin activates the G2 phase when it reaches its threshold level.

1 mark

c) Using the above graph, describe how cyclins are important in the regulation of the cell cycle.

2 marks
Total: 4 marks
 Topic 2.1: moleculAR biology
Metabolism

Metabolism describes the totality of chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
•  It is the web of all enzyme–catalysed reactions that occur within a particular cell or organism

Molecular biology explains these biological processes in terms of the chemical substances (molecules) involved

Organic Compounds Biomacromolecules

Organic compounds are molecules that contain carbon There are four main groups of organic compounds in cells:
and are found in living things •  Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
•  Exceptions include carbonates and oxides of carbon
Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are all made up of
Carbon atoms form the basis of organic life due to their recurring subunits (monomers)
capacity to form four covalent bonds
•  This allows a diversity of stable compounds to exist CLASS MONOMER POLYMER
Carbohydrate Monosaccharide Polysaccharide
Protein Amino acid Polypeptide
4 valence 4 empty
Nucleic Acid Nucleotide DNA / RNA
electrons slots

Lipids are not composed of repeating monomers, but may

contain smaller subunits (e.g. triglycerides)
CARBON ATOM CLASS SUBUNITS
CONFIGURATION
6 ELECTRONS 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0 Triglyceride Glycerol + Fatty Acid (×3)

Types of Reactions

Anabolism Catabolism
•  The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones •  The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones
•  Involves condensation reactions (water is produced) •  Involves hydrolysis reactions (water is consumed)
•  An example of an anabolic reaction is photosynthesis •  An example of a catabolic reaction is cellular respiration

ANABOLISM via CONDENSATION CATABOLISM via HYDROLYSIS

Small molecules join into Large︎ molecule Large molecule breaks to Small︎ molecules

Water produced ✓ H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O ✗ Water consumed

Vitalism

Theory of Vitalism Falsification of Vitalism

Vitalism was a doctrine that dictated that organic molecules In 1828, Frederick Woehler disproved the theory of vitalism
could only be synthesized by living systems by artificially synthesizing an organic molecule
•  Living organisms were thought to possess a “vital force” •  He heated an inorganic salt (ammonium cyanate) under
that was required to manufacture organic molecules laboratory conditions to produce urea (organic)
 Topic 2.2: WATER
Water Structure Hydrogen Bonding

Water is made up of two hydrogen atoms covalently The dipolarity of the water molecule enables it to form polar
bonded to an oxygen atom (molecular formula: H2O) associations with other charged molecules (polar or ionic)

Oxygen has a higher electronegativity and attracts the Water molecules can also form hydrogen bonds with other
shared electrons more strongly, resulting in polarity water molecules (between an δ+ hydrogen and an δ– oxygen)

δ–
O O

H H δ+ H H δ+

Water Structure Water Polarity Hydrogen bonds

Cohesive Properties Solvent Properties

Water can form intermolecular associations with other
molecules that share common properties (e.g. polarity)
•  Water can form hydrogen bonds with other water
molecules (cohesion: like molecules stick together)
•  Water can form polar associations with charged
molecules (adhesion: unlike molecules stick together)
Water is commonly referred to as the universal solvent due to its
capacity to dissolve a large number of substances (ionic / polar)
•  Large quantities of water molecules can sufficiently weaken
forces (e.g. ionic bonds) and form dispersive hydration shells
Substances that can dissolve in water are called hydrophilic
•  Includes glucose, amino acids, sodium chloride, oxygen (low)

The cohesive properties of water results in a relatively Substances that cannot dissolve in water are called hydrophobic
high surface tension (can resist low level external forces) •  Includes lipids (fats and cholesterol)

The adhesive properties of water allow for potential These solvent properties make water an important medium for
capillary action (e.g. transpiration stream in plants) metabolic reactions, as well as a necessary transport medium

Thermal Properties Water versus Methane

Water has the capacity to absorb large amounts of heat
energy before undergoing a resultant change in state
•  Extensive hydrogen bonding must first be broken
Water therefore has a very high specific heat capacity
•  Energy required to raise temperature of 1g by 1ºC
These properties make water a very effective coolant
•  Evaporation of sweat requires absorption of heat
Water and methane differ in thermal properties despite having
similar structures (comparable weight, size, valence structure)
The differences are due to the polarity of water and its capacity
to form intermolecular hydrogen bonds
METHANE WATER
δ+

