Fracture in Rolling Processes

J O H N A. S C H E Y

Cracking o f the workpiece in rolling, whether in the form of edge or surface

cracking, alligatoring or nose splitting, or damage to the workpiece center, invari-
ably results in increased scrap and production costs. This review of causes and
effects concludes that inhomogeneous deformation and attendant large secondary
tensile stresses are necessary criteria for the initiation of ductile fracture. Through-
thickness inhomogeneity results in surface or center fracture, whereas lateral
inhomogeneity leads to edge cracking. Alligatoring, the least understood defect, is
perhaps promoted by both types of inhomogeneity. A further necessary condition is
a material o f limited workability or the presence of inhomogeneous workability
features. Means of avoiding or minimizing fracture are suggested, and workability
in section, tube, and powder rolling is briefly discussed.

Fracture on the outside or, occasionally, inside of the
workpiece has considerable influence on the success and
economy of rolling. Hot rolling is performed on cast
ingots, slabs or billets with all their possible weaknesses
and defects, but defects attributable to limited work-
ability are encountered also in cold rolling.
No meaningful discussion of the subject is possible
without an understanding of the roiling process, partic-
cularly of the deformations within the roll gap. There
are a number of reviews 1-3 devoted to rolling, and only
the topics relevant to workability need be discussed here.
1.0 THE FLAT.ROLLING PROCESS
At a first glance, the rolling of flat products is
simplicity itself. The thickness of the workpiece is
reduced and, if the workpiece is wide enough for spread
to be ignored, all deformation must go into length. In
reality, deformation is often inhomogeneous even under
JOHN A. SCHEY, Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario,
Canada N2L 3GI.
ISSN O162-9700/80/0101/0048500.75/0
48--VOLUME 1, NUMBER 2
1980 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS
conditions of plane strain (through-thickness inhomo-
geneity); further complications arise when the workpiece
is of limited width (lateral inhomogeneity).
1.1 Deformation And Stresses In Plane-Strain
Rolling
When an ideal rigid-plastic workpiece is rolled on
relatively large diameter rigid rolls at heavy reductions,
elementary plasticity theory assumes that deformation
is homogeneous: it begins at the entry to and ceases at
the exit from the deformation zone. Straight vertical
sections in the workpiece remain almost straight
(Fig. l(a)). There are no secondary tensile stresses de-
veloped during rolling and no residual stresses remain
in the product. The pressure distribution in the arc of
contact (Fig. l(b)) reflects the effect of interface friction
between roll and workpiece and may be described as a
friction hill, the peak of which is at the neutral plane
where rolls and strip move at the same velocity. There
is backward slip between the plane of entry and the
neutral plane, and forward slip between the neutral
plane and the plane of exit.
J. APPLIED METALWORKING
 When friction is higher, the shear strength of the
interface h may become greater than the flow strength
~s (or k) of the workpiece material in shear. Conse-
NEUTRAL
quently, movement of the workpiece material over the
roll surface is arrested and deformation occurs by shear
in the body of the workpiece. The neutral line broadens
into a neutral zone, and the friction hill becomes
rounded. The limiting case is reached when such
"sticking friction" prevails over the whole arc of
contact.
It has been long known that the ideal homogeneous
deformation model does not strictly hold even in well-
lubricated cold rolling, and deviations from this model
ta) become marked when the deformation zone is short

,,iii!
PLANE relative to the workpiece height. Details of internal
ENTRY...j ~ .
distortions have been followed by inserted pins or bolts
DtlT Y
(beginning with Hollenberg4 to Ritter et @ ) , by grids

t/ I11111 hi I scribed on the side surfaces of slabs (e.g. Refs. 5, or 6)

or on internal planes of sectioned and rejoined slabs,
(e.g. Refs. 7, and 8). Theoretical aspects have been re-
viewed by Stahlberg. 9
p The crucial factor is the h / L ratio where h is the
average workpiece height and L is the length of the pro-
jected arc of contact.
1. At large h / L values (say, in excess of 2) the zones
of intensive deformation fail to interpenetrate (Fig. 2)
and the wedging action of the rigid metal zones adjacent
to the arc of contact generates secondary tensile stresses
Fig. 1--Homogeneous deformation in plane-strain rolling: (a) defor- (Fig. 3) in the center plane of the slab 10 just as may be
mations in the workpiece, (b) pressure distribution in the arc calculated from Hill's slip-line fieldsI~ for indentationJ 2
of contact.
This could lead to centerburst defects, as it does in wire
drawing and extrusion, because the hydrostatic com-
ponent of the stress state becomes tensile. It is also
possible that tensile stresses develop in the horizontal
direction on the surface of the slab at the point of exit,"
\ and this could lead to surface cracking.
2. With decreasing h / L ratios, the stress state be-

