• Mattias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann (1830’s): all living

Human Anatomy things are composed of one or more cells.

The Cell: The Living Units

Cells come in an amazing variety of sizes and

shapes

The Hierarchy of Life

• Tracing life down to the chemical level: the hierarchy of biological organization
Eubacteria Archaebacteria Blood Cells Dinosaur
Ecosystem (ex. African Savanna)
cells

Community (All organisms in the Savanna)

Population (herd of zebras)

Organism (zebra)

Organ System (Circulatory system)

Organ (heart)

Tissue (heart muscle tissue)

Cell (heart muscle cell)

Molecule (DNA)

Atom (oxygen atom)

Green Algae Neuron

Intestinal Cells Plant Cells

The Diversity and Commonality of Cells

• In the addition to morphology, cells differ in:

Cell Theory
-Their ability to move
Are the following organic molecules alive?
-Their internal organization (prokaryotic verses eukaryotic)
-Their metabolic activities Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Nucleic Acids
• Cell Theory: All organisms are composed of cells and cell
• Despite these and numerous other differences, all cells share certain products.
structural features and carry out many complicated processes in -All cells come from previously existing cells.
basically the same way.
Introduction to Cells
• Robert Hooke (1600’s) is "the father of microscopy" — it was
Hooke who coined the term "cell" to describe the basic unit of life
 1
Cell Theory
• All organisms are composed of cells and cell products.
Are all of the cells within an organism the same?

Life Begins with Cells

-Each cell performs all the functions necessary to sustain life.

How many distinct cell types make up the human body?

All the cells in our bodies originate from one initial

cell

We all Developed
from a Single Cell
complex tissues and organs.

Blastocyst
(hollow ball)
Cross section of blastocyst

Many cells (solid ball) Ectoderm

Zygote
2 cells
• A single-celled human zygote formed
by fertilization is smaller than a period
found in your text books.
4 cells

8 cells
• From this humble start, the zygote
Inner cell
mass develops into a full-blown organism
with 100 trillion cells organized into
Mesoderm
Gastrula
(cross section)
Endoderm

Organogenesis

A Tour of the Cell:

A Bit of Review
 2
The Two Major Categories of Cells
• All living cells on Earth fall into two categories
-Prokaryotic cells
-Eukaryotic cells

What the difference between the two?

• Prokaryotic cells: only Domains: Bacteria and Archaea

Eukaryotic cell Nucleus Organelles

• Eukaryotic cells: Plant and Animal Kingdoms, including

the Fungi (multicellular molds and unicellular yeast)

What type of cells do humans have?

A Panoramic View of Prokaryotic Cells

All cells are either Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic

Cell Size
Prokaryotic cell Nucleoid region
membrane

• Prokaryotic cells consist of a single• Bacteria, the most numerous Cell wall

enclosed compartment that is prokaryotes, do not have membrane Capsule

surrounded by a bound compartments but have many
Nonphotosynthetic Bacterium proteins that are precisely localized in Pili
Prokaryotic flagella
their aqueous interior or cytosol,
indicating the presence of some
plasma internal organization.

-Cytosol: the fluid material contained by the

plasma membrane and the cell wall

membrane, lacks a defined nucleus,

and has a relatively simple
organization. DNA is located in a Nucleoid region (DNA)
nucleoid region. Plasma Ribosomes
 • Eukaryotic organisms can be either
unicellular or multicellular.
A Panoramic View of Eukaryotic Cells •
Within our bodies there are many different cell types (liver, heart,

All cells are prokaryotic or eukaryotic

• Eukaryotic cells contain a defined

membrane-bound nucleus that is
absent in prokaryotes. The nucleus kidney, etc.)…
segregates the cellular DNA from the …however, they virtually share the same basic parts and can be
rest of the cell. described in terms of a generalized cell.