δ+
δ–
Other Properties

Formula CH4 H2O

Water is transparent, allowing light to pass through it
•  Important for photosynthesis and also for vision Polarity Non-polar Polar

Heat Capacity
Water expands when frozen, becoming less dense (J.g–1.ºC–1) 2.20 4.186
•  Important for life on Earth as it means ice floats and
the oceans underneath don’t automatically freeze Boiling Point (ºC) –161 100
 Topic 2.3: CARBOHyDRATES
Monosaccharides Polysaccharides

The monomer of a carbohydrate is called a monosaccharide Monosaccharides are covalently joined by glycosidic linkages
•  Monosaccharides primarily function as an energy source to form polymers (requires condensation reactions)

Examples of monosaccharides include glucose and ribose Monosaccharides may be joined into disaccharides for ease
of transport, or may form more complex polysaccharides
CH2OH
O HOCH2 O OH
Polysaccharides may be used for a variety of cell functions:
•  Short term energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch)
OH •  Structural components (e.g. cellulose)
HO OH •  Recognition / receptors (e.g. glycoproteins)
OH OH OH
The carbohydrate formed depends on the monosaccharide
Glucose Ribose subunits used and the bonding arrangement between them

Types of Polysaccharides

Cellulose (component of plant cell wall) Cellulose Amylose

•  Linear molecule made of β-glucose subunits
•  Subunits bound in a 1-4 arrangement

Starch (energy storage in plants)

•  Composed of α-glucose subunits and exists in two forms
•  Amylose is linear (helical) and bound in 1-4 arrangements Glycogen Amylopectin
•  Amylopectin is branched (bound in 1-4 and 1-6 arrangements)

Glycogen (energy storage in animals)

•  Branched molecule composed of α-glucose subunits
•  Is like amylopectin but with more frequent 1-6 bonding

Energy Storage Body Mass Index

Carbohydrates and lipids are both used as energy storage
molecules, however they differ in certain key aspects:
•  Storage (lipids used for long term storage)
•  Osmotic pressure (lipids easier to store)
•  Digestion (carbohydrates easier to utilise)
•  ATP yield (lipids store more energy per gram)
•  Solubility (lipids insoluble / harder to transport)
While carbohydrates (and lipids) are important components
of a healthy diet, excess intake can affect body mass
The body mass index (BMI) can be calculated as follows:
•  BMI = Mass in kg ÷ (Height in m)2
BMI can be calculated with an alignment chart (nomogram)
150

Carbohydrate Lipid Obese

Weight (kilograms)

130

Storage Short term Long term 110

a l
Osmolality More effect Less effect 90 Nor m
Digestion Easier to digest Harder to digest 70
Underweight
ATP Yield Smaller Larger (~2×)
50
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2
Solubility Soluble (mono-/dimer) Insoluble in water Height (metres)
 Topic 2.3: LIPIDS
Functions of Lipids Triglycerides

Lipids are a class of non-polar organic molecules
•  Include triglyceride (adipose tissue), phospholipid (bilayer),
cholesterol (animal cell membrane), steroids (hormones)
Triglycerides are lipids used for long-term energy storage
They are composed of a glycerol molecule covalently linked
to three fatty acid chains (via condensation reactions)

Lipids may serve a variety of cellular functions, including: H O

FATTY ACIDS
•  Storage of energy (triglycerides) H C O

GLYCEROL
O
•  Hormonal roles (steroids)
H C O O
•  Insulation (thermal)
•  Protection of organs H C O
•  Structural roles (cholesterol) ×3
H

Fatty Acids

Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains found in certain lipids Unsaturated fatty acids occur in two distinct configurations
•  Principally found in triglycerides and phospholipids
Cis Isomer Trans Isomer
Saturated Fatty Acids
•  Possess no double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain
•  Are generally solid at room temperatures (e.g. animal fat)

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

•  Possess double bonds (mono = one ; poly = many) H atoms on the same side H atoms on different sides
•  Are generally liquid at room temperature (e.g. plant oils) Double bond creates Double bond does not
kink in fatty acid chain create kink (linear chain)
O Are loosely packed and Are tightly packed and
Carboxylic
Hydrocarbon H3C (CH2 )n C usually liquid usually solid
group
OH
Occur commonly in nature Occurs in processed food
General Structure of a Saturated Fatty Acid Generally good for health Generally bad for health

