Experiment 2A: Kirchhoff’s Rules, Light

Bulbs in Series and in Parallel

Abstract
The goal of this experiment was to test the validity of Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff's
voltage law (KVL), which state, respectively, that the sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum
of currents leaving it in accordance with the law of conservation of energy and that the sum of voltages in
a closed loop is equal to the resulting electric and magnetic forces. In this experiment, we have
experimentally tested Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law and Kirchhoff’s Current Law by measuring the sum of the
voltage drops around several closed paths, and the sum of the currents at several nodes, in three resistive
circuits.

Introduction
Contemporary electronic systems span a wide spectrum of complexity. A doorbell switch is a very
basic example of an electrical system, whereas the brains of a supercomputer are an extreme example.
Surprisingly few overarching notions influence the understanding and design of electrical systems across
numerous subfields of electrical engineering.

One prominent example is the field of circuit theory, which is based on the three laws of Ohm,
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL), and Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL). Voltage and current in a circuit are
limited by Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's Current Law, which gives us valuable insight into these quantities.
Ohm's Law, in instance, establishes a correlation between voltage and current in a resistor, whereas the
Kirchhoff Voltage Law and the Kirchhoff Current Law, respectively, place limits on the accumulated
voltage and current in a closed loop and a node of a circuit, respectively.

Analysis and design of electrical circuits typically include the use of Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's
Law. They offer a foundation for the comprehension of almost all electrical systems, even if their
simplicity is hidden in more complicated circuits. The validity of these rules is difficult to deny since so
many operational electronic circuits in use today were developed and studied utilizing them. But it seems
sensible to test their veracity to see whether it holds up in practice.

Methodology
Using Ohm's Law, one can easily develop equations for calculating the resistance, potential, and
current of simple series and parallel arrangements. However, what happens when a resistor is connected
in both series and parallel? Using two of Gustav Kirchhoff's initial rules from 1845, this experiment
explores a complicated configuration of resistors. Loop Rule: Algebraically, the potential difference
across a closed loop of a circuit must equal zero. If you begin at one point and walk around a closed loop,
you must finish up back at the original starting point (the change will be zero)

∑ ∆ V =0 (1)
According to the Junction Rule, the combined total of currents flowing into and out of a junction must
be zero. Everything that goes in must come out.
 ∑ I ¿ =∑ I out (2)
Together, Kirchhoff's Laws may be utilized to formulate an equation system whose unknowns can be
determined experimentally. Schematically shown in Figure 1 is a series-parallel circuit design made up og
three resistors.

Figure 1

Results and Discussion

Part A: Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule

Table 1: Current Measurements

Current (mA = × 10-3 A)
Junction a currents
Digital MM reading Analog MM Reading
Ip 16.25 16.2
Iq 11.13 11
Ir 5.18 5
Junction u currents
Is 16.4 16
IR 11.2 11
IU 5.2 5

Part B: Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

Table 2: Voltage Measurements

Voltage
Loop OPORS voltages
Digital MM Reading Analog MM Reading
V0 8.99 8.5
VOP 3.07 2.3
VQR 6.08 5.9
Loop OPTUS voltages
V0 9.96 8.99
 VOP 1.60 1.6
VTU 7.25 7.2

Table 3: light bulbs in series

A. . B1 alone connected to PSU:

Current Through B1 340 mA
Voltage Across B1 1.53 V

B. B1 in series with B2
Digital Multimeter Digital Multimeter
reading (mA) reading (V)
Current through PSU 0.23 Voltage across PSU 2.70
Current through B1 0.22 Voltage across B1 1.53
Current through B2 0.20 Voltage across B2 1.15

Table 4: light bulbs in parallel

A. B1 alone connected to PSU:

Current Through B1 270 mA
Voltage Across B1 2.92 V

B. B1 in series with B2
Digital Multimeter Digital Multimeter
reading (mA) reading (V)
Current through PSU 0.63 Voltage across PSU 2.67
Current through B1 0.27 Voltage across B1 2.63
Current through B2 0.31 Voltage across B2 2.62

Uncertainty in the values of resistors and voltage sources is another cause of mistake in electronic
measurements. However, this issue is unlikely to have influenced the data shown here.
Precise measurements of individual resistances and voltage sources are irrelevant since the total of
voltage drops and currents are 0. Different voltage drops and currents would have resulted from replacing
a resistor or voltage source with one twice its value, but the total of voltages around closed routes and of
currents at a node should have stayed 0. Accordingly, we infer that the resistors' % tolerance had no effect
on the outcomes of the experiment. It is also important to note that the systematic error caused by the
voltmeter and current meter is much less (less than 0.10) than normal mistakes shown here.
In addition, the magnitude of these mistakes would have been about the same across all measurements.
As a result, we do not believe that differences in the voltage readings in the high resistance circuit are due
to systematic error in the voltage and current measurements.

Conclusion
We have experimentally tested the predictions of Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current law by
measuring the sum of the voltages around several closed paths, and the sum of currents at several nodes
from part A: Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule, and part B: Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule. During the tabulation of the
results, there were slight differences of 0.1 – 0.9 with the sums of the currents and voltages due to minor
fluctuations from the analog and digital multimeter.

We find that Kirchhoff's Voltage and Current Laws properly predict the total of the voltage drops
along a closed route and the sum of the currents at a node in the resistive circuits studied here, except the
topic of voltage measurements over huge resistors. Due to the unstructured nature of the circuits
examined, we are also confident in our conclusion that KVL and KCL successfully anticipate the
behavior of resistive circuits.

