08/02/2024

Biology Unit 1
Cell
Biology
(AQA)
Eukaryotic cells
- Cells have a nucleus
- Examples: plant, animal and yeast cells

Prokaryotic cells
-No nucleus
-Example: Bacterial cells

Bacterial cells (prokaryotic cells) are much smaller than

eukaryotes.
 Cell biology

Controls the activity in the cell. Contains the DNA

Nucleus (chromosomes and genes). Carries the instructions for making
new cells.
A jelly like liquid where most the chemical reactions take place.
Cytoplasm
Controls what comes in and out of the cell (gas exchange)
Cell membrane
The site of respiration, oxygen is used here to release energy
Mitochondria for the body.
Protein synthesis. All the proteins needed in the cell are made
Ribosomes here.
Found in green parts of a plant, they contain chlorophyll.
Chloroplasts Chlorophyll is needed to absorb sunlight during photosynthesis.
Bacteria are single celled organisms which
contain:
cytoplasm cell membrane cell wall
no distinct nucleus
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Bacterial cell
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Specialised cells (animals)

Cell Function adaptations

Muscle For contractions -The mitochondria give the cell energy to
For movement contract.

- The filaments help the muscle cell

contract.

sperm Fertilise egg cell - Lots of mitochondria

- Enzyme to digest egg cell membrane
- Tail for movement
- Nucleus: genetic info
Nerve Carries electrical - Dendrites to connect to other nerve
impulses cells
- Mitochondria
- Long
Specialised plant cells:
Xylem and phloem cells form
long tubes

The xylem:
- transports water and
dissolved mineral
(Transpiration)
- Hollow tubes strengthened
with lignin.

The phloem:
- transports dissolved foods to
growth and storage areas
(translocation).
- Elongated cells
Root hair cells

The function of the root hair cell is to absorb water

and dissolved mineral ions from the soil.

The root hair cell is adapted to carry out this

function.
The root hair cell has a large surface area to make
it effective at absorbing water and dissolved
mineral ions.
Starter: What is the definition of a specialised
Where do specialised cells
cell?
How many can you name?
come from?!
Specialised cell = a cell adapted to do a particular job

Stem cells
Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can develop into any
type of cell.
In animals once a stem cells has differentiated into a
specialised cell it can never turn back.
stem cells

red blood cells liver cells

muscle cells
 Stem cells are unspecialised cells that are able to
differentiate into many different types of cells.
In plants
In animals: - Referred to as meristems. Meristems
- Embryonic stem cells (differentiate differentiate into specialised cells but
into any type of cell) they also possess the ability to
- Adult stem cells (differentiate into a repeatedly develop. This means that
limited number of cell types.) plants can regenerate their organs
multiple times, for example grow new
Once embryonic or adult stem cells have leaves or flowers!
become differentiated they will only be
responsible for carrying out their Animals do not have the ability to
specific roles. regenerate organs like plant cell do.
 8 February 2024

USES of stem cells

Therapeutic cloning
• Is were an embryo is produced with
the same genes as the patients
• Stem cells are not rejected by the
patients body, so may be used for
medical treatment
• Potential Risks:
– transfer of viral infections
– Ethical and religious objections
 8 February 2024

• Stems cells from meristems in plants

can be used to produce clones of
plants quickly and economically:
– Rare species can be cloned from
extinction
– Crop plants with special features such as
disease resistance can be cloned to
produce large numbers of identical
plants for framers
Calculating the size of an object
If you are told the actual size of a structure on a
photomicrograph (A) and you measure its image size on the
photomicrograph (I), in µm (mm x 1000) you can calculate
the magnification factor (M) using the formula:

Remember: You
must make sure
you are using the
same units of
measurement for
image size and
actual size!!
 mm

1000 1000
Micrometrer
e

1000 1000

nm
We have 46 chromosomes in almost all of the cells in our
bodies.

Gametes 23 chromosomes
 Mitosis
Organisms grow and undergo repair and multiplication of
cells

Cells divide in a series of stages called the cell cycle.

The highly magnified image of onion cells shows different

cells at different stages of the mitosis. You may be asked to
identify the different stages in an exam.
The parent cell has yet to start changing.

The chromosomes are duplicated. At the same time

the cell makes extra mitochondria and ribosomes.

The chromosomes line up along the centre of the cell

– this is the start of MITOSIS.