Lipid Health Risks

Fats and cholesterol cannot dissolve in the blood and so are

Saturated and
packaged with proteins (as lipoproteins) for transport “BAD” trans fats raise
•  Low density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport cholesterol cholesterol
from the liver to the rest of the body (bad for health) Cholesterol ✗
LDL
•  High density lipoproteins (HDLs) scavenge excess
cholesterol and return it to the liver for disposal (good) deposits

Fatty acids can influence the levels of lipoproteins:

•  Cis fats raise levels of HDL (➡ blood cholesterol) removes
Liver
•  Saturated fats raise levels of LDL ( ︎︎ blood cholesterol) Artery
•  Trans fats raise levels of LDL and lower levels of HDL
✓
Cholesterol HDL
High levels of blood cholesterol can cause atherosclerosis Cis fats lower
Breakdown
and lead to health issues like coronary heart disease (CHD) “GOOD” cholesterol
 Topic 2.4: PROTEINS
Amino Acids Peptide Bonds

The monomer of a protein is called an amino acid Amino acids are covalently joined by peptide bonds to form
•  Amino acids are linked together to form polypeptides polypeptide chains (requires condensation reactions)

There are 20 different amino acids that form polypeptides The sequence of amino acids is encoded by genes and the
•  These can be linked in any sequence to create variation assembly of a polypeptide chain occurs at the ribosome

H H H
H O H O H O
Amine Carboxyl
group C group H N C C N C C OH
H N C OH

R Variable side chain R Peptide R

bond
Structure of a Generalised Amino Acid Structure of a Dipeptide

Protein Structure

Primary Structure
•  Order of amino acid sequence 1º A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
•  Formed by covalent peptide bonds

Secondary Structure
•  Folding into repeat patterns (α-helix or β-pleated sheet)
2º OR
•  By hydrogen bonds between amine and carboxyl groups
α-helix β-sheet
Tertiary Structure
•  Overall three-dimensional arrangement of a polypeptide
•  Determined by interactions between variable side chains
3º 4º
Quaternary Structure (optional)
•  Presence of multiple polypeptides or prosthetic groups

Functions of Proteins Denaturation

Proteins are a very diverse class of compounds that may Denaturation is a structural change in a protein that results
serve a wide range of functions within the cell, including: in the loss (usually permanent) of its biological properties
•  Structure (collagen, spider silk)
Denaturation can be caused by certain conditions:
•  Hormonal (insulin, glucagon)
•  Temperature (heat may break structural bonds)
•  Immunity (immunoglobulins)
•  pH (alters protein charge ➡︎ changes solubility & shape)
•  Transport (haemoglobin)
•  Sensation (rhodopsin)
•  Movement (actin, myosin)
•  Enzymatic (Rubisco, catalase)

The totality of all proteins that are expressed within a cell,

tissue or organism at a certain time is called the proteome
•  The proteome of any given individual will be unique as
protein expression patterns are influenced by a genome Folded Protein Unfolded (Denatured)
Biochemistry Review
Matching: Match the molecule with its class of macromolecules
A. carbohydrates B. lipid C. protein D. nucleic acid

_____ 1. glycogen _____ 5. cholesterol _____ 9. ATP/AMP _____ 13. collagen

_____ 2. hemoglobin _____ 6. a gene _____ 10. triglyceride _____ 14. immunoglobulins
_____ 3. cellulose _____7. chitin _____ 11. rhodopsin _____15. RuBisCo
_____ 4. testosterone _____ 8. ribose _____ 12. cholesterol _____ 16. mRNA

Multiple Choice: Answer the following by circling the correct letter

____1. Dehydration synthesis is a process that
a. creates bonds between amino acids in the formation of a peptide chain
b. involves the removal of a water molecule
c. is a condensation reaction
d. involves all of the above
____2. Which of the following is not true of cellulose?
a. it is the most abundant organic compound on earth
b. it differs from starch because of the b configuration of glucose
c. it is a highly branched, strong structural component of cell walls
d. few organisms have enzymes that hydrolyze
____3. Plants store most of their energy as
a. glucose c. starch
b. glycogen d. sucrose
____4. A fatty acid that has the formula C16H32O2 is
a. saturated c. polyunsaturated
b. unsaturated d. liquid at room temperature
____5. Three molecules of the fatty acid in question 4 are joined to a molecule of glycerol (C3H8O3). The resulting
molecule has the formula
a. C48H96O6 b. C51H102O8
a. C51H104O9 c. C51H98O6
____8. Beta sheets are characterized by
a. disulfide bridges between cysteine amino acids
b. back and forth folds of the polypeptide chain held together by hydrophobic interactions
c. folds stabilized by hydrogen bonds between segments of polypeptide chains running in opposite directions
d. membrane sheets composed of phospholipids
____10. The picture below shows

