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PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ‘A’ LEVEL NOTES – 9156/1

SECTION A PRACTICALS – MAPWORK

Candidates choose one question from this section out of two

-one question is on mapwork the other on surveys. We focus on mapwork only

This is a topic which deals with map-work techniques. Candidates may be required to draw
either a sketch-map, or a cross section or a sketch-section.

SKETCH-MAP
-only natural features are to be drawn i.e. relief and/or drainage
-a boundary has to be drawn indicating where your sketch-map ends
- position your features correctly
-it is advised that you start drawing the major rivers & their tributaries then it will be easy to
position your relief features properly
-draw the shape of the relief feature by looking at the outside contour
-shade each & every relief feature different from another feature if time permits but this does
not matter
-label inside the shape the correct name of the relief feature
-lowlands are not shaded but they are labelled within the sketch map where they occur
-contour lines are not supposed to be drawn
-direction of flow of major rivers and their tributaries is to be indicated correctly & label heir
names
-all drainage patterns have to be shown within the sketch map exactly where they are found.
These have to be well demarcated on the sketch map
-all drainage features should also be indicated & labelled in the sketch map

Cross-section/Relief section
This shows the land surface as seen from a vertical position. Both natural & human features
are drawn

Steps
1) Note the end points of the cross section & join the lines with a straight, fine pencil
using a ruler.
2) Place a straight edged piece of paper along the pencil line & mark the positions where
contour lines pass the edge of paper, roads, railway lines footpaths, powerlines etc &
also mark the two end points.
3) Find the height of each & every contour line on the edged paper & note the highest &
lowest altitudes.
4) On a sheet of paper or graph paper draw a framework showing the end points on the
edged paper.

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5) Decide on the vertical scale to be used on the framework, preferably 1cm to 100m.
6) Place the straight edge of the marked paper strip along the base line of this framework.
Transfer the points marked on the paper, vertically above, to the correct elevations on
the frame.
7) Join together the points on the framework with a fine smooth pencil line. Shade in the
relief section in pencil or brown colour.
8) Draw fine perpendicular arrows to significant man-made & natural features along the
surface of the section & label.
9) Give the section a title & calculate the vertical exaggeration

Sketch section

-this is similar to a cross section but the difference is that this is a simplified version of the
former
-one needs to study the variation of the relief along the points to be drawn noting the highest &
lowest altitudes of each points along the section
-draw a framework & draw the simplified section noting the differences in height of different
relief features
-label the names of relief features & the sides of each feature
-no human feature is to be drawn

SECTION B PHYSICAL CORE

-candidates choose two questions from this section
TOPICS TO BE COVERED

 CLIMATOLOGY
 HYDROLOGY & FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
 WEATHERING & GEOMORPHOLOGY

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ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES & PHENOMENA

ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA

-the word atmos is a Greek word meaning gas

-atmosphere means the huge amount of air that surrounds the earth. It is made up of odourless,
tasteless & colourless gases. These gases protect us from sun’s dangerous rays
-the atmosphere clings to the earth due to the force of gravity. The stretch of the atmosphere is
still a conjecture, with some estimating to about 966km others 1000km & still others 2000km.
-despite its stretch 75% of the gases lie within 11km, 90% within 16km & 97% within 19km
-the atmosphere is therefore densest near the earth’s surface or in the lower layers where 75%
of these gases are found. Hence the higher you go the thinner the gases become
-the AT consists of permanent gases i.e. nitrogen, oxygen, & argon & other non-gaseous
substances like dust. The permanent gases constitute 99% of the AT. The remaining 1% is
made up of trace gases which are more important bcoz they interact with the energy system to
give the earth the observable temperature.
STRATIFICATION OF THE A.T.
DIAGRAM
-it is made of 4 various layers based on temperature i.e. troposphere, mesosphere ,
stratosphere & thermosphere.

TROPOSPHERE

-this is the lowest layer of the AT. It is of prime importance to climatologists bcoz it contains
most of the atmospheric gases & all the water vapour
-most of the weather processes that affect us take place within this layer. In this layer
temperature decreases with increasing altitude at an average rate of 6ᴼC /1000m known as
Environmental Lapse Rate
-the decrease in temperature with height is known as lapse rate. This decrease in temperature
with height is bcoz the AT is heated from the ground surface below by the radiation from the
earth’s surface called longwave radiation or terrestrial radiation.
-this layer extends to about 16km though it varies with distance from the equator.
-the tropopause is the boundary of the troposphere which is higher at the equator & lowest at
the poles. This is as a result of great heating & vertical convective turbulences at the equator.

STRATOSPHERE
-it is generally dry & cloudless. It extends from the tropopause to about 50km.
-in this layer temperature increases with height due to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation
by ozone.
-density in the upper layers is much less such that even limited absorption produces a large
temperature increase. Much of the ozone gas is contained in this layer
-the stratopause is the upper limit.
MESOSPHERE
-it extends from about 50-80km. Temperature decrease with altitude. The mesopause is the
upper limit.

THERMOSPHERE
-it extends up to about 500km. Temperature increases with altitude bcoz of the absorption of
shortwave radiation by atomic oxygen & nitrogen.

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-the thermopause is the upper limit. This layer marks the outer limit of the AT beyond which is
space.

ENERGY TRANSFER
diagram
-the main source of heat from the earth & AT is solar radiation which is in different forms i.e.
infra-red, gamma rays, ultra-violet, X-rays, cosmic rays radio waves & visible light.
-when these wavelengths are arranged in order they are called electro-magnetic spectrum.
Wavelength is a horizontal distance between waves & the unit of measuring wavelength is a
micron.
-each wavelength of light has its characteristic colour. These colours are red, blue, green
orange, indigo & violet. Red has the longest wavelength & violet has the shortest.
-about 99% of the radiation from the sun lies between 0,15 – 4micrones. Of these U.V. carries
9% & it lies between 4 and 15micrones. Visible light caries 45% & lies between 0,15 &
7,5micrones. The remaining 46% is carried by radiation greater than 075micrones.
-when a beam from the sun encounters the AT a number of processes take place i.e. scattering,
absorption & reflection.

SCATTERING
-is the process by which wavelength diffuse in all directions due to collision with small
particles like dust, smoke, volcanic ash & salt grains. The AT sends about 6% back to space
through scattering, 21% is scattered downwards until it reaches the earth’s surface as diffuse
radiation.

ABSORPTION
-oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour ozone & clouds absorb incoming radiation. 5% by clouds,
20% by other constituencies. Ozone absorbs active radiation which is 0,3micrones & below.
Water vapour absorbs radiation which is 0,8 & above. The range between 0,3 & 0,8 where
most energy is concentrated has no absorption.

REFLECTION
-this is when incoming radiation is send back without being effective in the earth atmospheric
system (E.A. system).
-clouds reflect about 19%, the earth reflect 3% & the clear sky 6%. Different substances reflect
different amounts. Dark objects reflect less energy than light coloured objects.
-this 28% which is lost without being effective is known as planetary albedo.