Each set of chromosomes is pulled to opposite ends

of the cell and the nucleus divides.

The cytoplasm and cell membranes divide to form two

identical cells.

We now have two identical daughter cells.

 Cell biology
Diffusion
• Net movement of particles from an
area of high concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
• No energy involved
• Bigger the difference in
concentration and higher
temperature the faster the rate of
diffusion
• Dissolved substances such as
glucose, urea and gases are
transported this way.
Active Transport
• Movement of particles from
an area of low concentration
to an area of higher
concentration
• Requires energy
• Allows plant root hair to
absorb mineral ions from the
soil
• Allows sugar molecules to be
absorbed from lower
concentrations in the gut
 Cell biology

Osmosis
• Movement of water from a Exchanging materials
high water concentration • Single celled
(dilute solution) to a low
organisms have
water concentration
(concentrated solution) relatively large
through a partially surface area : volume
permeable membrane ratio
• No energy involved
• Exchange surfaces
usually have large
surface area, thin
walls, and an efficient
blood supply
 08/02/2024

• RP: osmosis

• % change = Difference X 100

original
 Organisation
Enzymes
 Speed up reactions
 Biological catalysts
 Enzymes lower the activation
energy needed by reactions
and are protein molecules
made up of long chains of
amino acids.
 The chains are folded to
make an active site.
 The substrate (thing being
broken down) needs to fit
exactly into the active site
for the break down to occur.
 Enzymes are specific.
 Enzymes work best at
specific temperatures
and pH.
 High temperatures and
the wrong pH can change
the shape of the active
site. This means that the
substrate won’t fit the
active site exactly, so
break down can’t occur.
 Metabolism is the sum of
all chemical reactions in
the body
 08/02/2024

08/02/2024

Organisation
AQA 2016 Biology topic 2
 08/02/2024

Recap of The Digestive System

Match these functions with the parts of the digestive
system that do them… In here the food is chewed to
start breaking it down. An
This tube uses muscle
enzyme (amylase) is also added.
contractions to push the food
down

Bile is produced here

Bile is stored This organ mixes the

here food with
hydrochloric acid to
Excess water is kill bacteria and also
absorbed here produces enzymes

Food is absorbed into the More enzymes

bloodstream here are made here

The digestive system is an example of an organ system in

which several organs work together to digest and absorb
food.
 08/02/2024

Introduction to Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts. They help the reactions

that occur in our bodies by controlling the rate of reaction.

An enzyme is basically a large protein molecule

made up of long chains of amino acids. These
molecules are then “folded” to create a certain
shape.

The enzyme’s shape helps another

molecule “fit” into it (“lock and key”):
Enzyme Substrate

This shape can be destroyed

(“denatured”) by high
temperatures or the wrong pH:
 08/02/2024

The “Active Site”

Active site

Enzyme Substrate
How do
enzymes work?

1. Shape of the enzyme’s active site is

complimentary to the shape of one particular
substrate.
2. The two bind together to form an enzyme-
substrate complex.
3. The reaction between them take place rapidly.
4. The products are released from the enzyme’s
active site.
 08/02/2024

Enzymes
Enzymes work best in certain conditions:

Enzymes are Could be Could be

denatured protease (found amylase (found
Enzyme
activity beyond 40OC in the stomach) in the intestine)

400C Temp pH pH

Notice that most enzymes are denatured at

high temperatures. Different enzymes work
best in different pH conditions.
 08/02/2024

The Digestive System

What’s the point of the digestive system?
The whole point of digestion is to break down our food into
small molecules which the body can then use to make
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Here’s how enzymes are
involved:
Common Enzymes
Where
Optimum
Substrate Enzyme Product enzyme
pH
produced
Salivary
Starch Amylase Glucose glands & pH7
(a carbohydrase)
pancreas
PROTEASE
Stomach,
Pepsin Amino pancreas, pH3
Protein (stomach)
acids & small pH8
Trypsin
(small intestine)
intestine

Fatty
Lipases
Lipids acids & Pancreas pH8
(fats)
glycerol
 08/02/2024

Bile and The Liver

Bile is a chemical produced in the

liver and stored in the gall
bladder. It has 2 functions:
1) It neutralises stomach acid and
produces alkaline conditions for
enzymes to work in
2) It emulsifies (“breaks down”
fats:

The alkaline conditions

and large surface area of
Fat Fat
the droplets means that
globules droplets
fats are broken down by
lipase much quicker.
 08/02/2024

RP: food tests

 Test For Starch

• IODINE SOLUTION.
 Test For Glucose

• BENEDICT’S REAGENT (heat)

 Test For Protein

• BIURET REAGENT.
 Test For Lipids (Fat)

• ETHANOL AND WATER

(EMULSION TEST)
 08/02/2024

RP: pH and amylase enzyme

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JyXXoevEWc8
 08/02/2024

Quiz on the last few slides on Enzymes

1) What are enzymes?