a. Trans unsaturated fatty acid c. Trans saturated fatty acid

b. Cis unsaturated fatty acid d. Cis saturated fatty acid
Fill in the blanks

1. The nitrogenous base absent in RNA is ____________________________ .

2. Cytosine always pairs with __________________________.
3. Adenine and guanine are _____________________________.
4. _________________________ structure is found in proteins with more than one peptide chain.
5. The conformation (shape) of a protein is determined by its ________________ structure.
6. The short term energy storage molecule of animals is ___________________________.
7. Membranes are composed of a bilayer of _______________________________.
8. The linkages between amino acids in a protein are called ______________________.
9. ____________________ must be transported in the blood by lipoproteins
10. Water molecules are polar because the _________________ end of the molecule is slightly negative and the
__________________ end of the molecule is slightly positive.
11. Sucrose, lactose, and maltose are examples of _____________________.
12. ___________________ fatty acids contain only single bonds between carbons.
13. _______________bonds are found between nitrogen bases of nucleotides in DNA.
14. _______________ bonds connect sugar and phosphates in DNA.
15. Complete the table for the properties of water.
Property Description Example of Benefit in Living Things

Cohesion

Adhesion

Thermal

Solvent

16. List a terms to describe the breakdown of polymers into monomers.

17. List 2 terms to describe the formation of polymers from monomers.

18. Draw an amino acid.

19. Draw and label a nucleotide.

20. Complete the chart detailing the functions of several proteins
Enzyme used by plants for carbon fixation
Used to regulate blood sugar by storing glucose as glycogen
Also known as antibodies, fight infections
Enables vision in low-light conditions
Promotes skin elasticity and found in ligaments
Very strong protein that is (by weight) stronger than steel

21. What type of molecule is shown below? Annotate the diagram.

22. Label each molecule in the diagram below. What process is occurring?

23. Two carbohydrate molecules – amylose and glycogen – are shown below. Label each.
Identifying Molecular Diagrams (on next two pages) Word Bank:
Label each diagram using the word bank provided. a. Alpha Glucose
b. Amino Acid
c. Beta Glucose
d. Basic structure for
fatty acids
e. Cis Unsaturated
Fatty Acid
f. Dipeptide
g. Disaccharide
h. Polysaccharide
i. Nucleotide
j. Saturated Fatty
Acid
k. Cholesterol
l. Trans Unsaturated
Fatty Acid
m. Triglyceride
n. Ribose
o. Unsaturated Fatty
Acid
p. Saturated Fatty
Acid
q. Purine
In the reaction below, list which letter(s) indicate each of the following:

Amino acid _______ Dipeptide _______ Dehydration synthesis _______ Hydrolysis _______

Catabolism _______ Condensation Reaction _______ Anabolism _______

 Topic 2.5: EnzymES
Catalysis

An enzyme is a globular protein which speeds up the rate of a chemical

equation by lowering the activation energy (i.e. it is a biological catalyst)
•  Enzymes are not consumed by the reactions and can be re-used Active site

The molecule(s) the enzyme reacts with is called the substrate, which Substrate
binds to a complementary region on the enzyme’s surface (active site) Enzyme

Specificity

Lock and Key Model Induced Fit Model

•  Enzyme and substrate complement each other precisely •  Active site is not a rigid fit for the substrate and changes
in terms of both their shape and chemical properties its conformation to better accommodate the substrate
•  The active site and the substrate will share specificity •  This stresses the substrate bonds and induces catalysis

Substrate Products Substrate Products

Catalysis Catalysis

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity Enzyme Kinetics

Temperature The rate of enzyme catalysis can be increased by increasing

•  Increases enzyme activity (more kinetic energy = more collisions) the frequency of enzyme-substrate collisions (molecular motion)
•  Enzyme activity peaks at an optimal temperature
The rate of enzyme catalysis is decreased by denaturation
•  Higher temperatures decrease activity (causes denaturation)

pH
•  Enzyme activity is highest at an optimal pH range Denatured
•  Activity decreases outside of this range (due to denaturation) Specificity