I I
b
I
r
. f '
~ag~:~ I
~"~",~XINTENS E '
comes fully compressive at the center of the workpiece
yet danger is not passed. The reason is to be found in the
nonhomogeneity of deformation which may become
"'--I \W'" extremely complex at intermediate (say, .h/L = 0.5)
values. As shown by Tarnovskii et al, 8 rigid (dead metal)
zones extend partway into the body of the workpiece
Fig. 2--Highly inhomogeneous deformation at a large h/L ratio and from the sticking zone on the roll surface (Zones I in
the resulting nose and side deformation (schematic). Fig. 4). Intense deformation occurs in between (Zone II),

5 3 2 I h/L
0 ~1~ I I I I I I
I"0 ~ R 0LLING l \.~0.4 0.6 0.8 I.O L/h

LU Fig. 3--Vertical (a) and horizontal (b) stresses

in the center of a thick slab calculated for
z ORGIN~ rolling ~~and forging 12(from Ref. 9).

"
F
\x'
b~ 0 5I 3I ZI I hlL
I w 1.0
o ol., o'.8 I,(3 Llh b>

J. APPLIED METALWORKING VOLUME I, NUMBER 2--49

 while minor plastic deformation takes place outside the
entry and exit (Zones III and IV). A detailed study of
strain in five layers of the workpiece between the surface
and center planes (Fig. 5) shows that, relative to the
mean strain (broken line), surface layer 1 is deformed
even before the slab reaches the entry plane; there is no
deformation in it in the sticking zone, but finally it has
to catch up with the mean strain. In contrast, deforma-
tion in the center section 5 lags behind; it thickens up
prior to entry into the roll gap, then it is deformed at a
higher rate to catch up with the average deformation at
the flow-dividing zone, thereafter strain decreases to
match the overall strain. In a way, one could regard
rolling under these conditions as forward and backward
extrusion from the flow-dividing zone. Many of the
complexities of the situation have been illuminated by
slip-line field solutionsF4,~5The stress state in the work-
piece becomes more favorable (compressive) with de-
creasing h / L ratios but horizontal tensile stresses are
still present in the center of the slab at the point of exit
for h / L > 1. These solutions also show that velocity
discontinuities, which could cause fracture in materials
/ n7\ t
t/
hi
"--.4'
Fig. 4--Deformations at intermediate h / L ratios: (1) dead metal zone,
(II) intense deformation, ( l i d and (IV) indirect deformation zones8.
4 ..------
Z
f
la.I
Z
//
~e"
F j/7
tO
-r
/.-
/// L .
Fig. 5--Distribution o f thickness strains in rolling a slab with a large
h / L ratio, from the surface I to center layer 5, compared to homo-
geneous deformation (broken line). 8
50--VOLUME 1, NUMBER 2
of limited shear ductility, increase with pass reduction
irrespective of the h / L ratio.
3. At yet lower h / L values (according to a slip-line
field analysis of Crane and Alexander ~6 at h / L < 0.3)
there will be relative sliding between the roll and work-
piece, and the sticking zone will shrink (this must be
true also at higher h / L values when friction is reduced
by the use of lubricants). The center of the workpiece is
now more intensely deformed (Fig. 6) and it is under
compressive stresses at all times. However, the large
velocity discontinuity at the entry point might be
harmful to materials of limited ductility.
4. Truly homogeneous deformation is seldom if ever
attained. Nevertheless, rolling with a good lubricant and
small h / L ratio (<0.2) comes very close to it. In prin-
ciple, there should then be no secondary tensile stresses
developed, and fracture would be restricted to failure by
shear in materials of fully exhausted ductility. The
combined effects of inhomogeneous deformation and
friction on roll forces is readily calculated, at least
approximately, by combining the effects of the h / L
ratio with that of the friction hill; the resulting curve
shows a minimum at around h / L = 1.12
1.2 Deformation and Stresses in Rolling Finite
Widths
1
Even though flat rolling is often considered to be a
case of plane strain for purposes of force calculations,
this idealization is unrealistic in terms of deformations.
The edge of the strip is constrained only by adjacent
material outside the arc of contact, and some of the
material that should go into longitudinal extension
actually goes into spread.
If the strip edge were simply a free surface, the inter-
face pressure would have to drop to the plane-strain
flow stress (1.15 as or 2k). As shown by measurements
with pressure-sensitive pins built into the roll barrell
(e.g., by Siebel and LuegJT), the pressure drops even
(
Fig. 6--Deformations at low h / L ratios (schematic).