3
A Panoramic View of Eukaryotic Cells
• There are three main parts of a cell: 1) the plasma membrane 2) the
cytoplasm and 3) the nucleus

The Plasma Membrane:

Structure and Function
-Defines the extent of the cell (separates the living cell from its
nonliving surroundings
-The thin/flexible layer that separates the intracellular (inside)
and extracellular (outside) compartments
• A type of molecule called phospholipids form a two-layered
membrane (the phospholipid bilayer).
Membrane Structure and Function
• Phospholipids are composed of the following:

O
1) 2 fatty acids chains (tail = non-polar or hydrophobic = H2
fearing) 2) A phosphate group (head = polar or hydrophilic =
O
H2 loving)

Membrane Structure and Function Hydrophilic

• The plasma membrane (Plasmalemma):

Outside cell
Hydrophilic head
head

Hydrophobic
tail

Hydrophobic tail
Outside cell Cytoplasm (inside cell)

Cytoplasm
(inside cell) (a) Phospholipid bilayer of membrane

(a) Phospholipid bilayer of membrane

 Membranes Consists of Lipids and Proteins A Fluid Mosaic of Lipids and Proteins • Membrane phospholipids and proteins can drift
about in the plane
• Most membranes have specific proteins embedded in the
phospholipid bilayer (b) Fluid mosaic model of membrane

-Proteins make up 50% of the membrane mass of the membrane

• This behavior leads to the description of a membrane as a fluid
mosaic
–“Fluid”: Molecules can move freely within the membrane
–“Mosaic”: A diversity of proteins exists within the membrane

Hydrophilic
region of
protein

Phospholipid
bilayer

Hydrophobic
region of protein

4
A Fluid Mosaic of Lipids and Proteins • Integral Membrane Functions
Membrane Proteins = transmembrane; span entire width of
• There are many functions of membrane proteins Cytoplasm
membrane and contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions •
Peripheral Membrane Proteins = do not span the entire
membrane; are loosely associated with other
proteins or lipid molecules
• Glycolipids (~10%), cholesterol (~5-20%), b Cell signaling Enzymatic activity
carbohydrates

Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular

Fibers of matrix
c
extracellular
matrix
e
Intercellular
Transport recognition
d joining
f Cell-cell

• Membranes of the cell:

-Provides barrier against substances outside the cell
-Some plasma membranes act as receptors for cellular
communication
• Membranes are selectively permeable…
-They allow some substances to cross more easily than others
Cytoskeleton Cytoplasm

Selective Permeability
 • Diffusion is one result of the movement of molecules (High [ ] →
Low [ ])
-Molecules tend to spread into the available space
-Diffusion is passive transport; no energy is needed

Movement Across Membranes: Diffusion

altogether
(i.e. size or charge) Equilibrium
-They block passage of some substances Molecules of dye Membrane

Passive transport of one type of

molecule
What is diffusion? What is osmosis?
Movement Across Membranes: Osmosis •
Osmosis is the passive transport of water across a selectively
permeable membrane:
High [H2O] Low [H2O]
Selectively Permeable Membrane
Hypotonic

solutionHypertonic
Movement Across Membranes: Diffusion solution Isotonic solutions

• Another type of passive transport is facilitated diffusion, the

transport of some substances by specific transport proteins that act as
selective corridors
Sugar
• The traffic of some substances can only occur through transport molecule
proteins (solute)

- Glucose, for example, requires a transport protein to move it into Selectively permeable
the cell membrane

Osmosis
(net movement of water)
Why is this important for animal cells?

5
Water Balance in Animal Cells • Osmoregulation is the control of water balance in animals
• The survival of a cell depends on its ability to balance
water uptake and loss
Water Balance in Animal Cells Animal
cell
• The survival of a cell depends on its ability to balance
water uptake and loss

Plant cell

Normal Lysing Flaccid (wilts) Turgid Shriveled

Plasma
membrane
 Shriveled
(plasmolysis)

• In phagocytosis (“cellular eating”) a cell engulfs a particle and

packages it within a food vacuole (ex. most WBCs)

Pseudopod
of amoeba

Vesicular (Bulk) Membrane Transport: Endocytosis Food being ingested

• Endocytosis: mechanism by which particles enter cells
Phagosome

Outside cell (b) Endocytosis

• 3 forms of endocytosis: Vesicular (Bulk) Membrane Transport: Endocytosis

1) Phagocytosis • Receptor-mediated endocytosis is triggered by the binding of
2) Pinocytosis external molecules to membrane proteins
3) Receptor-mediated endocytosis - Upon membrane proteins binding to certain molecules, the
membrane invaginates and forms a coated pit which then pinch off
to become a coated vesicle (ex. Low Density Lipoproteins or
viruses)

LDL particle
Phospholipid coat

Vesicular (Bulk) Membrane Transport: Endocytosis

• Pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”) is primarily used for the
absorption of extracellular fluids (ECF)
-In contrast to phagocytosis, generates very small vesicles.
-Unspecific in the substances that it transports.
(a) Isotonic solution (b) Hypotonic solution (c) Hypertonic solution