Substrate Concentration
•  Increases enzyme activity (more particles = more collisions) Industrial Enzymes
•  At a certain point, activity plateaus (saturation of active sites)
Immobilised enzymes are often used in industrial practices
•  They are fixed to a static surface to prevent enzyme loss
•  This improves separation of product and purity of yield
Rate
Rate

One application for immobilised enzymes is the production

of lactose-free milk and associated dairy products
•  Lactase (enzyme) digests lactose into glucose / galactose
Graph 1 Graph 2
•  Lactase is fixed to an inert surface (e.g. alginate beads)
•  Milk is passed over this surface to become lactose free
Key:
Graph 1 – Temperature There are several benefits associated with lactose-free milk:
Rate

Graph 2 – pH level •  Provides a source of dairy for lactose-intolerant people

•  Increases sweetness of milk (less need for sweeteners)
Graph 3 – Substrate level
Graph 3 •  Reduces crystallization and production times for cheese
25. Which of the following will cause an enzyme to permanently lose its properties?

I. Hydrolysis II. Freezing to –20°C III. Dissolving it in water

A. I only B. II only C. I and II only D. I and III only

26. The graph below shows the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activity. What conclusion can be
drawn about section X of the graph?

A. The enzyme has started to denature and the reaction slows down.

B. The reaction has finished and the substrate has been used up.

C. The enzyme is saturated and is working at its maximum reaction rate.

D. Some of the enzyme has been consumed and the reaction has reached a plateau.

27. . Which variable has the least effect on enzyme activity?

A. Temperature B. Light intensity C. pH D. Substrate concentration

28. Define the term active site.

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(1)

29. Describe the use of biotechnology in the production of lactose-free milk.

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 Topic 2.8: CELL RESPIRATIOn
Cell Respiration ATP

Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a molecule that functions as an
from organic compounds to produce ATP immediate source of energy when hydrolysed (to form ADP)

The main organic compounds used are carbohydrates Pi

(i.e. glucose), but lipids or proteins may also be used +
ATP ADP
•  Different organic compounds will have distinct
breakdown pathways and so have varied ATP yields High-energy bond Free energy

Glycolysis Anaerobic versus Aerobic Respiration

Cell respiration begins with the break down of glucose Pyruvate (from glycolysis) will follow one of two pathways:
via a process called glycolysis (occurs in the cytosol)
Anaerobic Respiration
•  Glucose is broken down into pyruvate (×2)
•  Occurs in the cytosol and does not require oxygen
•  There is a small ATP yield (net gain = 2 ATP)
•  Results in a small energy yield (2 ATP from glycolysis)
•  Requires the reduction of NAD+ (to form NADH)
•  Forms lactic acid (animals) or ethanol and CO2 (plants / yeast)
•  Also known as fermentation and is reversible
2× ATP NAD+ ADP
Aerobic Respiration
•  Occurs in the mitochondria and requires oxygen
Pyruvate •  Results in a large energy yield (~36 ATP per glucose)
Glucose ADP NADH 4× ATP
(×2) •  Forms carbon dioxide and water
INVEST PAYOFF •  Uses hydrogen carriers to make ATP (oxidative phosphorylation)

Fermentation Respirometry

Fermentation is a reversible anaerobic process that allows
ATP production to continue in the absence of oxygen
Fermentation restores NAD+ stocks (needed in glycolysis)
to ensure a continued production of ATP (by glycolysis)
Fermentation in animals produces lactic acid, and is used
to maximise muscle contractions when oxygen is limited
•  This reaction can be reversed when oxygen is restored
A respirometer determines an organism’s respiration rate by
measuring either carbon dioxide production or oxygen uptake
•  Commonly used for invertebrates or germinating seeds
A simple respirometer may involve the use of a manometer:
•  An organism is sealed in a container with a CO2 absorbant
•  Oxygen uptake creates a pressure change which displaces
the fluid in the manometer (allowing for quantitation)

Fermentation in plants and yeast produce ethanol and

CO2 gas which can be used in baking (leavening dough)
•  Also for the production of alcohol, yogurts and cheese