2) What do they do in your body? What is their basic
function?
3) What are enzymes made up of?
4) What term describes the way an enzyme “fits” a specific
substrate?
5) What temperature do bodily enzymes often work quickest
at?
6) What happens to an enzyme if it gets too hot?
7) What approximate pH range would you want an enzyme in
your stomach to work best at?
8) Name 3 places in your digestive system that enzymes are
produced in.
 08/02/2024

The Respiratory System

 2 08/02/2024

Diffusion in the lungs

Oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide diffuses out of blood in

the lungs:

CO2

Alveoli have three things that help them to do this job: a

massive surface area, a moist lining that is only one cell thick
and a very good blood supply.
 08/02/2024

The Circulatory system

The circulatory system is responsible

for pumping ___around the body. We
need blood to be taken around the
body because blood contains ____ ___
and _______. These are needed so
that all the ____ in our bodies can
produce _____ through _________.

The main organs in the circulatory

system are the _____, the lungs and
the kidneys.

Words – energy, heart, blood, glucose,

respiration, oxygen, cells
 08/02/2024

“Double Circulation”

1) Blood gets pumped 2) The blood is then

from the right ventricle taken back to the
in the heart to the lungs heart…
and picks up oxygen.

3) The left ventricle

of the heart then
pumps the blood to
the intestine (where
oxygen and glucose
5) After the oxygen and are removed)...
glucose have been removed
for respiration the blood is
sent back to the heart and
starts again
4) … and to the rest of
the body (where oxygen
is also removed)
Our Heart
 08/02/2024

The Heart (in more detail)

1. Deoxygenated 4. Oxygenated
blood (i.e. blood blood from the
without oxygen) lungs enters
enters through the through the
vena cava into the pulmonary vein into
right atrium the left atrium

2. It’s then
pumped through 5. It’s then pumped
the tricuspid valve through a valve
into the right into the left
ventricle ventricle

3. It’s then pumped 6. It’s then

through a valve up to pumped out of the
the lungs through the aorta to the rest
pulmonary artery of the body
 08/02/2024

Heart rate and Pacemakers

The heart beat is normally

controlled by a group of
_____ on the _____ hand
side of the heart called
the “pacemaker”. These
cells control the heart
rate by producing small
______ impulses that
cause the heart to
_______.
If the pacemaker fails, an
_______ pacemaker can
be fitted.

Words – artificial, right, cells, electrical, contract

 08/02/2024

Arteries, veins and capillaries

Arteries carry high pressure Capillaries have thin walls

blood away from the heart. (one cell thick) to allow
They have smaller lumen and glucose and oxygen to pass
no valves. through. Also used to
connect arteries to veins.

“Lumen”

Veins carry low pressure blood back to the

heart. They have thinner, less elastic walls and
have valves to prevent backflow of blood.
 08/02/2024

Blood

• 4 components
– Red blood cells
– White blood cells
– Plasma
– Platelets
 Red blood cells

oxygen
+ oxyhaemoglobin
haemoglobin

biconcave shape
no nucleus
are adaptations that allow RBC’s to carry more oxygen
 Plasma

• Yellow liquid
• Transports dissolved substances like:
– Carbon dioxide
– Food substances
– Hormones
– Urea
 White blood cells

• Bigger than red blood cells

• Less of them
• Have nucleus
• Forms body’s defence system
 White Blood Cells

Phagocytes and Lymphocytes

Produce antibodies
to destroy
Engulf and
microbes
digest microbes
 Platelets
They are important for blood clotting. platelet

Platelets are cell fragments that have broken off

from other larger cells.
They are much smaller than red and white blood
cells and do not have a nucleus.
 08/02/2024

Heart disease

In coronary heart disease layers of fatty material build up.