VARIATIONS IN INSOLATION/TEMPERATURE

Insolation in the E.A. system varies from place to place & time to time. A number of factors
are responsible for these variations.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING VARIATION

ALTITUDE OF THE SUN - diagram

-this refers to the angle of the sun’s rays at a tangent to the earth’s surface at the point of
observation. The sun’s altitude is at its lowest at dawn & dusk & it is highest at noon when it
will be 90.
-when the sun shines at low altitude, its rays are spread over a large area & hence
insolation/temp is low. At noon the rays of the sun will be concentrated on a small area hence
high insolation.

LENGTH OF DAY
-insolation is received during daylight hours therefore the more time of daylight the greater
the radiation.
-daylight hours vary with changing seasons brought about by the revolution of the earth around
the sun.
-the hemisphere which will be experiencing summer will have longer days & shorter nights
hence more insolation.
-for example on 22 Dec the sun will be directly overhead along the Tropic of Capricorn, the
number of daylight hours increases from the equator towards the South Pole where there will
be 24 hours daylight.
-places in the southern hemisphere will have more insolation than places in the northern
hemisphere.

POSITION OF THE EARTH - diagram

-as the earth revolves around the sun, it follows a path called an orbital plane which is elliptical
in shape.
-this means that on 22 Dec the earth is nearer the sun & this shortest distance between the earth
& the sun is called perihelion which is 147km.
-on 21 June the earth is furthest from the sun a distant known as aphelion which is 151km
-this means that the closer the earth is to the sun the more insolation is received & the further
the earth is from the sun the less insolation received.

INFLUENCE OF LATITUDE - diagram

-intensity of insolation varies with latitudinal variations due to the earth’s spherical shape
which causes the sun’s rays to strike the surface near the equator at a much greater altitude
than in higher latitude
-in the tropics the midday sun is almost directly overhead for much of the year whereas in
higher latitudes the altitude of the sun never reaches an overhead position even during the
summer season.
-in low lattitude areas the area covered by the sun’s rays is small as compared to that the same
rays cover in higher latitudes. Also the distance through the AT travelled by the sun’s rays in
low latitudes is shorter than that in high latitudes
-it means that low latitude areas have more insolation than high latitude areas.

TOPOGRAPHY/ASPECT - diagram
-this is very common in temperate climates. In the northern hemisphere during winter when
the sun is in the southern hemisphere the south facing slopes will receive more direct beam
radiation than north facing slopes vice versa.

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NATURE OF THE SURFACE

-this affects the heating & cooling between water & land. Water reflects rays more than the
land which absorbs more heat than water.
-at night land losses heat more rapidly than water hence during the day more insolation occurs
over the land & during the night temps are high over the sea than over land
-on the land different land surfaces absorb \7 reflect heat at different rates i.e. dark surfaces
like urban areas absorb more heat than is reflected hence low albedo.

EARTH-ATMOSPHERE ENERGY BUDGET/BALANCE - diagram (see handout)

-solar radiation is shortwave radiation from the sun entering the A.T. & responsible for heating
the ground.
-solar radiation besides being the energy source plays a minor role in providing direct heat for
the AT. The AT is indirectly heated by the sun via the earth’s surface. This is bcoz the AT
being gaseous is transparent to short –wave radiation therefore heat has to be transferred from
the earth into the AT by 3 main processes i.e. terrestrial radiation, convection & conduction.

TERRESTRIAL/ LONG-WAVE RADIATION

-this is longwave radiation emitted by the ground & responsible for warming the A.T.
-this is the insolation absorbed at the surface & converted into long-wave infra-red waves &
then re-radiated back into AT hence the earth becomes the source of heat.
-this heat is absorbed & retained by the AT as a result of carbon dioxide & water vapour. The
ability to absorb longwave radiation means that these gases play a major role in the E.A heat
balance helping to maintain a mean surface temp of about 15ᴼC
-clouds water vapour & carbon dioxide allow short wave radiation to pass through but traps
longwave radiation. This is called the greenhouse effect
-only 6% of the outgoing radiation escapes into space via bends between 8 & 13 microns
known as atmospheric windows.
-this result in the A.T. having an energy gain therefore it re-radiates energy back to the earth’s
surface as counter-radiation where it is absorbed & radiated to the AT forming a continuous
cycle of exchange.

CONVECTION
-this is the transference of heat by physical movement of air. It is achieved in two ways:
thermal & mechanical convection.

Thermal Convection
-this is convection driven by temp differences between an air parcel & the air of the
surrounding ambient air.
-some parts of the earth are heated more rapidly than others as a result of variation in colour &
texture of the surface. The heated air is forced to expand & therefore its density is reduced.
-this makes it buoyant making it to break away from the heavier surrounding air & rise as a
bubble of light air (thermal). This is the major source of atmospheric heating.

Mechanical Convection
-this is as a result of forced uplift of air parcels as the air passes over rough ground surface or
contrasting vegetation. These uneven surfaces steer the air resulting in turbulences & eddies.
-convection transfers heat in two forms: sensible heat & latent heat.

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Sensible Heat/Enthalpy of dry air

-this is the heat from the land or sea into the A.T. in contact with it. The transfer of heat is
achieved by conduction, convection and radiation
-this is achieved by the ascent & mixing of warm air from the ground directly to the AT. It’s
the heat that can be sensed by a thermometer.

Latent Heat/Enthalpy of vapourisation

-this is the transfer of heat that has been stored in water during evaporation & released when
condensation occurs
-this is the energy needed to change the state of a substance without an alteration in its temp
e.g. the energy transferred to the AT by evaporation of water or melting of ice.
-during evaporation heat energy is used to change water to water vapour. Heat remains stored
in water vapour as latent heat. About 22% of the solar energy is absorbed at the surface %
transferred as latent heat
-much of the energy used to trigger the general atmospheric circulation comes from the
condensation of water vapour derived from oceanic evaporation.

CONDUCTION
-this is where heat is transferred directly through matter from a point of high temp to a point of
low temp. During a hot day insolation heats the air near the ground through direct conduct
without involving any movement of air.
-this process plays a minor role as a source of heat to the AT bcoz air is a poor conductor of
heat & bcoz the warming of air is restricted to surface layer.

ENERGY BALANCE
Diag
-is the balance between incoming insolation & outgoing terrestrial radiation within the
atmosphere.
-the budget is such that there is net gain in radiation within 0 to 35° north & south of the
equator.
-there is a net deficit in areas poleward of 35° N & S of the equator.
-there is a net loss of heat in the atmos. & net gain of heat at the surface.
-this results in the earth neither warming up or cooling down
-the balance is archieved through horizontal heat transfer & vertical heat transfer.
-heat is transferred horizontally from equatorial areas to polar areas through tornadoes, air
masses, general atmospheric circulation, mid-latitude depressions & jet streams.
-vertical transfers from ground surface to upper atmos is through convection, radiation &
conduction
-there isn’t net cooling or heating of the earth’s system. The amount of energy received from
the sun is the same amount which is sent back into space.
-the proportion of radiation amongst the various components of the E.A. system is known as
E.A. energy balance.
-convection & longwave radiation transfer heat from the earth to the AT. The earth relies for
its warmth on the AT. Without this cover it is estimated that surface temps would fall by 40ᴼC
-for the E.A. system as a whole there is a long term energy balance. All the energy inflows are
balanced by the equivalence series of outflows.

