Ground Improvement Techniques

References
• Ground Improvement Techniques – N. R. Patra
• Ground Improvement Techniques – P. P. Raj
• An Introduction to Soil Reinforcement and Geosynthetics – G. L. S. Babu
• Reinforced Soil and its Engineering Applications – Swami Saran
• Designing with Geosynthetics – R. M. Koerner
… and many more,
plus,
• www……

“Ground Improvement Techniques” may be referred to as the methods/procedures of

alternation (proportioned/added/removed) of existing ground to overcome deficiencies with
respect to requirements of an adequate stable, non-yielding ground system.

 The mode and degree of alteration necessarily depend on the character of the soil and
the type of requirements.
Alternatives – if, the ground is not ‘improved’
o Avoid the particular site
o Design the planned structure accordingly
o Remove and replace the unsuitable soil

 Factors of selection of GI Techniques:

• Soil type --- sand, clay, etc.

• Area and depth of treatment requirement --- depends on geometric
characteristics of soil deposit and nature of facilities proposed for construction
• Type of structure and load distribution
• Soil properties --- strength, compressibility, permeability, etc.
• Permissible total and differential settlements
• Availability of materials --- stone, sand, water, admixture, stabilizer, etc.
• Availability of skills and equipment
• Environmental considerations --- waste disposal, erosion, water pollution, etc.
• Local experience and preferences
• Economics

 Types of Ground Improvement Techniques:

• Mechanical modification
• Application of mechanical force, such as compaction.
• Hydraulic modification
• Free pore water is forced out
• For coarse-grained soils-lowering the groundwater by pumping out
• For fine-grained soils-long term application of external force with artificial drainage
• Physical and Chemical modification
• Physical mixing of adhesives (natural soils, industrial by-products, wastes)
• Stabilization by heating and freezing the ground
 • Modification by Inclusions and Confinement
• Reinforcements, such as fibers, strips, bars, meshes, etc. which impart tensile
strength to soil mass, confine the soil mass to increase density (so as the strength
and stability)

 Soil Stabilization: Physical and Chemical Modification:

• For cohesion-less soils: improvement by providing confinement or by adding

cohesion with a cementing or binding agent
• For cohesive soil: improvement by drying, making the soil moisture-resistant,
altering the clay-electrolyte concentration, increasing cohesion with a cementing
agent, and adding frictional properties
• Compressibility --- can be reduced by consolidation, by filling the voids with
appropriate materials, cementing the grains with rigid materials, by altering inter-
particle forces (electrical)
• Shrinking and Swelling --- can be controlled by adding cementing agents, altering
the double-layer thickness and property, and preventing moisture changes
• Permeability --- can be:
o reduced by filling voids with impervious materials or creating a disperse soil-
structure
o increased by removing fines or creating aggregate grain structure

 Methods of Stabilization:

• Mechanical stabilization --- improving soil gradation or arrangement

• Cementing --- binding the particles together without their alteration
• Physio-chemical alteration --- changing clay minerals or clay water system
• Aggregates and Dispersants --- alteration of electrical forces between particles
• Void filling --- plugging the voids
• Consolidation

 Satisfactory Stabilization

When the method provides the required qualities and fulfills the below:
• Be compatible with soil material
• Be permanent
• Be easily handled and processed
• Cheap and safe

 Mechanical Stabilization:

• In this technique, mechanical energy is used (rollers, plate compactors, tampers,

etc. by choice or the nature of soil) to improve the soil properties by compaction.
• Preferable in the construction of embankments for roads, railways, etc.
• Mechanical stability depends upon the degree of compaction.
• Normally, the compaction is done at optimum water content.

 Changes to the Soil:

• Arrangement of soil particles
• Improvement of soil gradation

 Influencing Factors
 • Mechanical Strength of the Aggregate: The mixed soil is stable if the
aggregates used have high strength. However, if the mixture is properly
designed and compacted, even the aggregates of relatively low strength can
provide good mechanical stability.
• Mineral Composition: the mechanical stability of the mixed soil depends upon
the composition of the minerals. The minerals should be weather-resistant.
• Gradation: the gradation of the mixed soil should be such that the voids of the
coarser particles are filled with finer particles to obtain a high density.
• Plasticity Characteristics:
• For mud road surfacing, highly plastic soils are used as binders. They possess
greater cohesion, and moisture retention capacity and provide a seal against
the downward movement of surface water.
• For base courses, the soils should have low plasticity to avoid excessive
accumulation of water and the resulting loss of strength.
• The soil available at the site may seldom meet both requirements. It is
necessary to mix soils from different sources to obtain the desired mix.

 Cementing

Binding the particles together without their alteration, Mostly,

• Cement stabilization --- all inorganic soils which can be pulverized, soils
should be low in organic matter
• Bituminous stabilization --- binds the particle together (cohesion-less soils)
and/or protects the soil from the deleterious effect of water (waterproofing)
(cohesive soils)

 Cement Stabilization

• Most commonly used for road construction.