What affect does this have on the heart?
Drugs called “statins” can be used to reduce cholesterol levels
and slow down the build up of fatty material.
 08/02/2024

Heart disease

Arteries can narrow due to cholesterol and other factors.

If this happens a “stent” may be needed:
Surgery, statins and stents
Doctors can solve problems of coronary heart disease by a number of
methods:

1. Bypass surgery – Doctors can replace narrow or blocked coronary

arteries with bits of vein from other parts of the body. This
works well for badly blocked arteries, the surgery is expensive
and involves the risk associated with general anaesthetic

2. Statins – This is a very common drug for over 50’s to take, it

reduced blood cholesterol levels and slows down the rate at which
fatty deposits build up in the coronary arteries.

3. Stents – a stent is a metal mesh that is placed in the artery, a tiny

balloon is used to open the stent and the blood vessel at the same
time. The balloon is then removed but the stent remains, keeping
the blood vessel open
 08/02/2024

Mending the Heart

What are the pros and cons of using

the following artificial products?
 Artificial pacemakers hearts

1. Artificial pacemakers are electrical devices which are

implanted in your chest and connected to your heart by
two wires. The pacemaker sends strong, electrical
signal to the heart to stimulate it to beat properly.

Artificial hearts are mechanical devices which are

attached to the heart to support it whilst the patients
waits for a transplant. The artificial heart assists the
heart by using air pressure to pump the blood around
the body.
Device Advantages
Artificial • Regulates the heart beat
pacemaker so that the patient’s heart
can pump oxygen around the
body efficiently.
• This means more cells
receive more oxygen, more
respiration can take place
and so the patient has more
energy
• Modern pacemakers are
sensitive to the body’s
needs and only work when
the rhythm is disrupted,
can stimulate a faster heart
beat during exercise.
Artificial heart • Supports the heart in the
absence of a donor, where
the patients health might
have otherwise deteriorate
• In some cases artificial
hearts have kept patients
alive for long periods of
Disadvantages
• The procedure involves a risk
of infection & blood clotting
• Once you have a pacemaker
fitted you will need to have
medical check ups for the rest
of your life
• The procedure involves a risk
of infection & blood clotting
• In most cases, patients with
a fitted artificial heart will
need to stay in hospital until
they receive a donor heart
• The resources required to
 Health

Who is the most healthy?

Health is “the state of physical

and mental well being”. How do
these people’s lifestyles promote
health?
 08/02/2024

How Diseases can Interact

Diseases can interact with each other when they affect the
body. Here are some examples:

Defects in the Severe physical

immune system ill health can
mean that a person lead to
can catch an depression and
infectious disease other mental
more easily. illnesses

Immune reactions
Viruses in living (after being
cells can be a caused by a
trigger for pathogen) can
cancer. cause allergies
such as skin rashes
 08/02/2024

Interpreting Data about Health

% obesity in the UK

What does this

graph tell you?
 08/02/2024

More examples of data

What conclusions (for 3 marks) can you draw from these

statistics?
Q1) Q2)

Source – Cancer Research UK

Source – Public Health England
 08/02/2024

Non-communicable diseases

“Non-communicable diseases” are ones that can’t be caught or

transmitted. They can be caused by things like organ failure
or poor diets.

What can cause the following diseases or conditions? Match

the disease to the risk factor.

1) Heart disease Too much alcohol

2) Cancer The presence of carcinogens
3) Diabetes Poor diet and lack of exercise
4) Liver failure Obesity
5) Lung cancer Smoking and alcohol
6) Premature birth Smoking
 08/02/2024

Cancer

It is estimated that one in three people will develop cancer of

some form during their lifetime. What is it?
Benign tumours and malignant
tumours can result from
uncontrolled cell division.
Malignant tumours are cancer –
they invade neighbouring cells
and spread to other parts of
the body where they form
secondary tumours.
What causes cancer? The following are “risk factors”:
1) Genetic factors
2) Smoking
3) Obesity
4) UV exposure
 08/02/2024

Plant organs and transporting substances

A group of CELLS makes up a

TISSUE

A group of TISSUES makes up

an ORGAN, in this case, a leaf

A group of ORGANS makes up a

SYSTEM. In a plant, the roots,
stem and leaves form a system
that is used to transport
substances around the plant.
 08/02/2024

