CHME 624

Advance Process Dynamic Modelling & Control

11. Closed loop Dynamic Behavior and Stability

of Feed-Back Control Systems

23

Block Diagram Representation

Consider the stirred-tank blending process discussed earlier

Composition control system for a stirred-tank blending process.

• A transfer function is developed for each of the five elements in the

feedback control loop.
• For simplicity, flow rate w1 is assumed to be constant, and the system is
initially operating at the nominal steady rate.
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1. The Process
The approximate dynamic model of a stirred-tank blending system was developed:

 K   K 
X ′ ( s ) =  1  X1′ ( s ) +  2 W2′ ( s ) (11-1)
 τs + 1   τs + 1 
Vρ w 1− x
where τ = , K1 = 1 , and K2 = (11-2)
w w w

Block diagram of the process.

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2. Composition Sensor-Transmitter (Analyser)

Assume that the dynamic behavior of the composition sensor-transmitter
can be approximated by a first-order transfer function:

X m′ ( s ) Km
= (11-3)
X ′ ( s ) τm s + 1
Block diagram for the composition sensor-
transmitter (analyzer).
3. Controller
Suppose that an electronic proportional plus integral controller is used. The controller transfer
function is
P′ ( s )  1 
= K c 1 +  (11-4)
E (s)  τI s 
where P′ ( s ) and E(s) are the Laplace transforms of the controller
output p′ ( t ) and the error signal e(t). Note that p′ and e are
electrical signals that have units of mA, while Kc is dimensionless.
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 The error signal is expressed as:
e ( t ) = x%sp
′ ( t ) − xm
′ (t ) (11-5)

or after taking Laplace transforms,

E ( s ) = X% sp
′ ( s ) − X m′ ( s ) (11-6)
The symbol x%sp ′ ( t ) denotes the internal set-point composition expressed as an
′ (t )
equivalent electrical current signal. This signal is used internally by the controller. x%sp
is related to the actual composition set point xsp ′ ( t ) by the composition sensor-
transmitter gain Km:

′ ( t ) = K m xsp
x%sp ′ (t ) (11-7)
Thus
′ (s)
X% sp
= Km (11-8)
′ (s)
X sp
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4. Current-to-Pressure (I/P) Transducer

Because transducers are usually designed to have linear characteristics and negligible (fast)
dynamics, we assume that the transducer transfer function merely consists of a steady-state
gain
Pt′( s )
= K IP (11-9)
P′ ( s )
Block diagram for the I/P transducer.
5. Control Valve
Control valves are usually designed so that the flow rate through the valve is a nearly linear
function of the signal to the valve actuator. Therefore, a first-order transfer function usually
provides an adequate model. Thus, we assume that the control valve can be modeled as

W2′ ( s ) Kv
=
Pt′( s ) τv s + 1
Block diagram for the control valve. 28

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 Block diagram for the entire blending process composition control system.

29

Closed-Loop Transfer Functions

•The block diagrams considered so far have been specifically developed for
the stirred-tank blending system.
•A more general block diagram contains the standard notation:
Y = controlled variable
U = manipulated variable
D = disturbance variable (also referred to as load variable)
P = controller output
E = error signal
Ym = measured value of Y
Ysp = set point
Y%sp = internal set point (used by the controller)
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 Standard block diagram of a feedback control system.

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Yu = change in Y due to U
Yd = change in Y due to D
Gc = controller transfer function
Gv = transfer function for final control element (including KIP, if required)
Gp = process transfer function
Gd = disturbance transfer function
Gm = transfer function for measuring element and transmitter
Km = steady-state gain for Gm

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Block Diagram Reduction
In deriving closed-loop transfer functions, it is often convenient to combine several blocks into
a single block. For example, consider the three blocks in series. The block diagram indicates the
following relations:
X1 = G1U
X 2 = G2 X1 (11-11)
X 3 = G3 X 2 Three blocks in series.

By successive substitution,
X 3 = G 3 G 2 G 1U ( 1 1 -1 2 )
or
Equivalent block diagram.
X 3 = GU (11-13)

where G = G3G2G1 33

Set-Point Changes
The closed-loop system behavior for set-point changes is also referred to as the servomechanism
(servo) problem in the control literature. We assume no deviation in load/disturbance variable.

