But how are the chromosomes

actually separated into the

daughter cells?
The Miracle of Mitosis
Centrosome
 Ingredients for making a
metaphase mitotic spindle:
• Keep the chromatids paired until it is time to segregate.
• Have unstable kinetochore microtubules that can probe the
cytoplasm and only become stable upon being captured by
a kinetochore.
• Make sure two kinetochore microtubules from the same
spindle can’t capture both chromatids of a chromosome.
• Have a checkpoint that senses when all the chromatids
have been captured and only then allow the chromatids to
separate.
 Cytokinesis
• In animals -
actin and myosin
form a “purse
string” that
constricts and
divides the cell.
 Cytokinesis
• In plants - vesicles
fuse to make cell
membrane and cell
plate, which
becomes a new cell
wall dividing the
mother cell.
Cytokinesis
 Cytokinesis (or lack thereof)

• Some cells don’t bother to divide their

cytoplasm. Example: muscle cells have
many nuclei (they are syncytial) because
they go through mitosis without cytokinesis.
 Sex :

mixing the genetic material of two

organisms.
Before sexual reproduction, you
must reduce the number of
homologs by half.
 The terminology of ploidy:
• n = a set of chromosomes that includes
exactly one of each homolog.
• We give names to multiples of n:
– 1n = haploid
– 2n = diploid
– 3n = triploid
– 4n = tetraploid
– etc.
• In humans, somatic cells are diploid and
gametes are haploid
 Meiosis

The process by which haploid cells

are made.
Crossing over occurs during synapsis of
homologous chromosomes.
Meiosis II
Cells can arrest in meiosis for a
very long time

40 years in meiotic prophase I for

human females
 Risk of Down Syndrome Depends on the
Age of the Mother

7
6
% live births affected

4
3
2

1
0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
mothers age

Cuckle HS, Wald NJ, Thompson SG. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 94:387-402
Haploids are organisms too!
The importance of ploidy
revisited

How important can it really be?

 The true importance of ploidy
• It’s not the absolute number of
chromosomes that’s important, it’s the ratio
of homologs.
• Odd ploidys (n, 3n, 5n) tend to be sterile
because of problems in meiosis since there
are unpaired homologs on the metaphase I
plate.
 Diploid Trisomy Triploid Tetraploid

Chromosome 1

Chromosome 2

Chromosome 3

etc.

Chromosome 1:1:1 1:1:1.5 1:1:1 1:1:1

ratio

Ploidy even (slightly) odd odd even

 Woodland strawberry
(Fragaria vesca) Diploid

X. laevis X. tropicalis
Tetraploid Diploid
Garden strawberry
(Fragaria ×ananassa)
Octoploid
NEXT LECTURE: MENDELIAN
GENETICS