Examples of Plant Tissue

1) Epidermal tissue, which

covers the plant
2) Palisade mesophyll,
where photosynthesis
occurs
3) Spongy mesophyll, where
gases move through air
spaces
4) Xylem and phloem, which
are used to transport
substances around the
plant
5) Meristem tissue found
at the growing tips of
shoots and roots
 08/02/2024

Cross section of a leaf

Large
Lots of surface Transparent
chlorophyll area
Thin
structure
Packed with
chloroplasts

Network of
veins Lots of air
spaces

Guard cells
and holes
Water loss from the leaves
When the stomata are open, plants lose water vapour
through them as well. The water vapour evaporates from
the cells lining the air spaces and then passes out of the
leaf through the stomata by diffusion.

This loss of water vapour is known as transpiration.

 08/02/2024

Transpiration

1) Water evaporates
through the stomata

2) Water passes back into the

leaf through xylem vessels by
osmosis

3) Water is then pulled upwards

through the xylem tissue

4) This is replaced by water

entering from the root tissue

5) Water enters root hair cells by

osmosis to eventually replace the
water lost through respiration
 08/02/2024

Transpiration Rate

What factors would cause transpiration to happen the

quickest?
1) Temperature – what temperature do
you think transpiration is quickest at?

2) Humidity – is transpiration quicker

when it is more or less humid?

3) Air flow – how does this affect

transpiration?

4) Light intensity – how would this

affect transpiration?
Translocation

Translocation is
the movement of
dissolved sugars
from leaves to
other tissues
throughout the
plant.

Phloem
transports sugars
 08/02/2024

Xylem and Phloem

Xylem are used by the plant to

transport ____ and soluble mineral
______ from the roots to the
stem and the leaves. Xylem are
hollow ______ strengthened by
lignin.
Phloem are tubes used by the plant
to transport dissolved ______ to
the whole plant for _______ and
storage. The movement of food
through phloem is called _______ .
Phloem is composed of tubes of
elongated cells where cell sap can
move from one phloem cell to the Words – tubes,
next through ____ in the end walls. translocation, salts, water,
sugars, respiration, pores
 08/02/2024

Root hair cells

Plant roots are made of “root hair cells” which have two
features that help them to take in water and nutrients
(“active uptake”):

Root
hair
cells

Large surface area Thin cell membrane

 08/02/2024

Guard Cells and Stomata

The roles of guard cells and stomata are to control

gas exchange and water loss.
 08/02/2024

08/02/2024

Infection and
Response
AQA 2016 Biology topic 3
 08/02/2024

Pathogens

Pathogens are microbes (micro organisms) that can cause

diseases. They can enter the body in a number of ways:

They can be
breathed in They can be
through the ingested in
mouth or water or food
nose

They can enter

through cuts or
…or other bites in the
natural skin (direct
openings… contact)
 08/02/2024

Types of Pathogens

There are a number of types of pathogens, including:

Bacteria – small living cells that
produce toxins and reproduce
very quickly
Fungi – they can
produce spores and
penetrate human skin

A virus – it lives and

reproduces quickly inside
our cells, causing cell
damage
Protists - eukaryotic
cells that can spread
through vectors
Infectious Disease you need to know!
 08/02/2024

Microbes: our defence against them

Our bodies have defence mechanisms against invading

microbes:
The breathing
Hairs and mucus organs have hairs
in the nose trap and produce mucus
particles that to cover the lining
could contain of these organs
pathogens and trap the
pathogens
The skin acts as The stomach
a waterproof contains hydrochloric
barrier acid, which kills
bacteria
 08/02/2024

White blood cells

If microbes enter our body they need to be

neutralised or killed. This is done by white
blood cells:

White blood cells do 3 things:

1) They eat the microbe
(“phagocytosis”)
2) They produce antibodies to
neutralise the microbe
3) The produce antitoxins to
neutralise the poisons produced
by microbes
 08/02/2024

Producing antibodies

You’re going
down

Step 1: The white blood cell “sees” Step 2: The cell produces
the pathogen (microbe) antibodies to “fit” the pathogen

Step 3: The antibodies fit onto the Step 4: The pathogens are
pathogens and cause them to “clump” “eaten” by the white blood cells
 08/02/2024

Vaccinations

Vaccinations work by injecting a small quantity of

dead or inactive pathogen into the body. The body
is “tricked” into producing antibodies ready for the
real thing. The body then “remembers” the microbe
by producing memory cells that “remember” it.