GLYCOLYSIS FERMENTATION

glucose lactate ethanol + CO2

NAD+
ATP
NADH Platform A: Manometer Platform B:
Specimen and pressure change Equivalent
pyruvate CO2 absorbant moves the water volume / mass
 Topic 8.2: AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Redox Reactions Glycolysis

Biological energy can be stored or released by redox reactions Aerobic respiration is preceded by glycolysis (anaerobic)
•  Oxidation is the Loss of electrons / hydrogen (OIL) •  Glucose is broken down to form two pyruvate molecules
•  Reduction is the Gain of electrons / hydrogen (RIG)
The process of glycolysis involves four basic stages:
Oxidation Reduction •  Glucose is phosphorylated by ATP (becomes less stable)
•  The 6C sugar splits (lysis) into two triose phosphates (3C)
Electrons Loss Gain •  3C sugars are oxidised to form reduced carriers (NADH)
Hydrogen Loss Gain •  A small amount of ATP is produced (net gain = 2 ATP)

Oxygen Gain Loss OIL RIG 2 ATP 2 NAD+

Electron carriers transfer chemical energy via redox reactions Glucose GLYCOLYSIS Pyruvate (×2)
•  Organic molecules are oxidised to form reduced carriers
•  The reduced carriers may then be oxidised to form ATP 2 NADH 4 ATP

Aerobic Respiration

Link Reaction:
Glycolysis (CYTOSOL)
•  Pyruvate transported from cytosol to mitochondrial matrix
•  Pyruvate oxidised to produce a reduced carrier (NADH) Glucose
4 ATP
•  Pyruvate decarboxylated to form acetyl CoA (CO2 produced) 2 ATP
2 NADH 4 ATP
Krebs Cycle: 2× Pyruvate
•  Acetyl CoA is combined with a 4C compound (forms 6C) 2 NADH 6 ATP
•  6C compound broken down into original 4C (CO2 produced) Acetyl-CoA
•  This involves oxidation reactions (NADH / FADH2 formed)
2 ATP
•  There is also a small yield of ATP (one per cycle)
Krebs 6 NADH ATP
Electron Transport Chain: 18
Cycle
•  Reduced carriers are oxidised at the electron transport chain 2 FADH2 4 ATP
•  The energy is used to make ATP (via oxidative phosphorylation) Substrate level phosphorylation
•  32 ATP molecules are made from the reduced carriers Total net yield: 36
Oxidative phosphorylation

Oxidative Phosphorylation

•  Carrier molecules donate electrons (oxidation) to an electron Intermembrane Space: High [ H+ ]

transport chain located on the mitochondrial cristae
•  The electrons lose energy as they are passed along the chain, H+ H+ H+

which is used to pump protons (H+ ions) from the matrix

•  The build up of protons in the intermembrane space creates
an electrochemical gradient (proton motive force)
•  Protons return to the matrix via a transmembrane enzyme e-
e-
(ATP synthase), which uses the translocation to make ATP ATP
NADH H+ H2O O2
•  The de-energised electrons are removed from the chain by H+
oxygen (final electron acceptor), forming water as a by-product
Mitochondrial Matrix: Low [ H+ ]
Cell Respiration 2.8 and 8.2

1. Which of the following is the best definition of cell respiration?

A. A process needed to use energy, in the form of ATP, to produce organic compounds

B. A process used to provide oxygen to the atmosphere

C. A controlled release of energy, in the form of ATP, from organic compounds in cells

D. A controlled release of energy in the production of food from organic compounds

2. How do cells capture the energy released by cell respiration?

A. They store it in molecules of carbon dioxide. B. They produce glucose.

C. The energy is released as pyruvate. D. They produce ATP.

3. Which process produces the most ATP per molecule of glucose?

A. Anaerobic respiration in a yeast cell

B. Aerobic respiration in a bacterial cell

C. Glycolysis in a human liver cell

D. The formation of lactic acid in a human muscle cell

4. Humans can respire aerobically and anaerobically. Which are products of both aerobic cell respiration
and anaerobic cell respiration in humans?