Vesicular (Bulk) Membrane Transport: Endocytosis

Protein Cholesterol
processed
Liver cell Figure
5.18
Cholesterol

Plasma
membrane

Receptor protein
 6
Vesicular (Bulk) Membrane Transport: Exocytosis
• Exocytosis – mechanism that moves substances (enclosed in a vesicle)
out of the cell; vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane; proteins from
the vesicles (v-SNAREs) bind with membrane proteins (t-SNAREs);
lipid layers from both membranes fuse, and the vesicle releases its
contents to the outside of the cell
The Cytoplasm

The Cytoplasm: Cytosol

• The cytosol is the jelly-like, fluid-containing substance within the
cell.
The Cytoplasm -Consists of water, ions, and enzymes
-Makes up half of the volume of the cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm (“cell-forming material”) is the part of the cell that -Fluid in which other cytoplasmic elements are suspended
lies internal to the plasma membrane and external to the nucleus.

• There are three major elements that make up the cytoplasm:

1) cytosol
2) organelles
3) inclusions

Organelles: Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are constructed of proteins and ribosomal RNA; site of
protein synthesis
The Cytoplasm: Organelles
• The cytoplasm contains about nine types of organelles: -Composed of two subunits (60S and 40S) that fit together to
form a functional ribosome

mitochondria ribosomes cytoskeleton centrioles

lysosomes

• Types of
ribosomes found in the cell:
-Free ribosomes = float in cytosol ; make soluble proteins (function in cytosol) rough ER and make
-Attached ribosomes = attached to
Golgi apparatus rough and smooth ER peroxisomes membrane proteins or exported proteins

7
Organelles: Ribosomes Ribosomes and Antibiotics
• Ribosomes build all the cell’s proteins though a process called…. • Antibiotics target the processes of the ribsomes
What???

Amino acid + A.A +

A.A….. → Protein
1
Organelles: Endoplasmic Reticulum • 2

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), “network within the cytoplasm,” is Polypeptide

an extensive system of membrane-walled envelopes and tubes. There
are two distinct types of ER:
1) Rough ER – ribosomes stud the external surfaces; envelope stacks vesicle
called cisternae; makes all membrane proteins and membrane 2)
Smooth ER – consists of tubules in a branching network; no
ribosomes are attached; therefore no protein synthesis; store Ca2+, Rough ER
makes enzymes for lipid metabolism
The Rough ER
• Rough ER – After the rough ER synthesizes a molecule it
packages the molecule into transport vesicles

4
Transport vesicle
buds off

Ribosome Secretory
protein inside
transport
The Smooth ER
3 • The smooth ER lacks the surface ribosomes of ER and
produces lipids, including steroids
Organelles: Golgi Apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus (“packing & shipping center”) is a stack of
3 – 10 disk-shaped, membrane bound envelopes (cisternae) -
Works in partnership with the ER; Sorts products of rough ER at
Protein

Cytoskeleton

Plasma
membrane
Nucleus

Mitochondrion

Smooth
Rough
endoplasmic the cis end and sends them to proper
reticulum (ER)

Ribosomes Centriole
destination from the trans end
Flagellum
Lysosome
Not in most plant cells
 endoplasmic Golgi reticulum (ER)
apparatus

8
Organelles: Mitochondria
• The mitochondria is the “power plant” of the cell
-Generates most of the cell’s energy (ATP) via cellular respiration
-Enclosed by a double membrane; the inner membrane folds in
forming shelf-like cristae
-Contains own DNA (maternal DNA)

Organelles: Peroxisomes
Outer
membrane

• Peroxisomes are ubiquitous organelles in eukaryotes that participate

in the metabolism of fatty acids and other metabolites. - Membranous
Inner
membrane
sacs containing oxidases and catalases; “toxic waste plants”
Cristae •Detoxify harmful or toxic substances; Break down long chains of fatty
Matrix
acids (numerous in the liver and kidneys); neutralize dangerous free
Space between
radicals and break down poisons
membranes
•Free radicals – highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons
Organelles: Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are spherical membranous bags containing digestive
enzymes, “demolition crew” that break down macromolecules -
secretory lysosomes are found in white blood cells, immune cells,
and melanocytes
Lysosome

Organelles: Lysosomes
• Lysosomes digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins; degrade
nonfunctional organelles; breakdown glycogen and release thyroid
hormone; breakdown non-useful tissue (webbing between fingers and
toes during fetal development); breakdown bone to release Ca2+