Y = Yd + Yu (11-14)
Yd = Gd D = 0 (because D = 0) (11-15)
Yu = G pU (11-16)
Combining gives
Y = G pU (11-17)
U = Gv P (11-18)
P = Gc E (11-19)
E = Y% − Y
sp m (11-20)
Y%sp = K mYsp (11-21)
Ym = GmY (11-22)
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 Combining the above equations gives

Y = G p Gv P = G p GvGc E (11-23)

(
= G p Gv Gc Y%sp − Ym ) (11-24)

= G p Gv Gc ( K mYsp − GmY ) (11-25)

Rearranging gives the desired closed-loop transfer function,

Y K mGcGvG p
= (11-26)
Ysp 1 + GcGvG p Gm

35

Disturbance Changes
The closed-loop system behavior for disturbance changes is also referred to as the
regulatory problem since the process is to be regulated at a constant set point.

Y = Yd + Yu = Gd D + G pU (11-27)

Y = Gd D + G pU = Gd D + G p GvGc (K mYsp − GmY )

Because Ysp = 0, the above equation is arranged to give

the closed-loop transfer function for disturbance changes:
Y Gd
= (11-29)
D 1 + GcGvG pGm

A comparison between the to effects indicates that both closed-loop transfer functions
have the same denominator, (1+GcGvGpGm). The denominator is often written as 1 +
GOL where GOL is the open-loop transfer function, GOL = GcGvGpGm
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 At different points in the above derivations, either D = 0 or Ysp = 0, that is, that one of
the two inputs was constant.
But suppose that D ≠ 0 and Ysp ≠ 0, as would be the case if a disturbance occurs during
a set-point change. To analyze this situation:

Gd K mGcGvG p
Y= D+ Ysp (11-30)
1 + GOL 1 + GOL

Thus, the response to simultaneous disturbance variable and set-point changes is merely
the sum of the individual responses.
This result is a consequence of the Superposition Principle for linear systems.

37

General Expression for Feedback Control Systems

Closed-loop transfer functions for more complicated block diagrams can be written in the general form:

38

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Example 11.1: Find the closed-loop transfer function Y/Ysp for the complex control system
shown in the figure. Notice that this block diagram has two feedback loops and two
disturbance variables. This configuration arises when the cascade control scheme is employed.

Complex
control system.

Block diagram for reduced system. 39

Solution
• First reduce the inner loop to a single block.
• To solve the servo problem, set D1 = D2 = 0.
• The final block diagram is shown with Y/Ysp = Km1G5. Substitution for G4 and G5 gives
the desired closed-loop transfer function:

Y K m1Gc1Gc 2G1G2G3
Final block diagrams =
Ysp 1 + Gc 2G1Gm 2 + Gc1G2G3Gm1Gc 2G1
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Closed-Loop Responses of Simple Control Systems
• Several elementary control problems for disturbance variable and set-point changes are
considered.
• The transient responses can be determined in a straightforward manner if the closed-
loop transfer functions are available.
Example 11.2: Consider the liquid-level control system shown in figure. The liquid level is
measured and the level transmitter (LT) output is sent to a feedback controller (LC) that
controls liquid level by adjusting volumetric flow rate q2. A second inlet flow rate q1 is the
disturbance variable.

Liquid-level control system. 41

Assumptions:
1. Constant liquid density ρ and cross-sectional area of the tank A
2. The flow-head relation is linear, q3 = h/R.
3. The level transmitter, I/P transducer, and control valve have negligible dynamics.
4. An electronic controller with input and output in % is used (full scale = 100%).

Consider the unsteady-state mass balance for the tank contents:

dh
ρA = ρq1 + ρq2 − ρq3 (11-32)
dt

Substituting the flow-head relation, q3 = h/R, and introducing deviation variables gives
dh′ h′
A = q1′ + q2′ − (11-33)
dt R

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 Thus, the transfer functions are obtained

H ′(s) Kp
= Gp ( s) = (11-34)
Q2′ ( s ) τs + 1
H ′(s) Kp
= Gd ( s ) = (11-35)
Q1′ ( s ) τs + 1

where Kp = R and τ= RA. Note that Gp(s) and Gd(s) are identical because q1 and q2 are
both inlet flow rates and thus have the same effect on h.