J. A P P L I E D METALWORKING
 further (Fig. 7). This is a direct consequence of the
secondary tensile stresses generated in the strip edge:
The parts of the workpiece outside the roll gap are rigid
or, more accurately, elastic, and they move apart at a
rate dictated by the reduction in height in the central
plane-strain portion of the roll gap, whereas material in
the strip edges flows also laterally, and continuity with
material in the plane-strain zone causes the edge to be
extended by secondary tensile stresses. The yield criterion
is satisfied by combined normal compressive and
longitudinal tensile stresses, hence the normal stress p
(roll pressure) drops below 2k. There is no detailed
analytical solution available, but the secondary tensile
stress can be estimated at 1/3 of 2k from the pressure
distribution (Fig. 7); a higher value (k) has been obtained
from a measured strain distribution, which seems to
indicate pure shear? 8
Friction in general restricts material flow and, there-
fore, increases spread and the resultant secondary tensile
stresses, at least in wide (w/h >2) slabs. As the strip
\ Such high secondary tensile stresses will undoubtedly
Fig. 7--Pressure distribution in the roll gap from center to edge when
rolling at low h / L ratios. 17
-%_.
I
l_.
I Even when the workpiece remains intact, lateral
I I
Ca)
Fig. 8 - - T h e effect of strip width on the direction of major material
flow in the center plane? 9
J. A P P L I E D M E T A L W O R K I N G
width decreases (Fig. 8), lateral flow becomes dom-
inant? 9.2~The magnitude of secondary tensile stresses
drops because longitudinal deformation is less; friction
now impedes spread and causes a decrease in secondary
tension. These effects can be quantified'~ for a given set
of rolling conditions.
The important point to observe in all these delibera-
tions is that the originally straight edge of the slab is
assumed to remain straight, and secondary tensile
stresses are a result of spread only.
1.3 Combined Through.Thickness and Lateral
Inhomogeneity
We have seen that deformation is frequently inhomo-
geneous in the through-thickness direction even for a
workpiece of infinite width and length. In a workpiece
of finite dimensions, the ends and sides will deform in
response to this inhomogeneity: the more heavily
deformed surface layer in rolling with a high h/L ratio
will form double barrelling (fishtail) all around (Fig. 2),
whereas the more heavily deformed center will bulge
out into a single bulge ("barrel") at low h/L ratios
(Fig. 6). The degree of barrelling is also a function of
interface friction; with high friction, the side surfaces
fold out to become parts of the top and bottom slab
surfaces.
The material of the bulge is no longer directly com-
pressed at all, and it is forced to elongate by the laterally
and longitudinally adjacent material, under the influence
of a predominatly tensile stress system. Again, no
analytical or even numerical solutions exist, but a first
approximation may be made by observing that the strain
state in the middle of a full-radius edge must be close to
uniaxial tension (as confirmed by Hoffmanner~S), and
the secondary tensile stress is most likely close to oI.
induce cracking in a material of limited ductility at
much lighter reductions than in a square edge. A
problem akin to a barrelled edge arises when the shapes
of the strip and roll are mismatched. A strip with thin,
tapering edges rolled on flat rolls behaves as one with a
heavily barrelled edge would: the roll pressure drops off
steeply and large secondary tensile stresses are generated.
If, in addition, the slab is also relatively narrow, greater
elongation of the middle oortions may cause nose
splitting.
inhomogeneity affects the economy of operation because
the middle portion of the slab elongates more and the
parabolic leading and trailing ends need to be cropped
at some stage of processing.
VOLUME I, N U M B E R 2--51
2. TYPES OF FLAT-ROLLING DEFECTS DUE TO
LIMITED WORKABILITY
Inhomogeneous deformation, the culprit in developing
secondary tensile stresses, is difficult enough to analyze
for ideal rigid plastic materials, and the problem is
compounded by the complex strain and strain-rate
sensitive properties of real engineering metals and alloys,
by ill-defined variations in friction, and, in hot rolling,
by complex temperature distribution. Contact with
the colder rolls and heat losses to the surrounding
environment combine to reduce surface temperatures,
while the work of deformation transformed into heat