No. of cases of TB in Britain

The spread of 140,000
diseases can be National
slowed down using vaccinatio
n starts
national
immunisation
programs, such as
tuberculosis in 1953:
1953 Year
 08/02/2024

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are used to cure

bacterial diseases by killing
infective bacteria inside the
body. Specific bacteria
should be treated with
specific antibiotics.

There are two main issues with using antibiotics:

1) They don’t do anything to viral infections
2) Antibiotics should be used sparingly as bacteria can grow
immune to them, e.g. the MRSA “superbug”.
 08/02/2024

Using Painkillers

Painkillers are drugs used to relieve the symptoms of disease

but without killing the pathogens, for example:

Aspirin

Paracetamol Ibuprofen

Q. What about viral infections?

It is difficult to treat viral infections without damaging the
cells the virus has infected.
Key People

• Semmelweis was a doctor in the 1850’s that

discovered a pattern between dead patients and
new borns. He was the first to introduce the ideas
of washing our hands between patients.

• Vaccines were developed by Edward Jenner – of

non Keeping Up with the Kardashian fame!

• Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin

 08/02/2024

Discovering new drugs

I (accidentally) discovered
penicillin in 1928

Alexander Fleming,
1881-1955

Penicillin was discovered from the penicillium mould. Most

new drugs are synthesised by chemists in the pharmaceutical
industry. However, the starting point is often a chemical
extracted from a plant. For example:

1) The heart drug digitalis comes from foxgloves

2) The painkiller aspirin comes from willow.
 08/02/2024

Researching new medicines

08/02/2024

Before new drugs can be approved they have to go through

three stages. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
each stage?

1. Is it toxic? Preclinical tests are done on

cells In some of
these
2. Is it safe for animals? Animal tests are stages, the
carried out (still preclinical) drugs are
tested for
toxicity,
efficacy and
3. Is it safe for humans? Human dose.
volunteers are tested on. This happens with
low doses at first before finding the
optimum dose.
 08/02/2024

Placebos
08/02/2024

Clinical trials can be done in different ways:

1) Blind trials
Patients do not know which drugs they are
taking – a real drug or a “placebo”

2) Double blind trial

Neither the doctors or the patients know
if they are taking the real drug
Pre-clinical trials
Drugs Trials
Clinical trials
 08/02/2024

08/02/2024

Bioenergetics
AQA 2016 Biology topic 4
 08/02/2024

Photosynthesis
Basically, photosynthesis is the process through which a plant
makes its own food using carbon dioxide and water:

That’s a nice plant. I’m

going to put it in the sun
and give it lots of water and
air…

CO2

H2O
 08/02/2024

Photosynthesis – the 4 things you need

SUNLIGHT
Gives the plant
energy CHLOROPHYLL
The green
stuff
where the
WATER chemical
Travels up reactions
from the happen
roots

CARBON DIOXIDE
Enters the leaf through small
holes on the underneath
 08/02/2024

Photosynthesis
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water glucose +
oxygen Chlorophyll

Sunlight

6CO2 + 6H20 Chlorophyll C6H12O6 +

6O2
The GLUCOSE produced by photosynthesis is used by the
plant for energy (through respiration. It is stored in the
plant as starch.
 08/02/2024
Required Practical 4 – Investigating the Effect of a factor on rate
of Photosynthesis

Task: Investigate how these factors affect the rate of

photosynthesis:
1) Temperature
2) Amount of light
3) Amount of CO2
 08/02/2024

Limiting Photosynthesis
What factors could limit the rate of
photosynthesis?
1. Temperature – the best temperature
is about 300C – anything above 400C
will slow photosynthesis right down

2. CO2 – if there is more carbon dioxide

photosynthesis will happen quicker

3. Light – if there is more light

photosynthesis happens faster
 08/02/2024

Drawing graphs of these factors

1. Temperature
Photosynthesis is controlled by
enzymes – these are destroyed
at temperatures above 400C

2. Carbon dioxide
Photosynthesis increases at
first but is then limited by a
lack of increase in temp or
light
3. Light
Photosynthesis increases at
first but is then limited by a
lack of increase in temp or CO2
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Example Question