• Heavy clays are difficult to pulverize and not suitable.
• Calcium ion (exchangeable ions) is the most desirable ion for ease. Lime or
calcium chloride is added occasionally.
• The presence of organic matter (>2%), sulphate causes a harmful effect.
• Best results can be obtained with well-graded soils having less than 50% of its
particle finer than 0.075 mm and a plasticity index of less than 20%
• Compaction is to be completed within two hours after laying and mixing with
water.

 Cement Stabilization: Amount & Effect

Guidance as per Lambe (1962)

Type of Soil Amount (% by weight)

Gravel 5-10%
Sand 7-12%
Silt 12-15%
Clay 12-15%
 Effect of cement content, HMSO (1974)

Cement Comp. Strength, Dry Moisture

Soil Type Content kN/m2 density content
(%) (7 days) (kN/m3) (%)
7 2415 17.43
Silty clay 10 2760 17.43 16
13 3105 17.43
7 1794 18.37
Sandy clay 10 2622 18.53 14
13 3657 18.53
7 1656 17.43
Clayey sand 10 1932 17.74 12
13 2340 18.06
Clean sand 7 1449 17.43
(uniformly 10 2829 18.06 10
graded) 13 5934 18.53
7 1104 19.47
Gravel (poorly
10 2484 19.63 10
graded)
13 3864 19.94

 Cement Stabilization: Process

• Construction process: shaping the soil to be treated > Pulverizing the soil >
adding water and cement > mixing > compacting > finishing > curing
• Admixtures: may be required to (i) reduce the cement amount, and (ii) stabilize
some soil that is non-responsive to cement
 Bituminous Stabilization:

Bituminous material stabilizes the soil either by binding the particles together
(cohesion-less soils) or protecting the soil from deleterious effects of water (i.e.,
waterproofing) (cohesive soils) or both these effects may occur together.

 Bituminous Materials:
• Bitumen: nonaqueous systems of hydrocarbons that are completely soluble in
carbon-di-sulphide
• Asphalt: the primary components are natural or refined petroleum bitumen or
combinations thereof
• Tar: bituminous condensates produced by the destructive distillation of organic
materials such as coal, oil, lignite, peat, and wood

 The amount of bitumen required varies between 4 to 7% by weight.

 Bituminous Stabilization: Soil Nature

• All inorganic soil with which asphalt (emulsion or cutback) can be mixed,
especially –
• Maximum particle size less than 1/3rd the compacted thickness of the
treated soil layer
• Greater than 50% finer than 4.75 mm sieve
• 35-100% finer than 0.42 mm size
• Greater than 10% but less than 50% finer than 0.075 mm sieve size
• Liquid limit less than 40%
• Plasticity index less than 18%

• Not good for –

• Acidic origin
• Fine grain soil with high ph and dissolved salts
• Plastic clays

 Bituminous Stabilization: Construction Method

The following points should be noted.

• The low volatile content for compaction is better for stability. The requirement
for thorough mixing may be greater for clayey soils. It is necessary to aerate
the mix between mixing and compaction and between compaction and
application.
• For high stability, the layer method of construction is preferred. Each layer is
about 5 cm thick. When the lower layer is dried up, the subsequent layer is laid.
The total thickness for bases is between 10 to 20 cm.
• In the mix-in-place method, the bitumen is sprayed in several passes. Each
layer is partially mixed before the next pass. This method prevents the
saturation of the surface of the subgrade.
• Climatic conditions influence the amount of bitumen applied.
 Chemical Stabilization

Consists of bonding the soil particles with a cementing agent that is produced by
a chemical reaction within the soil.
• The primary additive is a chemical
• The reaction does not necessarily include the soil particles, although the bonding
does involve the intermolecular force of the soil.
• Different types of additives –
• Lime
• Salt (calcium and sodium)
• Lignin
• Polymers
• Aggregates and Dispersants --- alteration of electrical forces between
adjacent particles

 Lime Stabilization

There are five types of lime:

• High Calcium quick lime (CaO)
• Hydrated high calcium lime [Ca(OH)2]
• Dolomite lime (CaO+MgO)
• Normal hydrated dolomitic lime [Ca(OH)2+MgO]
• Pressure-hydrated dolomitic lime [Ca(OH)2+Mg(OH)2]

 The quick lime is more effective than the hydrated lime, but the latter is safer
and more convenient to handle. Generally, hydrated lime is used. It is also
known as slaked lime.
 The higher the magnesium content of the lime, the less affinity for water and
the less heat generated during mixing.
 The amount of lime required varies between 2 to10% of the soil.
 Lime is produced by the burning of limestone in kilns. The quality of lime
obtained depends upon the parent material and the production process.
 Lime stabilization is done by adding lime to the soil. It is useful for the
stabilization of clayey soil. Lime stabilization is not effective for sandy soils.
• When lime reacts with the soil there is an exchange of cations in the
absorbed water layer and a decrease in the plasticity of the soil occurs.
• The resulting material is more friable than the original clay, and is, therefore
more suitable as sub-grade.