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-31% of the original solar input is lost directly through reflection & scattering (planetary
albedo), 63% is emitted through longwave radiation from the AT, 6 % escapes directly from
the earth’s surface through atmospheric windows
-when these above quantities are added i.e. 63%: 31% & 6% one gets 100%
NB The figures for each part of the globe vary according to the latitude & nature of the land
surface. This balance does not apply for short periods or specific locations bcoz at one time or
place more energy may be lost than gained.

LATITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION OF NET RADIATION

-the tropical latitudes receive more radiation during the year than they lose while towards the
poles there is a net radiation deficit
-net radiation/radiation balance is the difference between the incoming & outgoing radiation. It
is positive when incoming values exceed outgoing values i.e. radiation surplus. When outgoing
radiation exceed incoming radiation it is radiation deficit
-the radiation balance is already noted equalising the energy differences between earth & AT,
but horizontal differences still exist so there is still an energy imbalance between high & low
latitudes
-between the equator & latitude 40ᴼC N/S there is a surplus whereas polewards there is a
deficit. Despite this imbalance the tropics are not becoming warmer & on the poles they are
not becoming colder, instead huge transfers are at work equalising the global redistribution
-planetary wind systems carry sensible & latent heat to cooler latitude in the atmosphere. Heat
energy stored in the water vapour as a result of evaporation in the tropics is carried polewards
by winds & released in mid-latitudes as the vapour condenses into rainfall
-ocean currents also transfer heat energy. Warm currents transfer warm surface waters towards
the poles & rise the temps of the marine environments. Cold currents carry cold surface waters
towards the equator & therefore lower temps of the coastal areas
-tropical cyclones/hurricanes & depressions are also responsible for 80% of this heat transfer
while ocean currents for 20%.

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE

-The greater part of the atmosphere consists of water in the form of vapour. Despite forming
only a small part of the atmosphere’s total volume water vapour plays a major role in the
process that make weather.
-It is fundamental to the development of clouds and precipitation, in addition it controls the
longwave radiation of the atmosphere, and also its role as a store of energy.
-It performs a key function in the global distribution of heat and the general circulation of the
atmosphere.
-water vapour concentration decreases with altitude.

ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY
-It is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. It represents about 2% of the total mass.
-At least ½ of the vapour occurs in the lowest 23 000 m although the vapour is found in the
troposphere.

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
-it is the actual amount of moisture that a certain quantity of air is holding & it’s expressed in
g/m. It depends on temp bcoz warm air holds more water vapour than cold air.

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-on a global scale it generally decreases with distance from the sea& towards the poles. It is
also high in summer & low in winter.
-when the air contains the maximum vapour it is said to be saturated, if the air is not saturated
the mass of vapour required to bring it to the point of saturation is known as saturation vapour
pressure deficit. Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by water vapour present in a parcel of
air.
-the temp at which a parcel of air at a given atmospheric pressure becomes fully saturated is
dew point.

SPECIFIC HUMIDITY
-is the ratio of water vapour present to the total weight of the air with its moisture content, it’s
measured in g/m. It can be measured even when the air is saturated.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
-is the ratio of the amount of water vapour actually present to that it could contain when
saturated, & it is expressed as a percentage. Since it is a proportion , it can be expressed by the
formula:

R H = actual moisture in a parcel of air *100%

Maximum amount that can be held at the same temp
-it varies with water vapour content (A.H.). If A.H changes while the temp remains constant
the R.H. will also change e.g. If A.H. increases, R.H also increases
-it is inversely proportional to temp, i.e. an increase in temp results in a decrease in R.H
-the table below shows the relationship between temp & R.H

Temperature ᴼC Absolute Humidity Relative Humidity

30 6.8 22
25 6.8 30
20 6.8 39
15 6.8 53
10 6.8 75
5 6.8 100

EVAPORATION
-it is a very important process within the hydrological cycle bcoz it links the land phase & the
atmospheric phase of the cycle
-at global level evaporation of ocean water acts as the major source of water vapour in the AT
-it is governed by vapour pressure i.e. vapour pressure at the water surface & the one of the AT
above the water surface
-for evaporation to take place vapour pressure at the water surface must exceed that in the AT
above & the aim of evaporation is to achieve an equilibrium between the two pressures
-evaporation is the water loss from the ground surface, soil & water bodies, transpiration is the
water loss from tree leaves through stomata. The combined process of the two is
evapotranspiration (e.t)
-there are two types of (e.t.) i.e. potential & actual e.t
-potential e.t. is the maximum rate of loss of water from an area which is at field capacity. It
combines water loss from a vegetated surface as well as directly from soil or water body
-actual e.t.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING E.T

INSOLATION
-solar radiation is the one that provides energy for the water to break away from the forces that
binds them together. The amount of solar radiation varies diurnally & seasonally &
latitudinally. The greater the insolation the higher the rate of e.t

TEMPERATURE
-the ability of air to hold moisture increases with temp i.e. increased temp facilitate the ability
of air to hold moisture. Warm air holds more moisture than cold air

HUMIDITY
-if it is high e.t will be low since a small amount of water vapour is needed for the air to be
saturated hence e.t will be low

WIND SPEED
-if a body is surrounded by barriers of hills & mountains water vapour collects above the
water body bcoz of the still air above the water body or tree leaves, so saturation will take
place immediately above the water body & e.t will be reduced
-in the presence of wind, still air & water vapour is removed & replaced by dry air which will
facilitate more e.t
NB This factor doesn’t cause e.t but facilitates it. The rate of e.t will increase with wind speed
up to a certain point & from that point other factors are responsible

SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT

-is the amount of moisture in the soil. It determines the availability of moisture in the soil for
evaporation to take place
-high soil moisture content leads to high evaporation. If the upper profile is dried evaporation
will reach a certain depth beyond which it becomes ineffective

DEPTH OF WATER BODY

-for shallow water bodies temp varies with the water body. When its warm the water body is
also warm hence evaporation will take place
-for deep water bodies only the surface waters warm during summer. In winter the surface
water becomes cooler than the waters at some depth below. This results in upwelling of water
in winter when cool/cold water sinks down & warm water below rises up, which will facilitate
evaporation

SOIL COLOUR
-dark soils have low albedo hence absorb more heat leading to increased evaporation provided
there is moisture in the soil

VEGETATION
-a dense vegetation network provides a canopy above the ground preventing direct insolation
from the sun to reach the ground surface thereby reducing evaporation. On the other hand the
dense vegetation network increases transpiration

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CONDENSATION
-it is a process whereby water vapour is cooled to form clouds or water droplets. For
condensation to take place there are certain conditions which should be met i.e. cooling;
hygroscopic nuclei & addition of water vapour.