causes a rise of workpiece temperature, very often in an
inhomogeneous fashion, making deformation itself
even more inhomogeneous. The problem is further com-
pounded when the workpiece material itself is inhomo-
geneous and contains features which reduce its work-
ability in a highly localized fashion.
Fracture in practical rolling may therefore have
several origins:
1. The metal or alloy itself may have an inherently
low ductility (workability).
2. Inhomogeneous, low workability features pro-
duced by casting or prior working may be superimposed
on the effects of low ductility.
3. The rolling process itself imposes secondary
stresses of varying magnitudes and directions.
It is little wonder that practical observations, in which
all the above sources of problems are intertwined, are
often difficult to interpret and have frequently led to
contradicting conclusions. In the following, the most
frequently occurring defects will be surveyed and related
to the mechanism of rolling.
2.1 Rolling Defects Due to Through-Thickness
Inhomogeneity
Center-burst Defect
Internal defects due to secondary tensile stresses
generated in the center of the slab are seldom encoun-
tered ,(only one literature reference to center-burst
defects has been found22). Presumably, at early stages
of hot rolling when h/L is dangerously large, the
temperature is still high enough to assure reasonable
ductility in all but the most brittle materials. Defects
that may form also have a chance of healing by forge
welding. Most practical hot rolling is performed around
h/L = 2, inducing relatively little inhomogeneity. 23 It is
conceivable though that in the rolling of superalloys,
refractory metal alloys, and tool steels this danger more
generally exists, particularly if restricted mill power
limits the attainable reductions and .thus keeps h/L high.
52--VOLUME I, NUMBER 2
Surface Cracking
Surface cracking is occasionally encountered, par-
ticularly in the hot rolling of materials with a very
narrow hot working range, so that chilling of the surface
layers brings them into a low ductility range. This, com-
bined with the secondary tensile stresses associated with
forward/backward extrusion (Fig. 4) and the prefer-
ential thermal contraction of surface layers results in
the formation of cracks parallel to the roll axis. This
view is supported by findings 24 showing that surface
residual stresses are tensile and increase with h / L to
reach the value of the flow stress at h/L = 1.5. Fracture
after rolling is then also possible in low ductility mate-
rials (such as high zinc brasses and some bronzes) on
annealing or exposure to stress corrosion.
Whether the presence of a large velocity discontinuity
plays any role TM is not clear. A possible additional
factor may be a variation in surface friction; observa-
tions of the deformation of MnS inclusions in steel25
indicate severe frictional shear of the surface layers.
An entirely different situation develops when mate-
rials of greatly limited ductility are rolled. Thus, in cold
rolling magnesium or zinc alloys the restricted slip
possibilities in the hexagonal close-packed crystal
structure may result in the complete disintegration of
the strip into wedges parallel to the roll axis on planes
45 deg to the surface, reflecting the maximum shear
stress direction through the roll gap.
Alligatoring
Another defect most likely related to inhomogeneity
in plane-strain deformation is crocodiling or alligatoring
(Fig. 9). The phenomenon is most spectacular, yet it is
poorly understood. It occurs only in materials of limited
ductility, such as aluminum-magnesium alloys of higher
Mg content, and some of the Zn and Cu base alloys. It
develops at some stage of hot rolling, in the production
examples quoted by Kasz and Varley26 at h/L = 1.3, by
Meadows and Pearson 27 at h/L = 1.55, and in the hot
rolling experiments of Schey28 on A1-8Mg billets at
h/L = 0.5 to 0.7. Alligatoring at high h/L ratios (say
above unity) is difficult to explain. Perhaps, as suggested
by Kasz and Varley, 26 inhomogeneous deformation
leaves the center layers, weakened by porosity, in the
brittle as-cast condition. Fishtailing of the leading and
trailing ends of the billet (Fig. 2) results in stress concen-
tration in the weakest plane of the slab. Once a crack is
initiated, it propagates very rapidly, because the two
halves of the billet now curve around the rolls, as
though each half were deformed between the roll and a
central roll of infinite diameter.
J. A P P L I E D M E T A L W O R K I N G