Block diagram for level control system. 43

Proportional Control and Set-Point Changes

If a proportional controller is used, then Gc(s) = Kc, it follows that the closed-loop transfer
function for set-point changes is given by

H ′(s) K c K v K p K m / ( τs + 1)
= (11-36)
′ ( s ) 1 + K c K v K p K m / ( τs + 1)
H sp

This relation can be rearranged in the standard form for a first-order transfer function,

H ′( s) K1
= (11-37)
′ ( s ) τ1s + 1
H sp
KOL τ
where: K1 = and τ1 = 1 + K (11-38) (11-39)
1 + KOL OL

and the open-loop gain KOL is given by

KOL = K c K v K p K m (11-40)
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It follows that the closed-loop response to a unit step change of magnitude M
in set point is given by:
( )
h′ ( t ) = K M 1 − e−t / τ1
1 (11-41)
This response is shown in figure. Note that a steady-state error or offset exists because
the new steady-state value is K1M rather than the desired value of M. The offset is
defined as Offset = hsp′ (∞ ) − h′(∞ )
′ ( ∞ ) = M . It is clear that h′ ( ∞ ) = K1M
For a step change of magnitude M in set point, hsp
Then: M
offset = M − K1M = (11-43)
1 + KOL

Step response for

proportional control
(set-point change).

45

Set-point responses
Offset is reduced at higher Kc

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Proportional Control and Disturbance Changes
The closed-loop transfer function for disturbance changes with proportional control is

H ′(s) K p / ( τs + 1)
= (11-53)
Q1′ ( s ) 1 + KOL / ( τs + 1)

Rearranging gives

H ′(s) K2
= (11-54)
Q1′ ( s ) τ1s + 1

where:
τ
τ1 = (11-39)
1 + KOL

Kp
K2 = (11-55)
1 + KOL 47

• A comparison of the T.F. for set point and disturbance indicates that both closed-loop
transfer functions are first-order and have the same time constant. However, the
steady-state gains, K1 and K2, are different.
• The closed-loop response to a step change in disturbance of magnitude M is given by

(
h′ ( t ) = K 2 M 1 − e−t / τ1 ) (11-56)

Now hsp′ ( ∞ ) = 0 since we are considering disturbance changes andh′ ( ∞ ) = K 2 M for a

step change of magnitude M.
Thus, Offset = hsp′ (∞ ) − h′(∞ )

K pM
offset = 0 − h′ ( ∞ ) = − K 2 M = − (11-57)
1 + KOL

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 Load responses

49

PI Control and Disturbance Changes

For PI control, Gc ( s ) = K c (1 + 1/ τ I s ). The closed-loop transfer function for disturbance
changes can then be derived:
H ′(s) K p / ( τs + 1)
= (11-58)
Q1′ ( s ) 1 + KOL (1 + 1/ τ I s ) / ( τs + 1)

Clearing terms in the denominator gives

H ′(s ) K pτ I s
=
Q′(s ) τ I s(τs + 1) + K OLτ I s + K OL

Further rearrangement allows the denominator to be placed in the standard form for a
second-order transfer function:

H ′(s) K s
= 2 2 3 (11-60)
Q1′ ( s ) τ3 s + 2ζ 3 τ3 s + 1
50

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 where
K3 = τ I / K c K v K m (11-61)
1  1 + K OL  τI
ζ3 =   (11-62)
2  KOL  τ
τ3 = ττ I / KOL (11-63)

For a unit step change in disturbance, Q1′ ( s ) = 1/ s

K3
H ′(s) = (11-64)
τ32 s 2 + 2ζ 3 τ3 s + 1

For 0 < ζ 3 < 1 , the response is a damped oscillation that can be described by

e −ζ3t / τ3 sin  1 − ζ 32 t / τ3 
K3
h′ ( t ) = (11-65)
 
τ3 1 − ζ 32
51

PI Control of an Integrating Process

Consider the liquid-level control system shown in the figure. This system differs from
the previous example in two ways:
1. the exit line contains a pump and
2. the manipulated variable is the exit flow rate rather than an
inlet flow rate.
We have seen that a tank with a pump in the exit stream can act as an integrator with
respect to flow rate changes because