Here’s a graph of the rate of photosynthesis vs intensity of

light for a plant kept at a constant 25 OC:
Rate of
photosynthesis
(arbitrary 35OC
units)
25OC

45OC
Light
intensity
1) What are the limiting factors for this experiment?
2) The temperature is raised to 35OC and the experiment
repeated. What graph might you get?
3) The temperature is raised again to 45OC. What graph
might you get?
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Intensity

Clearly, the intensity of radiation received by an object

decreases the further out the object is:

The radiation “spreads out” in a circle. How much intensity

would a plant receive if you moved it further away from a
light source?
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08/02/2024

Definition: “Intensity” means the strength of light

arriving at a certain point

Light gets weaker as you go further out. The equation is:

Intensity = Power (in W) P

I=
(in Wm-2) Area (in m2) 4πr2

An “inverse square law”

In other words, if you double the distance you divide the

light intensity by a factor of 4.
Q. What would happen if you tripled the distance?
Quadrupled it?
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Encouraging Photosynthesis

Using knowledge of limiting factors, explain how plant growth

is encouraged in a greenhouse:

What is the disadvantage

of a farmer always using
the best balance of
temperature and CO2?

It’s going to be
expensive!
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What is the glucose used for?

1) Glucose can be used by a plant for respiration

2) It can be used to make long chains of insoluble starch…

Glucose Starch
molecules molecule

3) It can be used to make cellulose for cell walls…

Glucose Cellulose
molecules

4) It can be combined with nitrates to make amino acids for protein synthesis…
Glucose
molecules Proteins

5) It can be converted into lipids (fats or oils) to store in seeds…

Glucose Lipid structure
molecules
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(Aerobic) Respiration

All living organisms have to move, grow, reproduce etc. Each

of these life processes needs ENERGY. Respiration is the
process our bodies use to produce this energy:

Glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide + ENERGY

The glucose we need comes from food and the oxygen from
breathing. Water and carbon dioxide are breathed out. The
MAIN product of this equation is ENERGY Respiration
happens in mitochondria in cells.
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Anaerobic respiration

Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration is when

energy is provided WITHOUT needing oxygen:

Glucose lactic acid + a bit of energy

This happens when the body can’t provide oxygen quick enough
for aerobic respiration to take place.
Anaerobic respiration produces energy much quicker than
aerobic respiration but only produces 1/20th as much.
Lactic acid is also produced, and this can build up in muscles
causing fatigue and “excess post-exercise oxygen
consumption” (“EPOC”), which explains why breathing and
heart rates remain high after exercise.
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Uses for this energy

Animals and plants have many uses for the energy they
generate from respiration:

1) To build up sugars in ______

2) To build up body _______
3) To maintain a constant body ___________ (warm-
blooded mammals only)
4) To build up sugars, ________ and other nutrients in
plants
5) To build up amino acids and ________

Words – nitrates, tissue, proteins, respiration, plants

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Anaerobic Respiration in Plants and Yeast

Here’s a plant and some yeast:

Anaerobic respiration in plant and yeast cells is represented

by this equation:

Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Q. Why would we use this process?

This process is called “fermentation” and is widely used in the

manufacture of bread and alcoholic drinks.
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The Effect of Exercise

Heart Breathin
rate/min g
rate/min
225 10
Rest Exercise Recovery 0

17 75
5
12 50
5
75 25

5 mins 10 mins 15 mins 20

mins
During exercise the following things happen: heart rate increases,
breathing increases and arteries supplying muscles dilate. These three
things all help muscles to get the oxygen and glucose they need.
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Muscles and exercise – Higher only

When we exercise our muscles are supplied with more oxygen

and glucose, increasing the rate of respiration.

Blood flowing through the muscles

transports lactic acid to the liver
where it is converted back into
glucose. Oxygen debt is the amount of
extra oxygen the body needs to break
down the lactic acid and remove it.
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Metabolism

“Metabolism” is the sum of all the reactions in a cell or body”.

Metabolism includes the following processes:

1) Conversion of glucose to _____, glycogen and cellulose

2) Turning glycerol and fatty acids into _____

3) Turning glucose and nitrates into ____ _____

4) ________

5) Breaking down excess proteins to form _____

Words – urea, amino acids, respiration, lipids, starch