From considerations of material flow, it is much
more likely that alligatoring should occur when defor-
mation is more severe in the center of the billet, that is,
at low h/L ratios. As argued by Meadows and Pearson, 27
the extrusion effect would result in tension normal to
the rolling plane, opening up the slab nose. Polakowski29
sugested that in the initial stages of rolling (at high h/L
ratios) existing defects are enlarged and perhaps cracks
are initiated in the center sections of as-cast structures.
On further rolling, when the central plane of the slab is
more heavily deformed, the tensile stresses generated on
the surface and compressive stresses produced in the
center would form a torque couple that opens up the
slab along its already weakened center.
The position of the pass line has a marked and often
decisive influence on the occurrence of alligatoring.
When the slab is entered into the roll gap with its center
plane above or below the center line of the roll gap,
the issuing material curls. In addition to the stresses
imposed by curling, a shear stress develops also along
the center plane and this may contribute to opening up
t h e n o s e . 3~
2.2 Reducing Defects in the Plane-Strain Zone
Remedies for avoiding defects of the plane-strain
variety are numerous. Firstly, it is important that the
workpiece be free of weakening features on the surface
and along the central plane, and possess some minimum
although quantitatively as yet undefined basic ductility.
Indeed, the greatest advances in combatting rolling
defects have been made by improving the melting and
casting techniques. If metal ductility drops rapidly with
temperature, surface cracking can be avoided only with
J. APPLIED METALWORKING
Fig. 9--Alligatoring in an AI-8 pct Mg alloy
cast slab. 28
the use of heated rolls, although this can be technically
difficult. A heat insulating surface layer, such as glass is
also effective, and eliminates severe surface shearing,
although skidding may then be a problem. Cladding of
the metal with a more ductile material also helps, partly
by reducing chilling and partly by transferring the
highest tensile stresses into the more ductile surface
layer.
Because alligatoring initiates at the leading end of
the slab, and can be prevented even under otherwise
damaging h/L conditions if splitting of the nose is pre-
vented, one of the practical remedies is to taper the end
of the slab so that the critical reduction is reached some
distance away from the leading edge. The undeformed
leading edge then acts as a clamp and in the course of
further rolling the damaging stress pattern disappears.
In the rolling of A1-Mg alloys the better center quality
of semicontinuously cast slabs brought great improve-
ment relative to chill-cast ingots. The cross rolling of
slabs cast with a pronounced V-edge is also effectiveTM as
it neutralizes the tendency to the development of a fish-
tail and eliminates the resulting stress concentration.
Presumably, some of the effect can be attributed to the
clamping function of the nondeformed V-edge.
2.3 Rolling Defects Due to Lateral Inhomogeneity
By far the greatest practical problem is edge cracking,
attributable to the secondary tensile stresses developed
whenever there is spread. When inhomogeneity of
deformation in the thickness direction results in single
or double barrelling stresses become much higher.
Double barrelling at high h/L ratios can lead to frac-
ture even in normally highly ductile materials. It is most
VOLUME 1, NUMBER 2--53
 frequently encountered though with materials of more In most of the experimental work reported in the
limited hot ductility, which are commonly also much literature, spread is of major concern, and the degree of
stronger at hot rolling temperatures; for reasons of mill barrelling is seldom reported. However, investiga-
power or mill housing strength limitations, they are tions34-37 in which the edge shape prior to rolling was
rolled with lighter reductions and thus relatively large intentionally varied showed that specimens with fully
h / L ratios. The situation is aggravated when the ingot rounded edges cracked after much smaller total reduc-
is a round cornered square with concave side surfaces. tion than those with a ground, square edge, and that
Very often, edge cracking develops at the later stages of chamfered edges cracked earliest. It would appear that
hot rolling, when the temperature is lower. When the rounding is equivalent to a chamfer angle of approxi-
h / L ratio is below unity, the side surfaces develop single mately 90 to 120 deg (Table I). In the course of rolling,
barrels (Fig. 10). Chilling of the corners may transfer the chamfer angle changes and when the chamfer angle
the crack location to the corners. at fracture is plotted against reduction at fracture, a
There have been a number of extensive investigations monotonically rising curve is obtained. This strongly
on spread and the development of side surfaces during
hot rolling under industrial conditions. Mican31 found
double barrelling in slabs above h / L = 1.8 and this was
essentially confirmed by Dahl et al,32 although the limit
shifts to 1.5 for a square ingot. Single barrelling is
typical of lower h / L values. Once double barrelling
develops in the early-stages of hot rolling, it is likely to
persist even when the h / L ratio diminishes in the course
of further rolling. Indeed, the side surfaces often close
down to form a lamination that may be quite deep on
both sides of the rolled slab. The same inhomogeneity
of deformation that leads to double barrelling of the
side causes similar deformation at the leading and
trailing slab ends and results in increased cropping
losses? 3 Therefore, any measure that reduces barrelling Fig. 10--Edge cracking on an A1-8 pct Mg cast alloy workpiece after
also increases the yield in hot rolling. single barrelling. 28