 Uses (rough guidance):

• 2 to 5% for clay gravel material having less than 50% of silt-clay fraction
• 5 to 10% for soils with more than 50% of silt clay fraction
• About 10% of heavy clays are used as bases and sub-bases
• Particle size in between (1) and (2) above, lime required is between 3 to 7%.

 Lime Stabilization: Changes

• The lime reacts with wet soil and alters the nature of the absorbed layer as
calcium ions replace the sodium or hydrogen ions, the double layer is
 depressed due to an increase in cation concentration but sometimes expands
due to the high pH value of lime.
• The lime reacts chemically with silica and alumina in the soil's natural cement,
composed of calcium-alumino-silicate
• In Lime stabilization, the liquid limit decreases plastic limit increases, and the
plasticity index decreases. Soil becomes more friable and workable.
• The strength of the soil is improved. Unconfined compressive strength is
increased up to 60% and the modulus of elasticity of soil increases.
• Lime causes a decrease in the tendency to the attraction of water.
• Soil resistance to water absorption, capillary rise, and volume changes on
wetting or drying are increased.
• Lime-stabilized bases and sub-bases form a water-resistant barrier that stops
the penetration of rainwater.
• The optimum water content is increased and the maximum dry unit weight is
decreased.
• In swampy areas where water content is above the optimum, it helps in drying
the soil.

Other Chemical Stabilization

 Calcium and Sodium Chlorides

• Causing colloidal reactions
• Alters the soil-water characteristics
 Water-proofers --- repels water to form water-resistant soil
 Natural and Synthetic Polymers --- mainly water-proofing agents
• It lowers the optimum water content.
• Causes a small decrease in the strength of the soil.
• However, if the compacted soil is put to water imbibition, water pick up is
reduced and the strength of the soil increases.
• The benefits of the stabilization require the presence of the chemical in the pore
fluid. As the chemical is leached out, the benefits are lost.
• Its performance depends on the groundwater movement.
• The construction methods are similar to those used for lime stabilization
• Its quantity required is about ½% of the weight of the soil.

 Sodium Chloride—Its tendency for attraction of moisture is somewhat lesser than that
of calcium chloride.
 Calcium Chloride—It causes a colloidal reaction & alters the characteristics of the
soil.
• It is deliquescent and hygroscopic and reduces the loss of moisture.
• It reduces the chances of frost heave, as the freezing point of water is lowered.
• Effective as dust calming,
• Effective for silty and clayey soils that lose strength with an increase in water
content.
• It causes a slight increase in maximum dry unit weight.
• It forms crystallization in the pores of the soil and finally a dense hard mat with
a stabilized surface. The pores in the soil filled up and retard further evaporation
of water.
• It also checks the tendency for the formation of shrinkage cracks.
 • It is mixed with the soil either by mix-in-place or by plant-mix method and should
be applied directly to the surface.
• The quantity required is about 1% of the soil weight.
 Sodium Silicate—It is used as a solution in water, known as water glass. It is directly
injected into the soil.
• It increases the strength of the soil and makes it impervious.
• Acts as a dispersing agent.
• It increases the maximum compacted unit weight of the soil.
• The chemical required varies between 0.1 to 0.2% of the weight of the soil.
• The method is relatively inexpensive but long-term stability is doubtful. The
treated soil may lose strength when exposed to air or groundwater.

 Polymers—Polymers are long-chained molecules formed by the polymerizing of

certain organic chemicals called monomers.
• They may be natural or synthetic.
• Resins are natural polymers and calcium acrylate is synthetic. When added to
the soil reaction takes place.
• Sometimes the catalyst is added with the monomers to the soil. In that case,
polymerization occurs along with the reaction.

 Chrome Lignin—Lignin is obtained as a by-product during the manufacture of paper.

Chrome lignin is formed from black liquor in sulphite paper manufacture.
• Sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate is added to sulphite liquor to
form chrome lignin. It slowly polymerizes into a brown gel.
• When added to the soil, it slowly reacts to cause the binding of particles. The
quantity required varies from 5 to 20% by weight.
• As lignin is soluble in water, its stabilizing effect is not permanent.

 Other Chemicals—
• Waterproofers: such as alkyl chlorosilanes, siliconates amines, and
quaternary ammonium salts, have been used for soil waterproofing.
• Coagulating chemicals: such as calcium chloride and ferric chloride have
been used to increase the electrical attraction and to form flocculated structures
in order to improve the permeability of the soil.
• Dispersants: such as sodium hexametaphosphate are used to increase the
electric repulsion and to cause dispersed structure. The compacted density of
the soil is increased.
• Phosphoric acid: combined with a wetting agent can be used for cohesive
soils. It reacts with clay minerals and forms an insoluble aluminum phosphate.