Digestive enzymes Lysosome

Plasma
membrane

Digestion
Food
Food vacuole

(a) Lysosome digesting food

 The Endomembrane System • A review of the
endomembrane system
Rough ER

Transport
vesicle from ER
Organelles: Lysosomes Golgi
apparatus
• Lysosomes digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins; degrade
nonfunctional organelles; breakdown glycogen and release thyroid Secretory
vesicle from Golgi
hormone; breakdown non-useful tissue (webbing between fingers and
toes during fetal development); breakdown bone to release Ca2+

Lysosome

Digestion

Damaged
organelle

(b) Lysosome breaking down damaged organelle

Review:

Secretory protein
Vacuole Lysosome Plasma

membrane

9
Organelles: Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton (“cell skeleton” ) is an infrastructure of the cell
consisting of a network of rods/fibers that run throughout the cytosol.
-Provides mechanical support to the cell and maintain its shape and
provides machinery for various cellular movements
Organelles: Centrosomes and Centrioles
• Contains three types of protein rods (not covered by membranes): 1)
Microtubules, 2) Microfilaments, and 3) Intermediate filaments • The centrosomes is a spherical structure
in the cytoplasm; composed of centrosome
matrix (outer cloud) and centrioles; recall
microtubules are anchored at the
centrosome (microtubule organizing
center)

• Centrioles are paired cylindrical bodies

forming a pinwheel array of nine triplets
of microtubules = 27 short microtubules;
act in forming cilia and flagella; organize
mitotic spindle during mitosis
 • Intermediate filaments: protein fibers; most stable and permanent; help cells resist
pulling forces = provide tensile strength; play a role in linking cells together

Organelles: Cytoplasmic Inclusions

• Inclusions are temporary structures that are not present in all cell
types
Cilia and Flagella
-May consist of pigments, crystals of protein, and food stores • Cilia and flagella are motile appendages
(lipid droplets – found in liver cell and fat cells and glycosomes – • Flagella propel the cell in a whiplike motion
store sugar in the form of glycogen= long chains of glucose) • Cilia move in a coordinated back-and-forth motion
• Some cilia or flagella extend from nonmoving cells
- The human windpipe is lined with cilia

Lipid droplets Glycosomes

Organelles: Cytoskeleton
• Microtubules: cylindrical structures made of proteins called tubulin; radiate from
centrosome = cell center; organelles attach to and move along microtubules, which
constantly assemble and dissemble; thickest
• Microfilaments (actin filaments)

The Nucleus: Structure

: filaments of contractile
protein actin that interact with myosin to create cell division, perform endo- and
exocytosis, and play a role on pseudopod extension and retraction; organelles also and Function
attach to and move along actin filaments, which constantly assemble and dissemble;
thinnest

10
The Nucleus 1) Nuclear envelope – two parallel membranes separated by fluid filled space
• The nucleus is the “central core” or “kernel” -The control center of cell
-Contains DNA and directs the cell’s activities -Approximate 5µm in diameter 2) Nucleolus – “little nucleus” – in the center of the nucleus; contains
The Nucleus: 3 parts
 parts of several chromosomes; site of ribosome subunit manufacture
Ribosomes Chromatin Nuclear
envelope Nucleolus Pore
Notice that the bases pair in a complementary fashion Hydrogen bond

(a) (b) (c)

The Nucleus: 3 parts

3) The nucleus contains chromatin.

• The DNA in
a cell is packed into an elaborate, multilevel system of coiling and
folding
The Nucleus
•

The Nucleus
DNA Bonding • The
model of DNA is like a rope ladder twisted into a
spiral
• Purines: ‘A’ & ‘G’

• Pyrimidines: ‘C’ & ‘T’

• 3 hydrogen bonds between

Cytosine and Guanine
 • 2 hydrogen bonds between
Adenine and Thymine

Twist Figure 10.4

11
The Nucleus The Nucleus
• Chromatin – composed of DNA and histone proteins • Karyotype: a pictorial representation of chromosomes within an individual.
“Beads
on a
• Condensed chromatin – string”
contains tightly coiled strands of
DNA
Nucleosome

• Extended chromatin – contains

uncoiled strands of DNA when
DNA's genetic code is copied
onto mRNA (transcription) Tight helical fiber
Supercoil

• Chromosomes are the highest

level of organization of Sister
chromatids
chromatin; contain a long Centromere
molecule of DNA
How many chromosomes are
there in a typical human cell?
DNA
double
helix
Histones

How DNA Controls

the Cell

DNA
• DNA controls the cell by

Organelle Review
mRNA

transferring its coded

1

information into RNA

- The information in the RNA is used to make

proteins
Synthesis of
mRNA in the
nucleus

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

• Central Dogma of Molecular 2 Movement of mRNA into

cytoplasm via nuclear pore
Biology
3 Synthesis of protein in the
cytoplasm
mRNA
Protein
Ribosome

Organelle Review

The Cell Life Cycle

12
The Cell Theory

• The cell theory states…

-The cell is the basic unit of life

-All organisms are made up of one or more cells
-All cells come from pre-existing cells…HOW?