Table I. Workability Limit in Cold Rolling 3s(Rolls 250 mm diam)

Reduction at fracture, pct

Edge 1.3C steel 1.5W steel AI-7Mg AI-7Mg

(2.5 ram) (2 mm) (4.75 ram) (9.5 mm)

Square 59-62 64 82-88 86-90

(69)
Fully rounded 18-21 18 65 63
(51) (47)
Chamfered deg:
30 35 34
60 36 34
90 42 43
120 50 53
150 53 62
160 62 63
170 74 73
180 88 86

Numbers in parentheses refer to rolling with light (2 to 5 pct) reduction per pass.

54--VOLUME 1, NUMBER 2 J. APPLIED METALWORKING

 indicates that fracture is a function of the stress state
existing just prior to fracture.
2.4 Reducing Defects Due to Spread
Evidently, edge cracking can be combatted by either
improving the workability of the material or changing
the process itself.
The first method can be extremely effective as attested
by the success of the aluminum industry in improving
the quality and homogeneity of strong alloys such as the
AI-Cu and AI-Mg types. Similar successes have been
achieved with vacuum-melted tool steels and vacuum-arc
or electroslag remelted superalloys. Nevertheless, some
process conditions still need to be avoided.
Since the most severe secondary tensile stresses are
due to double or single barrelling, the choice of the h/s
ratio is critical. Continuous casting yields thinner slabs
and this allows rolling with more favorable h/s ratios.
Highly inhomogeneous deformation is, however,
unavoidable in the early passes of rolling thick slabs,
and the resultant double barrelling leads to large
trimming losses and can also create edge cracking. The
obvious remedy is casting the slabs with a V-shaped edge,
or with a moderate curvature (R = 1.3h has been
suggested by Salt27), so that double barrelling super-
imposed on the starting shape results in a straight edge.
If the material is of very limited ductility, there is of
course danger of cracking in the cast ingot before
deformation can be equalized. The worst possible
condition is given by a cast structure with concave edges.
Conversely, problems are to be expected also when the
cast ingot has an octagonal shape because the side-
portions of the ingot will be elongated purely by sec-
ondary tensile stresses and are bound to crack.
The situation improves if barrelling can be removed
during processing. Indeed, reduction to fracture
increases when the edges are machined off in the course
of cold rolling. In hot rolling, a much more practicable
approach involves the use of a universal mill with
vertical axis rolls, on either one or both sides of the
main, horizontal axis work rolls. The edging rolls not
only assure a better control of the rolled strip width, but
also improve workability by limiting nonhomogeneous
edge deformation. There are of course limits to the
reductions that can be taken, because deformation is
inherently inhomogeneous in the lateral direction. The
edge material is displaced in the form of a "dogbone"
shape and is then repeatedly pushed up and down, and
this may lead to fracture. Heavy lateral reductions also
increase the cropping losses at the front and tail ends by
increasing the elongation of edges,a3
J. APPLIED METALWORKING
Rolling in closed passes of blooming mills also limits
the total spread to some extent. However, possibilities
are sharply limited by the danger of pinching the mate-
rial at the pass line. As a consideration of the three-
dimensional configuration will reveal, the roll pass is
truly closed only in the plane through the center line of
the rolls and the pass opens up towards the entry side.
Therefore, spread must be allowed in the design of the
pass, otherwise material will be pinched and the work-
piece will be wedged into the roll grooves; it may even
wind around the rolls.
Spread in the roll gap itself can be prevented only by
special devices. In the so-called edge-restraint process2s
rigid bars are firmly guided in grooves of the rolls so
that they move together with the deforming workpiece
(Fig. 11). By providing deeper grooves, the rolls can be
closed down in the customary fashion, and the slab may
be thinned down in a succession of passes. Since no
spread is allowed, secondary tensile stresses cannot
develop and materials of poor workability can be
successfully rolled. This was shown for an AI-8 Mg
alloy, 2s for titanium alloys, and nickel base super-
alloys? s Because the stress state is compressive through
the thickness, it is also possible to roll powders, although
they need to be jacketed for physical containment.
Because the restraining bars move together with the
workpiece, they help in achieving heavy reductions
(more favorable h/L). They even allow the use of glass
as a heat insulating agent. 3s
Containment of the slab edges by a heavy frame of a
high strength, high ductility metal (picture frame) also
maintains compressive stresses in the framed material
and, thus, allows the hot rolling of very difficult mate-
rials39but at considerable expense.
i
Fig. I l--Principle of edge restraint rolling; 3 restraining bars move
together with the 4 rolled workpiece. 2s 1--Top roll, 2--bottom roll,
3--restraining bars, 4--rolled slab.
VOLUME 1, NUMBER 2--55
3. PREDICTING WORKABILITY FOR FLAT
ROLLING
Prediction of the rolling conditions that will lead to
cracking in practical rolling operations would be of
obvious value. In view of the uncertainty surrounding
the geometrical and thermal process parameters that
influence the occurrence of fracture, it is little wonder
that attemps at such prediction have met with little
success. No theory exists to predict the onset of alliga-
toring, surface cracking, or edge cracking under condi-
tions of double barrelling. Quantitative predictions have
been attempted only for edge cracking and then only for
cold working.
At this time, the most likely workability criterion
would incorporate the basic ductility of the material in
combination with the effects of the stress state. One
such criterion, based on the work done by the highest
tensile stress, is due to Cockroft and Latham. 4~ Indeed,
experiments of these authors on materials of widely
variable ductilities (Fig. 12) indicate that the criterion
would adequately predict the limiting thickness reduc-
tion in rolling if it were assumed that the tensile stresses
were to reach the flow stress of the material in a round
edged strip and one third of the flow stress in a square
edged strip. Bourne 35 too compared cracking reduction
on round edged strip with reduction of area in the
tension test. When his data are expressed in terms of
natural strains, the ratio is around 1.5 between rolling
3.6 I I
I I
D
e- SQUARE- EDGED
3.2 STRIP
0
and tensile reduction rather than the 1:1 relationship
found by Crockroft and L a t h a m ? 0 The reason for this
disparity is not clear, it would appear though that the
h/L ratio was not controlled in any of these tests.
Hoffmanner ~8 also confirmed the linear relationship
although his curves do not seem to start from the origin
for some obscure reason. In the only reported correla-
tion for hot rolling, Leech e t a P ~ found too much scatter
in the rolling of cast ingots but confirmed a roughly
linear relationship in wrought material, this time with a
slope of 1.2.
The Cockroft criterion of fracture translates into a
line of approximately one half slope when plotted as
major (tensile) v s minor (compressive) strain. 42 This
slope was found to describe well the fracture limits in
various operations such as bending, upsetting, and
rolling of rounded edge specimens. It could be argued
that because surface cracking occurs in an essentially
plane-strain situation, a plane-strain tension test could
be the best way of determining the basic (intrinsic)
ductility of the material, as confirmed 2j for AI 7075-T6.
A crucial point to observe in all such correlation
studies is that fracture in the various test specimens
and in rolling must always occur in the same direction
relative to the original structure. A truly homogeneous,
isotropic material seldom exists, and the alignment of
second-phase particles or inclusions invariably makes
ductility a function of testing direction. A further effect
of importance is the crystallographic texture of the
material, expressed as the r value. This has long been
recognized for sheet metal working, and Woodall and
Schey43 have now shown its importance for rolling. A
material of low r value accommodates much larger