A. Pyruvate and ATP B. Pyruvate and lactate

C. ATP and carbon dioxide D. Lactate and carbon dioxide

5. Which of the following is true of the link reaction of aerobic respiration?

A. The reduction of FAD+ occurs. C. It occurs in the cytoplasm.

B. The decarboxylation of pyruvate occurs. D. The regeneration of NAD+ occurs.

6. What is required for ATP synthesis in mitochondria?

A. Active pumping of protons into the matrix

B. Diffusion of protons out of the matrix

C. Accumulation of protons in the intermembrane space

D. Accumulation of protons in the matrix

7. The electron micrograph below shows an organelle in a eukaryotic cell. What is the area labelled X
and what is the type of reaction occurring there?

X Reaction
A. matrix photolysis
B. stroma Krebs cycle
C. stroma photolysis
D. matrix Krebs cycle

8. The diagram below shows a biochemical pathway in a yeast cell. Which of the following correctly
identifies a compound in the diagram?

A. I is fat.

B. II is pyruvate.

C. III is lactate.

D. IV is carbon dioxide.
9. Where is carbon dioxide produced in the mitochondrion?

10. State the products of anaerobic respiration by yeast and give an application of each in society.
(4)

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11. Compare how pyruvate is used in human cells when oxygen is available and when oxygen is not
available.
(5)

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11. The diagram below shows part of the respiratory pathway. The number of carbon atoms in each
molecule is indicated.

(a) (i) Label pyruvate and acetyl coenzyme A on the diagram above.
(1)

(ii) Indicate two places where decarboxylation occurs on the diagram.

(1)

(b) State precisely where in a cell this stage of respiration is occurring.

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(1)

12. Explain the process of aerobic respiration including oxidative phosphorylation.

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 Topic 2.9: PHOTOSynTHESIS
Photosynthesis Light Spectrum

Photosynthesis involves the use of light energy to synthesise Visible light has a range of wavelengths (~ 400 – 700 nm)
organic compounds from inorganic molecules •  Violet has the shortest wavelength, red has the longest

Light The Visible Spectrum

6 CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
Chlorophyll
Carbon Water Glucose Oxygen Water
dioxide 700 nm 400 nm

Light Absorption

Pigments are required for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy in photosynthetic organisms
Chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment, although other accessory pigments also exist (e.g. carotenoids)
•  Chlorophyll absorbs red light and blue light most effectively and reflects green light more than other colours

An absorption spectrum (left) indicates the wavelengths of light absorbed by each photosynthetic pigment (e.g. chlorophyll)

An action spectrum (right) indicates the overall rate of photosynthetic activity at each wavelength of light
Relative absorption

Photosynthetic rate

carotenoid
chlorophyll a
chlorophyll b

400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700

Wavelength of light (nm) Wavelength of light (nm)

Stages of Photosynthesis

Light Dependent Reactions Light Independent Reactions

Light energy is converted into chemical energy Carbon compounds are made from the chemical energy
•  Light is absorbed by chlorophyll to produce ATP •  ATP and hydrogen are fixed with carbon dioxide
•  The photolysis of water forms oxygen and hydrogen •  This results in the formation of organic molecules

Light energy Carbon dioxide NADPH ATP

Water Chlorophyll Chemical energy

Carbon fixation
e–
Oxygen Hydrogen NADPH ATP Organic compounds Cell Processes

Chromatography Limiting Factors

Pigments can be separated by chromatography
•  Pigments are dissolved in fluid
•  The fluid is passed through a static material
•  Pigments are separated according to size
A retardation factor (Rf value) is calculated:
Rf = distance of pigment ÷ distance of solvent
When a process depends on more than one condition, the
rate will be limited by the factor nearest its minimum value
Limiting factors in photosynthesis include:
•  Temperature (influences photosynthetic enzymes)
•  Light intensity (required for chlorophyll photoactivation)
•  Carbon dioxide concentrations (CO2 is a core substrate)
 Topic 8.3: PHOTOSynTHESIS

Stages of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a two-step process:

•  The light dependent reactions occur in the thylakoids and convert light energy into chemical energy (ATP + NADPH)
•  The light independent reactions occur in the stroma and use this chemical energy to make organic compounds

Light Dependent Reactions

Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation Cyclic Photophosphorylation

•  Chlorophyll in Photosystems I and II absorb light, which
triggers the release of energised electrons (photoactivation)
•  The electrons from PS I reduce NADP (forms NADPH)
•  The electrons from PS II move through an electron
transport chain before replacing the electrons from PS I
•  The transport chain produces ATP (photophosphorylation)
•  Electrons lost from PS II are replaced by water (photolysis)
•  Only chlorophyll in Photosystem I are activated by light
•  The electrons move through an electron transport chain
before returning to their original location (i.e. cyclic)
•  The transport chain produces ATP (photophosphorylation)
•  Cyclic photophosphorylation does not produce NADPH
•  Hence, while cyclic photophosphorylation can produce
usable energy (ATP), it cannot produce organic molecules