Silver Leaf Monkey

Cell reproduce via cellular division!

Cellular Reproduction: Cell Division

• You began life as a single cell, but there are now more cells in your body
than stars in the Milky Way

Cellular Reproduction: Cell Division

Cell Reproduction
• Just in the past second, millions of your cells have divided in two
• Reproduction…What is reproduction?

-Is the birth of new organisms

-Occurs much more often at the cellular level
 • Cell division plays a role in…
-The replacement

of lost or
damaged cells
-Cell reproduction and
growth
• Some multicellular organisms can divide into pieces that then
grow into new individuals
Passing On the Genes from Cell to Cell
• Before a parent cell divides, it duplicates all of its genetic material.
• After cell division the two resulting “daughter” cells are
genetically identical.

• Before development and differentiation of cells….you must have

cell division.

(b) Sea star

Cell division

Cellular Reproduction: Cell Division

13
The Cell Cycle And Mitosis What is a genome?

– Is the complete set of an

organism’s genes
– Is located mainly on
chromosomes in the cell’s
nucleus

46 Total Chromosomes
 • When the cell divides, the sister chromatids separate from each other
Sister
chromatids

Chromosome
Chromosome
distribution
to daughter cells

Eukaryotic Chromosomes
• Chromosomes…
The Cell Cycle
– Are made of chromatin, a combination of DNA and protein molecules
• Eukaryotic cells that divide undergo an orderly sequence of events
– Are not visible in a cell until cell division duplication

Review chromosome structure

The Cell Cycle

Chromosome Duplication
• Before a cell divides, it duplicates all of its chromosomes, resulting in two
copies called sister chromatids

called the cell cycle

Interphase
(90% of time)
G1
• The cell cycle consists of two
distinct phases:

– Interphase
(90%) G2

Mitotic
– Mitotic phase phase (M)
(10%) (10% of time)

S phase
(DNA synthesis;
Cytokinesis Mitosis

chromosome duplication)
 14

centriole
paris)

Mitosis
Mitosis Chromatin

• Mitosis is the division of the Nucleolus

Nuclear
chromosomes envelope

-Is preceded by interphase…

G1, S, G2

What
is mitosis?
Prophase
Plasma
membrane

Centrosomes
(with
Interphase

Mitosis
2) Metaphase
3) Anaphase
4) Telophase
- Asters (microtubule arrays) are seen; chromatin condenses into
chromosomes attached to one another by their centromere (sister chromatids
+ proteins = kinetochore)
- Nucleoli disappear
- Centriole pairs separate and the mitotic spindle (mitotic spindles) is formed
- Nuclear envelope disappears
• Mitosis consists of four - Microtubules attach to kinetochores and begin moving sister chromatids to
distinct phases: center of cell.

1) Prophase
Centromere Metaphase
Early
mitotic
spindle

Fragments of
Centrosome nuclear envelope

Spindle
Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids microtubules

Metaphase

Prophase
 mitotic spindle
middle of the cell with
their centromeres aligned
Aster
at the exact center
Pair of
Kinetochore
centrioles
Polar
Centromere microtubules • This arrangement of
Fragments of nuclear envelope
• Sister chromosomes along a
Early
chromatids plane midway between
cluster at the the poles is called the
metaphase plate
Early prophase Spindle
Kinetochore
microtubule Figure 8.7.2

Late prophase
Spindle
pole

Chromosome, consisting of two sister chromatids

15
Cytokinesis

Anaphase • Corresponding sister chromosomes

attach at opposite ends of the cell.
• Centromeres of the sister
chromatids split and each becomes a • A new nuclear envelope, using
chromosome again fragments of the parent cell's nuclear
membrane, forms around each set of
• Motor proteins in kinetochores pull separated sister Nucleolus
forming
chromosomes toward poles chromosomes.