Hygroscopic/Condensation Nuclei
-for condensation to take place these must be presenting the AT in large quantities.
Condensation doesn’t take place in clean air
-clean air is capable of being cooled below its dew point without condensation occurring.
When this happens the air is said to be supersaturated. Super saturation means R.H. is over
100%
-condensation nuclei are minute solid particles e.g. smoke, dust, volcanic ash, salt particles
e.t.c. present in the lower AT. These have a high affinity for water which allows water droplets
to aggregate on
-if condensation nuclei is available in great quantities, observations have shown that
condensation can take place even if R.H. is as low as 75% e.g. on cities.

Cooling
-in order for condensation to take place rising air must cool. There are a number of ways in
which a rising air can be cooled:

Radiation/Conduct cooling
-this occurs in calm air clear & clear nights, the previous day there must have been intensive
heating of the ground surface
-during the night when the ground loses heat through terrestrial radiation, the air in conduct
with the ground is cooled by conduction
-if the cooled air is moist enough vapour will condense to form radiation fog

Advection cooling
-it occurs when a warm moist air moves over a cold land or sea surface. The lower layers of
the moving air are chilled/cooled from below resulting in condensation to form. This cooling
will result in advection fog

Frontal cooling
-warm moist air is forced to rise over cold air at a front when the two air masses meet. This
warm moist air cools as it rises until dew point is reached & condensation occurs resulting in
cyclonic rainfall

Orographic cooling
-occurs when warm moist air is forced to rise over a highland area/relief e.g. a mountain
barrier. As the air rises it cools until dew point is reached & condensation occurs resulting in
relief rainfall

Adiabatic cooling
-occurs during the daytime when air is warm due to intensive heating of the ground surface. This
heating causes the air to rise in pockets called thermals

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-as the air rises it expands loses heat resulting in a drop in temp. The drop in temp is a result of
heat energy which is used during expansion of the air parcel.
-this is known as adiabatic bcoz there is no interchange of heat between the rising parcel of air
& the surrounding air
-the rising parcel of air expands bcoz there is a reduction in pressure as altitude increases
-cooling will take place until dew point is reached resulting in convectional rainfall

EEFECTS/RESULTS OF CONDENSATION AT/NEAR GROUND SURFACE

-it results in the formation of dew, frost mist & fog

Dew
-these are small water droplets found on the surfaces of bodies on the earth’s surface in the
morning
-it is usually found within 1m off the ground surface
-it occurs when condensation takes place on the surfaces of these bodies bcoz the air above
them will have been cooled by conduction to dew point as a result of rapid terrestrial radiation
during the night
-it occurs when the previous day was very hot so that much evaporation occurs
-the evening must have stable conditions i.e. calm & clear sky.
-the clear sky allow heat to be lost effectively & continuously. Calm conditions allow air in
contact with the ground surface to be still so that effective cooling may take place. Winds will
cause mixing of air by eddies & hence doesn’t allow one layer to remain sufficiently long in
contact with the ground

Hoar frost
-it refers to small ice specules formed exactly the same as dew
-the difference is that dew point temp in the formation of hoar frost will be below freezing
point so that water vapour is turned into ice
-conditions for its development are similar to those of dew but in addition sufficient moisture
in the air to condense at temps below freezing point is needed

Rhime
-this is ice found on trees, telegraph poles etc usually in cold regions. It is formed when
supercooled water droplets usually in the form of fog are driven against trees wires etc &
freeze on them
-freezing occurs bcoz the objects bring down the temp of the supercooled water droplets to
freezing point

Mist
-it is also another result which is thin than fog that reduces visibility to 1-2km.Thick mist
which reduces visibility to less than a km is called fog. There are different types of fogs
depending on their formation

Radiation fog
-is formed when there is rapid cooling of the ground sky nocturnal radiation so that warm air
above the ground condenses to form tiny water droplets which can be suspended in the air
-it is common in low lying areas like valleys & also industries where there are lots of
hygroscopic nuclei. It is favourable in winter season & it disperse when temps increase or
when strong winds occur

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Advection fog
-is formed when warm moist air moves over a cold land or sea surface. The warm moist air
cools & condenses since it gives off heat to the cold surface.
-when the air is moist enough condensation will result in the formation of fog

Hillslope/Expansion fog
-formed when warm moist air moves upslope for a long time over rising terrain. Temp of the
rising air will decrease by adiabatic expansion causing condensation

Steaming fog
-occurs when cold air passes over a warm sea surface so that the sea appears to be steaming.
The water droplets appear as steam.

PRECIPITATION FORMS
-it describes the ways in which water falls to the earth’s surface from the AT. There are
different forms which include the following:
Rain
-these are water droplets averaging 1-2mm in diameter & some may be as big in diameter as
5,5mm especially those in thunderstorms.

Drizzle
-these are smaller droplets than those of rain usually 0,5mm in diameter & below. It is
associated with stratus clouds hence atmospheric stability. Rainfall is very little of light
intensity & long duration.

Hail
-occurs when both liquid water droplets & hailstones fall onto the earth’s surface
-strong updraughts carry water droplets to high altitudes where they freeze within the clouds.
The ice formed grow to form hailstones which are onion-like in structure composed of
alternate layers of clear & opaque ice
-upper levels in the cloud would form the clear layer & the lower levels would create the
opaque layer due to abundance of water in liquid state
-it usually forms in cumulonimbus clouds

Sleet
-is a mixture of rain & ice formed when the upper air temp is below freezing point so that
snow is formed
-the lower temp will be around 2-4ᴼC which allows their partial melting hence producing rain

Snow
-forms under similar conditions as rain except that as dew point is below 0ᴼC, the vapour
condenses directly into solid state i.e. sublimation
-they are ice particles joined together in flat triangular or hexagonal shape
-it forms only if freezing nuclei are present & once the ice crystals are formed they later
aggregate to form the snowflakes

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Condensation results in the formation of water droplets which are very minute that they can’t
fall to the ground as rain drops.
For such minute droplets to fall to the ground surface, there should be an explanation for the
growth in size of water droplets. As a result two theories have been put forward to explain the
growth of minute droplets i.e. collision-coalescence & ice crystal growth

THEORIES OF RAINDROP FORMATION

COLLISION-COALESCENCE PROCESS
-water droplets of different sizes exist in the same cloud as a result of the availability of giant
& small condensation nuclei
-when updraughts & downdraughts occur within the cloud, these droplets are swept at different
velocities. The larger droplets will move faster than smaller ones
-as the large ones fall they overtake & absorb the smaller ones i.e. collide & coalesce, hence
they grow in size
-the collision & coalescence take place bcoz droplets have different electrical charges,
negatively charged ones collides with positively charged ones
-as the large drops fall, they are spilt into other several water droplets which are large enough
to start the process again
-the major criticism against this theory is that it can’t explain the formation of raindrops in
colder regions