rolling strains than would be predicted by an isotropic

c
m

2.8 I Cu-IO AI fracture criterion (Fig. 13). This is reasonable, since

t5 2 ZW3 (Mg-3Zn-O.8Zr) materials of low r value deform more readily in the
Z_ 3 AI-Si
2.4 4 MILD STEEL
thickness direction, give less spread, and generate lower
0
r~ 5 DURALUMIN (ANNEALED) secondary tensile stresses than isotropic materials. This
a 6 AI-5 Mg effect was largely overlooked in previous investigations,
j 2.0
0 7 6 3 - 3 7 BRASS and it is conceivable that some of the disparate results
8 5 8 - 4 2 BRASS
z L6 could be reconciled if all factors were considered.
z A basic problem in all work on surface cracking is the
n- 1.2
necessarily arbitrary nature of the limiting strain deter-
t- mination; cracks visible to the naked eye will define a
ROUND-EDGED STRIP
larger limiting strain than cracks visible under a mic-
u) 0.8
i,i roscope.
Z
Edge cracks in cold rolling are usually of the 45 deg
_ 0.4
-r 73 type, because the stress component is compressive in
t-
the thickness direction and tensile in the longitudinal
O
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 20 24 2B direction. As in upsetting 44 the maximum shear stress
TENSILE FRACTURE STRAIN, In Ao/A acts at 45 deg to the thickness direction, resulting in a
Fig. 12--Correlationof maximumcold rollingreductionwith reduction shear-type fracture. Cracking in hot working is some-
in area in the tension test. 4~ times perpendicular to the rolling plane, because the

5 6 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 2 J. A P P L I E D M E T A L W O R K I N G
 1.4 Uneven cooling of the thinner portions can be
9 9 ROLLING especially troublesome in hot rolling, and edge cracking
-I.2 due to cold corners is avoided by designing roll passes
with more rounded corners.
In general, it is not meaningful to speak of a particular
-1.0
z
m
h/L or L / h ratio in shape rolling, as both the contact
(E surface and the deformed zone are very complex in
0.8 ~.
shape. Nevertheless, the overall effects of inhomogeneity
9 UNIAXlAL
9 TENSION n~ and friction can be described if the area of contact in
0.6 0 the roll gap A c is substituted for L and the mean cross-
v INDENT IE sectional area of the workpiece Am is substituted for
h . 46
SEC -I ~
TENS'ON 7 7
PLANE_STRAIN/ flO.2
TENSION I
5. WORKABILITY IN TUBE ROLLING