H ′(s) 1
= Gp ( s) = −
Q2′ ( s ) As

H ′( s ) 1
= Gd ( s ) =
Q1′ ( s ) As
Liquid-level control system with pump in exit line. 52

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 If the level transmitter and control valve have negligible dynamics, the Gm(s) = Km and
Gv(s) = Kv
For PI control, G ( s ) = K (1 + 1/ τ s )
c c I
Substituting these expressions into the closed-loop transfer function for disturbance
changes

H ′(s) Gd
= where
Q1′ ( s ) 1 + Gc Gv G p Gm K4 = −τ / Kc Kv Km
and rearranging gives τ 4 = τ I / K OL
ζ 4 = 0.5 KOL τ I
H ′(s) K4s
= 2 2
Q1′ ( s ) τ 4 s + 2ζ 4 τ 4 s + 1 KOL = KcKvKpKm with Kp = - 1/A.

53

Stability of Closed-Loop Control Systems

Example 11.3: Consider the feedback control system with the following transfer functions:
1 1 1
Gc = K c Gv = G p = Gd = Gm =
2s + 1 5s + 1 s +1
Unstable responses if controller gain Kc is too large.

Effect of controller gains on closed-loop response to a unit step change in set point 54

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Stability
• Most industrial processes are stable without feedback control. Thus, they are said to
be open-loop stable or self-regulating.
• An open-loop stable process will return to the original steady state after a transient
disturbance (one that is not sustained) occurs.
• By contrast there are a few processes, such as exothermic chemical reactors, that can
be open-loop unstable.

Definition of Stability. An unconstrained linear system is said to be stable if the output

response is bounded for all bounded inputs. Otherwise, it is said to be unstable.

55

Characteristic Equation
As a starting point for the stability analysis, consider the block diagram for feedback control
system.
K mGcGvG p Gd
Y= Ysp + D (11-80)
1 + GOL 1 + GOL

where the open-loop transfer function, GOL = GcGvGpGm.

Consider set-point changes only:

Y K mGcGvG p
= (11-81)
Ysp 1 + GOL

The poles are the roots of the following equation, which is referred to as the
characteristic equation of the closed-loop system:
1 + GOL = 0
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General Stability Criterion: The feedback control system is stable if and only if all roots of
the characteristic equation are negative or have negative real parts. Otherwise, the system is
unstable.
Example 11.4: Consider a process, Gp = -0.2/(1-s), and thus is open-loop unstable. If Gv =
Gm = 1, determine whether a proportional controller can stabilize the closed-loop system.

Solution: The characteristic equation for this system is:

 − 0.2  1 − s − 0.2 K c
1 + 1× 1 × K c × = =0
 1− s  1− s

which has the single root, s = 1 - 0.2Kc. Thus, the stability requirement is that Kc > 5.
This illustrates the important fact that feedback control can be used to stabilize a
process that is not stable without control.

57

Stability regions in the complex plane for roots of the characteristic equation.
58

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Contributions of characteristic equation roots to closed-loop response.
59

Contributions of characteristic equation roots to closed-loop response.

60

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Root Locus Diagrams
Example 11.5: Consider a feedback control system that has the open-loop transfer
function: 4 Kc
GOL ( s ) = (11-108)
( s + 1)( s + 2 )( s + 3)
Plot the root locus diagram and determine the regions of Kc that makes the system
stable.

Solution: The characteristic equation is 1 + GOL = 0 or

( s + 1)( s + 2 )( s + 3) + 4 Kc = 0 (11-109)

• The root locus diagram shows how the three roots of this characteristic equation
vary with Kc.
• When Kc = 0, the roots are merely the poles of the open-loop transfer function, -1, -
2, and -3.
61

Alternately, you may use direct

substitution method (discussed in
Tutorial 4) to obtain Kcu = 15

Root locus diagram for third-order system. X denotes an open-loop pole. Dots denote locations of the
closed-loop poles for different values of Kc. Arrows indicate change of pole locations as Kc increases.
62

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63

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