ICE CRYSTAL GROWTH

-its an attempt to explain precipitation which occurs beyond the tropics where temps in the
upper parts of the clouds are well below freezing point
-between 0ºc & -40ºc ice & supercooled droplets core exist bcoz the droplets are small &
therefore need freezing nuclei to act as a focus for ice crystal growth
-supercooled droplets will evaporate & directly freeze around the ice crystals a process called
sublimation
-sublimation occurs bcoz the saturation vapour pressure over ice is less than that of the water
surface existing on the super cooled droplets
-a vapour pressure gradient is created so vapour will have to flow from areas of high vapour
pressure gradient on the super cooled water droplets to areas of low v.p. on the ice crystals
-the ice crystals will grow by accretion or by fusion as their numerous edges interlock on
collision with other flakes
-they also increase in number as ice splinters break off to form new nuclei
-if temps rises above freezing point as the snowflakes fall to the ground, flakes melt into
raindrops.

Look at the three types of rainfall, write notes & draw diagrams

LAPSE RATES
-this is the rate at which temp decreases with increasing altitude either in a stationary column
of air (E.L.R.) or in a rising pockets of air A.L.R. These are the two types of lapse rates i.e.
E.L.R. & A.L.R.

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ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE

-this is the actual decrease in temp as altitude increases in the troposphere at a particular place
at a particular time as measured by a radiosonde balloon
-the rate of decrease is at an average rate of 6ºc/000m. This is bcoz the E.L.R. is highly
variable, it varies from place to place & from time to time
-diurnally during the daytime, as the ground is heated by solar radiation ELR steepens or
increases, at night it is low bcoz of cooling of the ground surface
-latitudinally it is steeper in low latitudes bcoz of the intensive heating of the ground by the
sun which is almost always overhead within the tropics & gentler in higher latitude bcoz of
cool temps
-ELR varies with temp i.e. if temps are high it steepens or increases when temps are low it falls

ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES

-this is the change in temp of a parcel of air i.e. a decrease/increase in temp of a rising /falling
parcel of air respectively.
-the changes in temp are as a result of expansion or contraction of a parcel of air as a result of
changes in pressure i.e. reduction in pressure with increasing altitude or increase in pressure
with decreasing altitude
-the changes in temp occur within the air parcel with no interference with the surrounding
environment hence the term adiabatic
-there are two types of ALRs which are D.A.L.R & S.A.L.R.
-DALR (dry adiabatic lapse rate) is the decrease in temp of a rising unsaturated parcel of air at
a constant rate of 9,8ºc/000m of ascent
-SALR (saturated adiabatic lapse rate) is the decrease in temp of a rising saturated parcel of air
at a constant rate of 5,4ºc/000m of ascent
-the relationship between ELR & the two ALRs helps us in the understanding of stability &
instability

STABILITY
diag
-this is a condition of the AT which occurs when the ELR is less than the DALR i.e. rate of
cooling of the surrounding air will be lower than that of the rising parcel of air which is
9.8ºc/000m
-on a tephigram, the ELR will be to the right of the DALR. This means that the rising parcel of
air will be cooling more rapidly than the surrounding air
-as a result the rising air will become cooler & therefore more dense than the surrounding air,
hence the air parcel will resist vertical uplift & it tends to return back to its original position
i.e. it sinks
-the air is said to be stable bcoz dew point may not be reached hence no condensation takes
place
Weather conditions: clear skies; sunny; calm conditions; stratiform clouds; no
precipitation or anticyclonic conditions

ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY
diag
-is a condition of the AT which occurs when the ELR is greater than the DALR for a given
parcel of air
-it occurs when there is intensive heating of the ground surface resulting in pockets of air to
rise

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-this intensive heating increases the ELR & becomes greater than DALR therefore the
surrounding air will cool faster than the rising air which is warmer & lighter
-since the parcel of air will be warmer & lighter than the surrounding air it continues to rise on
its own until dew point is reached & condensation starts to take place
-as soon as condensation starts to take place the air begins to cool at SALR i.e. 5,4ºC/000m.
This is bcoz there is release of latent heat of condensation which heats up the rising air
Weather conditions: overcast skies; cumuliform clouds; heavy rainfall; high humidity
high temps; low pressure; strong winds or cyclonic conditions

CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY
diag
-this occurs when an unsaturated air parcel is forced to rise over a front or a high land area
-the ELR will be lower than DALR hence it will be stable, so it will be cooler than the
surrounding air
-under normal circumstances the air should sink bcoz it will be denser than the surrounding air,
but in this case if the mechanism which triggered the initial uplift remains, the air is forced to
continue rising & cooled until dew point is reached
-when dew point has been reached cooling takes place at a slower SALR & the parcel of air
becomes warmer than the surrounding
-the air rises freely even if the uplifting mechanism ceases. Instability is conditional upon the
air being forced to rise over a mechanism which must be in existence until dew point has been
reached & also the air must have adequate moisture for condensation to take place
Weather conditions: fine then cloudy & showery

TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS
-this is when temp increases with altitude, it occurs in the upper layers of the AT or near the
ground surface
-inversions occur when warm air overlies cold air

CAUSES OF TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS

1 when there is rapid loss of heat from the ground due to radiation cooling, the adjacent
layer of air is cooled & its temp is lowered. Immediately after this cooled layer the air
will be warm
2 cold air from hill tops & slopes tends to flow down slope to collect in valley bottoms
creating an inverted lapse rate at the top
3 convergence of two air masses with contrasting characteristics result in cold air
pushing underneath the warmer air & replace it
4 when warm air moves over cold surface it is advected as it is cooled by conduction
5 when air is subsiding its warmed adiabatically due to contraction e.g. under
anticyclonic conditions

Weather: hoar frost; mist & fog

AIR MASSES

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-it’s a large body of moving air covering an extensive portion with homogenous temp &
humidity characteristics. In order to acquire these homogenous characteristics, the air mass
must rest for a long time at the source region
-three major source regions with evenly distributed insolation are: land masses; deserts &
oceans
-a source region is a large area with approximately homogenous temp & humidity properties
where there is subsidence & divergence of air
-these conditions are best developed in the semi-permanent high pressure belts of the earth
-classification of air masses is based primarily upon their source regions & characteristics
-on the basis of temp, air masses may be known as Polar or Tropical & on the basis of
humidity Maritime or Continental
-the combination of these allow four main categories to be distinguished i.e. Polar
Maritime(Pm); Polar Continental(Pc); Tropical Maritime( Tm)& Tropical Continental (Tc)
-the Pc for example originates over continental interiors, in the northern tundra lands of North
America & Asia forming masses of cold, dry air
-as these masses spread outwards towards the coasts & over the North Atlantic, they are
warmed from below & their water content increases
-air masses migrate over long distances as components of the earth’s atmospheric circulation.
In this process the homogeneous characteristics will be gradually be modified
-there are two types of air mass modification i.e. thermal & dynamic