References

Electronic-tutorials. (2015)., DC Circuits, “Kirchhoff’s Circuit Law”. Retrieved, 16

October 2022 from https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_4.html

James W. Nilsson and Susan A. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 8 ed., Pearson/Prentice Hall,
New Jersey, 2008, pp. 36 – 41

S. Radin and R. Folk, Introductory Physics Part II, supplementary notes prepared for
Physics II, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, 1980, pp. 166-169

Course notes for ECE 2100, Laboratory Exercise 2, University of Houston Electrical and
Computer Engineering Department, pp. 1 – 2
 Experiment 2B: Accuracy of Electrical
Measurements

Abstract
Theoretically, we may also anticipate the best possible outcomes of an experiment. However, the
gadgets' preciseness and accuracy are revealed to have limits. The multimeter has its own internal
resistance that can't be exceeded. Because of this, we conduct an experiment in which we test a range of
values to directly evaluate the performance of analog and digital MMs against their respective
requirements.

Introduction
Every experiment's result would match up perfectly if only it were possible.
The precision and accuracy of the equipment utilized, however, have their limits. In order to determine
the characteristics of an electrical circuit, a multimeter is used. However, the multimeter has its own
inherent resistance in terms of its measuring capabilities. This is taken into account while measuring the
attributes, and it may lead to less precise findings. A digital and analog multimeter's internal resistance is
tested and characterized in this experiment. The gadget with the more accurate readings may be
determined by comparing its internal resistance to the other.

Methodology
Within the supplied numbers, an analysis of measured values of Analog and Digital MMs is performed:

Part A:

It is assumed that the power supply is 9.0V, the digital MM is set to the 20 V range, and the
analog MM is set to the 10 V range, and that the circuit is assembled as shown in Fig.1. Both
analog and digital MM have internal resistances that may be calculated from the information
provided. Voltage is measured digitally and analogically at several points throughout the circuit,
and the results are compared.

Part B:

Following the same procedure as in Part A, we build the circuit in Fig. 2 and measure the
voltages across it using both an analog and digital multimeter. Not only are historical readings
tallied and examined, but so too are the most recent ones. The impact of a shorted ammeter
connection on the voltage reading is also noted.

Part C:
 Since the same circuit is used here as in section B, but the analog MM has some limitations, the
next measurements must be made using a digital MM instead. To verify the digital MM's ohm
range, just short its measurement connections. The 100 Ohm resistor is measured using the proper
Ohm range, and its nominal value and tolerance are recorded as required by the resistor's
specifications. To take a reading of the human body's inherent resistance using a digital MM, set
the ohmmeter mode to the 20 M range and gently grasp the cable tips. The 1 M resistance is
measured, and then the procedure is repeated with fingers from both hands touching the pins.
Therefore, the ohmmeter's values are compared before and after being touched.

Results and Discussion

It is estimated that the internal resistance of an analog multimeter is 20,000 Ω/V. The specific
internal resistance in a 30-volt range is equal to 20,000 ohms multiplied by 30. The resulting value for the
internal resistance is 600 kilohms (k). Concerning the 100 V range, 2,000 k is equal to 2,000,000 (or
20,000 times 100). The digital multimeter has an internal resistance of 10 M Ω in the 2-V range. A digital
multimeter's internal resistance remains stable during its use. In a comparison of internal resistances, a
larger value of internal resistance is preferable since a lower internal resistance significantly impacts the
values being measured. When comparing the two instruments, it is clear that the digital multimeter is
superior to the analog one in terms of measuring range, accuracy, and internal resistance. Comparatively,
the digital multimeter's features are superior.
Combining analog and digital MM readings is possible by simply stacking one set of wires atop the other
and connecting them across the circuit to get the desired reading. Although the circuit itself may be right,
the results may not always be accurate due to random mistakes or systematic inaccuracies introduced by
the MM tools themselves. While the levels of accuracy are close to what one would expect from a model
of either the analog or digital MM, this is still an underestimate.

Conclusion
The internal resistance of the multimeter varies depending on whether it is analog or digital. Multiplying
the base internal resistance by the voltage range under consideration yields the formula for determining
the internal resistance for a given voltage range. When comparing analog and digital multimeters, the
digital model has higher internal resistance.
Inferring from this, the digital multimeter is preferable than the analog kind. The digital multimeter also
has superior functionality. The two multimeters are compatible with one another and may be used
together. Systematic and random mistakes both contribute to the findings being less than precise. All the
same, the outcomes provided by these multimeters are noteworthy and comparable to their theoretical
counterparts.

References

Lab 1 - Electrical Measurements and Error Analysis. (n.d.).

https://www.webassign.net/labsgraceperiod/ncsuplseem2/lab_1/manual.html
Bartiromo, R., & Vincenzi, M. de. (2016, June). Electrical Measurements in the

Laboratory Practice. ResearchGate. Retrieved January 3, 2023, from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295703911_Electrical_Measurements_in_the_L

aboratory_Practice

Flores, Z., & Flores, Z. (2013, July 3). Fundamental Electrical Measurements

Experiment # 1. Retrieved January 3, 2023, from

https://www.academia.edu/4696840/Fundamental_Electrical_Measurements_Experiment

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