I I I I I I I0 Whereas in the previously discussed processes

-I.4 -L2 -LO -0.8 -0.6 -Q4 -0,2
MINOR STRAIN
Fig. 13--Fracture strain in rolling 606l-T6 aluminum alloy compared
to ductility derived from tension tests. 43
stress in the thickness direction may also become tensile
with heavy barrelling.
4. WORKABILITY IN THE ROLLING OF
SECTIONS
By necessity, the rolling of sections (shapes) generates
large secondary tensile stresses, because a more complex,
nonrectangular (or nonround) shape is gradually devel-
oped from a simple starting cross-section. Various
portions of the cross-section are subjected to different
reductions, and the differential elongation (Fig. 14)
leads to cracking in less-deformed zones, 45 whether they
be on the surface or in the center. The purpose of roll
pass design is equalization of these strains.
0
inhomogeneity is an undesirable side effect, tube
piercing by rotary processes3 relies on inhomogeneity
for its success. In the simplest view, piercing may be
regarded as rotary indentation at a high enough h/L
ratio to assure the generation of secondary tensile
stresses in the center of the billet (Fig. 15). If these
stresses are high enough, cavitation occurs and leads to
poor internal surface quality. Best quality is obtained
when the hole forms under the combination of secondary
tensile stresses and compressive stresses induced by the
piercing plug. The more homogeneous deformation
assured by a three roll system (Fig. 16) is more favorable
in this respect. 47
Once the hole is formed, the tube wall is rolled
between the work rolls and the plug, and in doing so is

Nondeformed

Fig. 15--The deformation zones in cross rolling (tube piercing).

/ i

EIongation
due to
direct
compression GUIDE

Fig. 14--The generation of secondary tensile stresses in the nonhomo- 2- ROLLSYSTEM 3-ROLL SYSTEM
geneous rolling of sections. 45 Fig. 16--Contact zones in tube piercing with two and three rolls. 47

J. APPLIED METALWORKING VOLUME 1, NUMBER 2--57

bent back and forth, and this can lead to circumferential
cracking. There are no direct correlations that would
allow prediction of fracture in tube piercing. Neverthe-
less, the process is most critical in terms of workpiece
quality and empirical correlations with fracture in the
tension or torsion test have shown some promise.
6. WORKABILITY IN POWDER ROLLING
Green powder strip has no ductility; therefore,
consolidation is sucessful only when secondary tensile
stresses are minimized. Unless the powder is enclosed in
a heavy can, only relatively thin strip can be roiled
(otherwise the powder would escape at the sides of the
roll gap even if guides were used). The h/L ratio is then
low enough to keep the through-thickness center in
compression. Edge cracking is, however, unavoidable
and trimming is regarded as a standard procedure. 48
Surface cracking is another danger and is usually
avoided by empirical balancing of reductions and roll
diameters. Much the same limitations apply to the hot
compaction of green strip.
Thick bodies have to be compacted by extrusion,
although rolling in heavy picture frames has been suc-
cessful: The edge restraint process 28 is eminently suit-
able because longitudinal secondary tensile stresses are
totally avoided on the edges, although a cladding may
be needed to suppress surface cracking. It is suitable
though for the hot and cold compaction of metal and
atomized alloy powders.
7. SUMMARYAND CONCLUSIONS
It is evident from this review of the causes of fracture
in rolling that large secondary tensile stresses must com-
bine with limited basic (or localized) workability for
fracture to occur.
Under ideal, homogeneous, plane-strain rolling
conditions the stress state would always be compressive,
but practical rolling is always inhomogeneous.
Rolling with an h/L ratio of over 0.5 always results in
through-thickness inhomogeneity and surface or central
tensile stresses.
Triaxial deformation at the slab or strip edges induces
secondary tensile stresses aggravated by double bar-
relling at high and simple barrelling at low h/L ratios.
It requires perhaps a combination of inhomogeneous
deformation with other process conditions to induce
alligatoring.
Any measures that reduce inhomogeneity and, thus,
increase the hydrostatic pressure component during
deformation will be helpful in avoiding defects, as will
58--VOLUME 1, NUMBER 2
be improvements in the basic and localized workability
of the workpiece material.
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J. APPLIED METALWORKING VOLUME 1, NUMBER 2--59