MODIFICATION OF AIR MASSES

THERMAL MODIFICATION
-this change takes place between the air mass & the ground over which it is passing
-the lower layers of the air mass may be warmed or chilled by passing over a surface that has
different temps from that of its own source of origin
-for example, a cold air mass from the polar regions may be warmed as it moves towards the
tropics. The lower layers of such an air mass will be heated by the ground surface
-the heating of the ground surface also influences the ELR by steepening the lapse rate which
will result in relatively unstable conditions
-humidity characteristics also change when an air mass passes over a maritime source, it
becomes saturated in the lower layers
-when it passes over a continental surface it finds little moisture therefore it maintains its
humidity characteristics

DYNAMIC/MECHANICAL MODIFICATION
It involves the modification of an air mass within itself without any external influence
-this is accomplished by processes like subsidence divergence convergence uplift &
turbulences
-convergence at ground level result in ascent of warm moist air which cools adiabatically
resulting in condensation

STUDENTS HAVE TO WRITE NOTES ON FRONTS, CYCLONES & TEMPERATE

DEPRESSIONS

I.T.C.Z.

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diag
-it is an area of low pressure where air masses of different characteristics meet within the
tropics. The two air masses which meet are the Tm & Tc
-The Tm are the SE trades which are warm & humid & the Tc are the NE trades which are
warm & dry & dusty
-the ITCZ is not stationary but migratory i.e. It migrates N & Swards following the position of
the overhead sun
-in January it follows the western coast of Africa then bends southwards through DRC & parts
of Zambia & then bends eastwards through Malawi & Mozambique resulting in heavy rainfall
in most parts of southern Africa
-this is bcoz the sun is overhead along the tropic of Capricorn, resulting in intensive heating of
the ground surface causing warm air to rise creating a low pressure
-in July it extends across north Africa from Mauritania through the Red Sea. This convergence
results in little or no rainfall at all bcoz the humid air would have been lost before reaching the
areas of low pressure. By the time this air mass reaches convergence zone it will be dry

OCEAN CURRENTS
-this involves the movement of large quantities of surface water around oceans. There are two
types of ocean currents i.e. cold & warm. Winds are the principal causes of ocean currents &
the earth’s rotation influences the direction of the currents
-prevailing winds cause surface water which they blow to move in the direction of the
prevailing winds
-trade winds cause upwelling of water along equatorial coasts as they blow the surface waters
-upwelling of cold water gives rise to cold currents like the Benguela currents
-the north-westerly winds produce a North Atlantic Drift, this carries warm water across the
North Atlantic to north eastern Europe & as a result the SW winds are warmed by this current
& are able to carry more moisture
-as these SW blow inland they bring heavy rain & warmer temps
-the cold Benguela current blows northwards in the South Atlantic ocean along the west coast
of southern Africa cooling the winds which blow above these waters. On reaching the land the
cooled winds are warmed resulting in evaporation rather than condensation, therefore little or
no rainfall occurs in most west coast of Africa
-the rotation of the earth changes the direction of movement of ocean currents in that those in
the southern hemisphere are deflected to the left resulting in an anti-clockwise direction

MONSOON
diag
-its derived from an Arabic word ‘mausin’ which means seasonal. The name is given to winds
whose direction completely changes from one season to another as a result of a reversal in
pressure systems
-they are best developed in Asia (Japan, China, S.E. Asia & the Indian sub-continent) &
northern Australia
-they are similar to land & sea breezes, but the difference is that they develop over a large area.
Winds blow between landmasses & continents
-Asia experiences the greatest seasonal movements bcoz it’s the largest continent adjacent to
the largest ocean i.e. the Pacific
-in January an intensive high pressure develops over central Asia & an intensive low pressure
over northern Australia, winds blow from the high pressure area across the doldrums to the
more intensive Australian low pressure

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-over Japan & northern China winds blow from the north west & over southern China & SE
Asia they blow from NE
-on crossing the equator they are deflected to the left & they blow from the NW
-in July the reverse takes place, winds blow from Australia to Asia
-the SE are deflected to the right after crossing the Equator & they blow as SW resulting in
cyclonic heavy summer rainfall

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THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

diag
-this occurs when short wave radiation is allowed to penetrate through the AT to the earth’s
surface but impeding longwave radiation to escape
-longwave radiation is absorbed in the AT by gases like water vapour, carbon dioxide, CFCs &
methane known as greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases
Water vapour
-water vapour is the most important natural greenhouse gas, man-made gases include carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide & CFCs. Ozone in the low AT is also an important gas
-apart from the CFCs the other man-made gases also occur naturally
-gases absorb & trap varying amounts of infrared radiation & also persist in the AT for
differing time periods e.g. carbon dioxide’s life’s span is between 50-100years, methane less
than 10 years, but a molecule of methane has approximately 21 times the effect of carbon
dioxide

Carbon dioxide
-this is the primary GHG that is contributing to recent climate change
-this is exchanged naturally between huge reservoirs of carbon in the oceans & living world
-biological processes contribute 110 billion tonnes of carbon as carbon dioxide to the AT each
year. This is balanced by the annual uptake of carbon during photosynthesis by plants
-the amount of carbon dioxide concentration has increased by more than 40% since pre-
industrial times. The actual rise began in the 19th century as a result of industrial revolution &
increasing deforestation
-human activities e.g. burning of fossil fuels & changes in land use release large amounts of
carbon dioxide causing concentrations in the atmosphere to rise
-some volcanic eruptions released large quantities of this gas in the past, but human activities
now emit more than 135 times as much carbon dioxide as volcanoes each year
-human activities currently release over 30 billion tons into the AT each yr
-this has resulted in the addition of billions of tonnes of carbon dioxide.
-Deforestation results in less carbon dioxide absorption during photosynthesis hence more
concentration in the AT
-industrialisation resulted in increased use of fossil fuels & this burning of fossil fuels like coal
& oil account for about 45% carbon dioxide emissions, deforestation for 20%
-the greater concentrations of this gas in the AT means more absorption of long-wave radiation

Methane
-there are two main sources of this gas. The first source is due to bacterial decomposition of
vegetation under water that occurs in flooded rice fields in Asia. When the leaves, stalks &
roots of rice fall in water they decompose & release this gas
-cattle are the other source. During grazing, grass is passed into the storage chamber, the
rumen then to the reticulum where cellulose which can’t be digested is attacked by a micro-
organism called gut flora
-the food is then regurgitated back to the mouth where the curd is chewed before being passed
to the omasum where water is absorbed then finally the food is taken to the true stomach the
obomasum
-in this complicated process, food is fermented producing large quantities of methane which is
expelled by the cattle