• Both sets of chromosomes, now

Anaphase surrounded by new nuclei, unfold back
into chromatin. Cleavage
furrow
Daughter
chromosomes Mitosis is complete, but cell division Nuclear

Telophase has yet one more step to complete. envelope

forming
What??? Figure 8.7.3

• Telophase is a reversal of prophase. It

"cleans up" the aftereffects of mitosis.
Telophase and

• Note: Many believe that cytokinesis is a

Cytokinesis: Animal
Cells

Cytokinesis
Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis Cleavage
• Cytokinesis typically occurs during furrow
telophase

-Is the division of the cytoplasm

Nuclear
envelope
forming
part of mitosis, but it
is not.
Daughter cells
(a) Animal
cell cytokinesis
-Mitosis and
cytokinesis are two
different phases in Cleavage furrow
the cell cycle.
forming
-So basically, mitosis ends at
telophase. Figure 8.7.3
Contracting ring of
microfilaments

Daughter Cleavage
furrow Figure 8.8a
chromosomes
Nucleolus
 Mitosis Summary
Cancer Cells: Growing Out of Control
• Normal plant and animal cells have a cell cycle control system…a
series of checkpoints

• When the cell cycle control system malfunctions

–Cells may reproduce at the wrong time or place
–A benign tumor may form

16
• Cancer cells spread from a malignant tumor
Cancer Cells: Growing Out of Control
-Metastasis is
What is cancer?
the spreading
• Cancer is a class of diseases in which a group of cells display the
following characteristics: of cancerous
1) uncontrolled growth (division beyond the normal limits), 2)
invasion (intrusion on and destruction of adjacent tissues), 3) and cells.
sometimes metastasis (spread to other locations in the body
Cancer
Lymph
• Cancer cells divide excessively vessels

via lymph or blood). Tumor

single cancer cell. parts of the body
checkpoints Cancer cells invade neighboring tissue. Figure 8.9
Glandular
• Cancer is caused by a breakdown in tissue
control of the cell cycle -The Metastasis
Cancer cells spread through lymph and blood vessels to other
cancerous cell ignores the cell A tumor grows from a

• Cancer treatment…
Cancer Research
• Cancer cells are often grown in culture for study

Cancer Treatment
 -Radiation therapy disrupts cell division
-Chemotherapy involves drugs that disrupt cell division

Cancer Prevention and Survival

• Cancer prevention includes changes in lifestyle

http://kidshealth.org/teen/sexual_health/guys/tse.html
-Not smoking
-Avoiding exposure to the sun Cellular Diversity
-Eating a high-fiber, low-fat diet
-Visiting the doctor regularly -Your body has ~210 different cell types
-Performing self-examinations
http://www.breastcancer.org

17
Cellular Diversity
• Cellular Diversity
-Specialized functions of cells relates to the shape of cells and
the arrangement of organelles
• Cells that connect body parts or cover organs
1) Fibroblast – makes and secretes protein component of fibers
2) Erythrocyte (RBC)– concave shape provides surface area for
uptake of the respiratory gases
3) Epithelial cell – hexagonal shape allows maximum number
of epithelial cells to pack together
 cytoplasm
• Cells that fight disease
- Macrophage: phagocyte that moves through tissue to reach

Cellular Diversity
• Cells that gather information
infection sites
- Neuron: has long processes for receiving and transmitting
messages • Cells of reproduction

1) Oocyte Developmental Aspects of

(female): largest cell in the body
-Contains many copies of organelles for distribution to daughter Cells • Youth – begin as a fertilized egg
cells 2) Sperm (male): possesses long tail for swimming to the egg for
-Cells in embryo are exposed to chemical signals that channel cells
into specific pathways of development
-Cell specialization leads to structural variation of cell types
• Aging – a complex process caused by a variety of factors -
fertilization Free radical theory
Cellular Diversity 1) Damage from byproducts of cellular metabolism
• Cells that move organs and body parts 2) Radicals build up and damage essential molecules of cells
- Skeletal and smooth muscle cells: Elongated and filled with actin -Mitochondrial theory – a decrease in production of energy by
and myosin; contract forcefully mitochondria weakens and ages our cells
• Cells that store nutrients -Genetic theory – proposes that aging is programmed by genes 1)
Telomeres – “end caps” on chromosomes that limit the maximum
number of time a cell can divide
2) Telomerase – prevents telomeres from degrading

- Fat cell
(adipocyte): shape is produced by large fat droplet in its

18