STROMA NADPH STROMA

Light Light ATP Light ATP
NADP
e- e- e-

e- e- e-

H2O H+ H+
O2
THYLAKOID THYLAKOID

Photosystem II (P680) Photosystem I (P700) Photosystem I (P700)

Light Independent Reactions

Step 1: Carbon Fixation

3 × CO2
•  Rubisco catalyses the carboxylation of RuBP (requires CO2)
Step 1:
•  This forms two 3C compounds called GP
3 × RuBP Carbon GP × 6
Fixation
Step 2: Reduction of GP ATP
ATP
•  GP is phosphorylated by ATP and reduced by NADPH Step 3: Step 2: ADP
•  This converts each GP molecule into a TP molecule ADP Regeneration Reduction
+ Pi
of RUBP of GP
+ Pi
Step 3: Regeneration of RuBP NADPH
•  One molecule of TP is used to form half a sugar 1 × TP
TP NADP+
(two complete cycles are needed to form a glucose molecule)
×6 + H+
•  The remaining TP molecules are used to reform RuBP ½ × sugar

Lollipop Experiment

The light independent reactions were elucidated by Melvin Calvin (i.e. Calvin cycle) using a ‘lollipop’-shaped apparatus
•  Radioactive CO2 was incorporated to identify the different carbon compounds (involves chromatography and autoradiography)
Photosynthesis 2.8 and 8.3

1. Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis. What is the source of this oxygen inside the plant?

A. Air spaces in the leaf B. Carbon dioxide. C. Glucose D. Water

2. Which variable has the least effect on enzyme activity?

A. Temperature B. Light intensity

C. pH D. Substrate concentration

3. What conclusion can be drawn from examining the action spectrum for a green plant shown below?

A. Yellow light is the most effective at promoting photosynthesis.

B. Every color of light is equally effective at promoting photosynthesis.

C. Light of wavelength 550 nm is least effective at promoting photosynthesis.

D. Light in the green range is the most effective at promoting photosynthesis.

4. What is the source of the oxygen released into the air as a product of photosynthesis?

A. Chlorophyll B. Carbon dioxide only

C. Water only D. Both water and carbon dioxide

5. The photosynthetic activity of desert plants is often reduced in the middle of the day. What is the most
reasonable explanation for this fact?

A. Enzymes are denatured by the high temperatures.

B. There is not sufficient water for photosystem I.

C. Most of the light is reflected by the thick cuticle.

D. The stomata close to preserve water and gas exchange decreases.

6. A plant is exposed to increasing light intensity from very dim to bright light, while the carbon dioxide
concentration and temperature are kept at an optimum level. What will happen to the rate of oxygen
production?

A. It will increase exponentially. B. It will remain constant.

C. It will decrease to a minimum level. D. It will increase to a maximum level.

7. Where is chlorophyll found in a plant cell?

A. Thylakoid membranes B. Stroma C. Matrix D. Cristae

8. What is produced by the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis and used in the Calvin cycle?

A. Hydrogen and oxygen B. ATP and NADPH

C. NADPH and oxygen D. ATP and CO2

(

9. Where are the light-dependent and light-independent

reactions taking place in the diagram below?

Light-dependent Light-independent
A. I IV
B. II III
C. III II
D. IV I

10. Where are complex carbohydrates made in the chloroplast?

A. In the intermembrane space B. In the stroma

C. On the inner membrane D. In the thylakoid space

11. What is the advantage of having a small volume inside the thylakoids of the chloroplast?

A. High proton concentrations are rapidly developed.

B. High electron concentrations are rapidly developed.

C. Photosynthetic pigments are highly concentrated.

D. Enzymes of the Calvin cycle are highly concentrated.

12.

(a) Outline how light energy is used and how organic molecules are made in photosynthesis.
(5)

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(b) Outline the role of chlorophyll and the effects of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide
concentration on the rate of photosynthesis.

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13. Outline the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

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14. Explain how triose phosphate is produced and used in the chloroplasts of a plant.

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