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-methane levels have been rising since the beginning of the 19th century with a more rapid rise
in the last few decades of about 1% per year
-the annual global release of methane in the AT is approximately 540million
-the large scale ranching that has developed over the past two centuries has greatly increased
the number of cattle in the world
-this is increasingly becoming very important especially in countries where the number of
people is outnumbered by that of cattle

Nitrous Oxide
-this is produced both through natural & human activities mainly through agricultural activities
& natural biological processes
-concentrations have risen by approximately 20% since the start of the Industrial Revolution
with a relatively rapid increase toward the end of the 20th century

C.F.C.s
-these are man-made components containing carbon, chlorine & fluorine. They are used in a
number of household gargets e.g. refrigerators & industrial processes
-the CFCs released from these items & processes cause damage in the stratosphere by
destroying ozone
-the destruction of ozone result in UV radiation reaching the earth’s surface contributing to an
increase in the surface temps
-CFCs also assist in absorbing radiation from the earth more effectively hence if
concentrations are above normal, more radiation is absorbed
-efforts are being made to produce ozone friendly products which may reduce the emissions of
CFCs

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

-these gases are very important in maintaining the surface temps, provided they occur in the
AT at steady amounts
-recent studies have shown that concentration of these gases in the AT has increased above
normal
-the increase in concentration of these gases in the AT has resulted in the absorption of more
longwave radiation hence a rise in the surface temps i.e. global warming
-global warming has attracted the attention of climatologists & meteorologists bcoz of the
effects which arise; some of which are:

Rise in the sea level

-if temps rise the mean sea level also rise bcoz of the melting of ice caps in polar regions
-predictions have shown that a temp increase between 1,5 & 4,5ºC will lead to a sea level rise
of 25 – 145cm which will result in flooding of coastal areas, islands & some agricultural lands

Depletion of plankton
-these are small animal & plants organisms in oceans but have a very significant effect in the
balance of carbon dioxide
-they absorb a vast quantity of carbon dioxide that can be harmful
-if oceanic temps increase, warming will diminish plankton population which would mean that
less carbon dioxide will be absorbed hence more concentration in the AT resulting in more
warming & a further reduction in plankton

Release of methane

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-large deposits of methane have been discovered in the sea bed in recent years. It is believed to
occur naturally by the biologically degradation of submarine vegetation matter e.g. weeds
-it exists in bubbles & kept by pressure of water above them. Warming will allow methane to
rise to the surface thus adding considerable quantities of methane gas into the AT

Climatic change
-as temp changes so does the rainfall patterns. Some areas which used to receive a lot of
rainfall will receive less with droughts frequenting
-changes in climate will also affect distribution of natural vegetation e.g. the migration of
coniferous trees northwards replaced by deciduous trees
-agriculture is also affected e.g. land presently not suitable for agriculture could support crops
as temp & rainfall increase
-other areas will be less suitable for agriculture as drought becomes more frequent
-changes in climate will also bring changes in the crops grown & animals kept e.g. growing
drought resistant crops

Other changes
-changes in ocean currents could alter fish population by varying temp, salinity & availability
of nutrients
-variations in rainfall affect river flow i.e. discharge & groundwater storage

URBAN MICROCLIMATOLOGY

-this is the study of climate of a small area i.e. urban area. The climate has been modified by
human beings

Temperature
-temps are higher than the surrounding hence the term urban heat islands. The causes or
sources of this heat are
1 dark coloured roofs, concrete or black walls & tarmac surfaces have a high thermal
heat capacity i.e. they store a lot of heat during the day & release it slowly during
the night
2 car fumes, factories & power stations also release heat
3 domestic appliances also act as heat source

Sunlight
-cities receive less sunshine than the surrounding countryside. Dust & other particles absorb &
reflect as much as 50% of insolation in winter
-tall buildings also block light

Relative humidity
-its lower in cities bcoz of the warmer air which can hold more moisture & lack of vegetation
& water sources which limit evaporation

Clouds
-they receive thicker up to 10% more frequent cloud cover than rural areas. This is a result of
convection currents generated by higher temps & the presence of a large number of
condensation nuclei

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Rainfall
-the average annual precipitation is high & the number of days with less than 5mm of rainfall
are about 10%
-strong thermals increase the likelihood of thunder by 25% & hail by 45%

Wind
-velocity is reduced by buildings which create friction & act as wind breaks. Average annual
velocity in urban areas may be up to 30% lower than rural areas
-high rise buildings may form canyons through which wind may be channelled. The
channelized winds may be strong enough to cause tall buildings to sway & pedestrians to be
blown over & troubled by dust & litter
-wind direction is also changed by the buildings

Atmospheric composition
-these are larger quantities of gaseous & solid impurities emitted into urban skies by the
burning of fossil fuels, industrial processes & from car exhaust & there are more dust particles
-cities have up to 200times more sodium oxide, 10 times more nitrogen oxide, 10 times hydro
carbons & twice as much carbon dioxide
-these pollutants increase cloud cover, precipitation, smog, temps & reduce sunlight

HYDROLOGY & FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
diag + diagram showing hydrology as a system
-the sun is the driving force in the cycle. It heats up the water bodies like seas & oceans
resulting in evaporation

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-when evaporation has taken place, the air rises, cools until dew point is reached &
condensation occurs
-condensation results in the formation of clouds which will later lead to the occurrence of
rainfall immediately above the water body. The clouds may be transferred winds away from
the water body & rain starts to fall
-as rain falls it may directly fall in the water bodies or it may fall on vegetation
-when it falls on vegetation, it is collected on leaves & branches & later on evaporate, or it
may flow along twigs, branches & stem until it reaches the ground surface as stem flow or it
may fall through tree leaves, twigs & branches to the ground as through fall
-throughfall is rain water that drips to the ground through the network of leaves onto the
surface or intercepted rain water which falls onto the ground once the leaves get saturated
-when on the ground it may either evaporate quickly, or it may sink into the soil through soil
pore spaces i.e. infiltration, or it may flow over the ground surface as overland flow or surface
runoff towards rivers & other water bodies
-the infiltrated water can either evaporate or it may flow horizontally through soil pore spaces
towards rivers as through flow or it may move vertically downwards under the force of gravity
through rock joints, crevices fissures or cracks as percolation until it reaches underground
water
-when it reaches underground water it may flow laterally towards rivers as base flow
-baseflow is the horizontal movement of ground water over the zone of permanent saturation.
This water recharges streams where the water table rises above the level of the river
-when overland flow, through flow & base flow reaches surface water bodies it is evaporated
& the process starts all over again & the cycle continues

INTERCEPTION
-it is the ability of tree leaves & branches to retain falling precipitation from reaching the
ground directly
-the water is temporarily stored by leaves & branches as interception storage
-this water can either be evaporated or drips down to the ground surface as through fall or
flows along twigs, branches down the stem to the ground surface as stem flow

Factors influencing interception

Interception storage capacity
-this refers to the ability of vegetation to retain water. On the onset of the summer season most
leaves, twigs, & branches will be dry
-when rain falls the interception capacity will be very high hence much of the falling
precipitation will be intercepted
-as the wet season progresses, capacity declines & less water is intercepted

Vegetation type & morphology

-in seasonally humid climates, most trees are deciduous therefore on the onset of the wet
season very little interception if any will take place bcoz the trees will have shade their leaves
in winter
-broad leaved trees intercept less water than narrow shaped leaves

Vegetation cover
-a dense vegetated area facilitates high interception than a bare ground

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Precipitation characteristics
-drizzle is easily intercepted as compared to rain bcoz of the light intensity of the former as
compared to rain ‘s high intensity
-if precipitation is of high frequency little water is intercepted bcoz interception capacity is not
given time to recover
-rain of short duration encourages interception than precipitation of long duration

OVERLAND FLOW & INFILTRATION

-overland flow is the lateral movement of water over the ground surface
-infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface sinks into the soil through soil
pore spaces resulting in soil moisture storage
-overland flow occurs in the form of sheet i.e. covering the whole ground or in rills occupying
small channels or as rivulets.

FACTORS INFLUENCING OVERLAND FLOW & INFILTRATION

It should be noted that when overland increases infiltration decreases & vice versa

Hortonian overland flow

-R.E. Horton propounded this theory when he considered the relationship between rainfall
intensity & infiltration capacity
-when rainfall intensity exceed infiltration capacity overland flow occurs, bcoz rain is not
given time to infiltrate as a result of high intensity of rain
-rainfall intensity is the amount of rain falling per unit time measured in mm/hr
-infiltration capacity is the maximum rate by which rain can be absorbed by the soil at a given
condition

Saturation overland flow

-it occurs down slope, as water flows downslope the pore spaces become filled with water
resulting in overland flow of any additional water from the upslope

Antecedent soil moisture

-it is the amount of moisture already in the soil before a storm
-if this is high very little water will infiltrate otherwise most of it will flow as overland flow

Precipitation characteristics
Form
-drizzle result in more infiltration & very little surface runoff bcoz of its light intensity
-rain will result in high overland flow & little infiltration bcoz of its high intensity. When it
falls it hits the ground surface by such great force that the pore spaces are closed
-snow will result in neither infiltration nor overland flow

Rainfall duration
-rain of long duration result in overland flow bcoz the soil becomes saturated with water, the
excess flow over the land

Soil type
-sand soils allow infiltration than overland flow bcoz of their course texture which allow free
movement of water i.e. permeable

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-clay soils though porous they are not permeable bcoz the minute pore spaces are not
interconnected & when wet, clay soils swell thereby closing all pore spaces resulting in
overland flow

Soil structure
-this refers to how different soil particles are aggregated together
-crumbs, granules & prismatic structures allow more infiltration bcoz they have passages
though which water can penetrate downwards
-platty structures promote surface runoff bcoz there are no passages for water to penetrate
through

Vegetation cover
-a well densely vegetated area promote infiltration bcoz roots provide passages through which
water can sink downwards
-again the presence of vegetation reduces the impact of raindrops on the soil hence the
raindrops will be light for infiltration to take place
-bare ground favours more overland flow to take place

Relief
-gentle slopes promote infiltration bcoz the velocity of water to flow is reduced
-on steep slopes overland flow increases bcoz the velocity of water is increased

Human activities
1 aforestation allows the ground to be covered hence more infiltration
2 deforestation results in the ground to be bare hence more overland
3 cultivation loosens the soil allowing water to sink

UNDERGROUND WATER
-it occurs as a result of the continued downward movement of water under the force of gravity
through cracks, crevices, fissures & joints until it reaches an impermeable rock then it
accumulates filling in all pore spaces i.e. percolation
-the upper limit of the underground water is called the water table
-underground water occurs in two forms i.e. saturated & vadose zone
-the saturated zone refers to the area which is permanently saturated by water known as zone
of permanent saturation
-the vadose zone depends on the level of the water table, if the water table drops it is filled
with air, when the water level rises it is filled with water hence the name zone of intermittent
-the shape of the water table normally resembles that of the ground surface
-water table is the upper part of ground water & this is the permanent water table or dry season
water table. The wet season water table fluctuates in height due to seasonality in rainfall
-some water tables can be stepped especially in crystalline rocks, it can be convex in shape i.e.
perched water table
-this occurs when an impermeable stratum exists well above the main water table such that
downward movement of water is impeded
-water accumulates on top of the impermeable stratum to form another water table i.e. perched
-perched water table is a temporary water table located above the main water table due to
presence of impermeable beds which impede further percolation
-rocks which contain underground water in large quantities are called aquifers meaning water
bearing rocks

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-some rocks with no interconnected openings i.e. impermeable are called acquifique e.g.
granite
-some rocks are semi-permeable i.e. they allow water to be absorbed slowly but cannot
transmit it in usable quantities hence they are known as acquicludes
-there are two types of aquifers i.e. primary permeability & secondary permeability
-primary permeability refers to rocks which allow water to pass through the rock pore spaces
e.g. porous sands & sandstones
-secondary permeability refers to rocks which allow water to pass through joints, cracks,
crevices & fissures which develop during or after formation of rocks
-these rocks will give more concentrated lines of flow e.g. carboniferous limestone
diag

Types of aquifers
Aquifers are grouped into two i.e. confined & unconfined

Unconfined aquifers
-ground water is said to be unconfined if its not overlain by an impermeable stratum
-the water table can rise & fall freely as in the diagram above

Confined aquifers
-underground water is said to be confined if the aquifer is sandwiched between two
impermeable stratum
-its completely filled with water to an extend that the water table may not be easily seen
-however every confined aquifer has an unconfined area called the recharge zone where can
fill in this aquifer
-water in the confined aquifer is always under hydrostatic pressure i.e. pressure exerted by
water at rest
-if a well is sunk in the confined aquifer, water will rise due to this pressure to the surface.
Such wells are known as artesian wells
diag

Discharge of underground water

This is achieved through several ways
1 Evapotranspiration
-this occurs when the water table is at or near the ground surface. Plants also absorb
water by their roots especially those with long tap roots, the water is transpired
through stomata
-capillary action also result in the loss of water. As the water moves upwards it can
be taken by plant roots & lost through transpiration
2 If the underground water is in direct conduct with the ground surface, water can
flow from the underground water body to the surface water body. This occurs when
the water table elevation is higher than the surface water body, the discharge is
known as effluent seepage
3 Groundwater body can also lose water to other groundwater bodies & this is called
leakage
4 When the water table meets a ground surface which is not a surface water body,
water can flow out as a spring

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Springs
-this is the dashing or oozing out water at the ground surface. Various geological conditions
are responsible for the formation of different types of springs

Dimple springs
diag
-occurs when the water table meets the ground surface on valley slopes or a depression
-the flow of water depends on the gradient of the water table i.e. the steeper the gradient, the
higher the discharge vice versa

Dyke spring
diag
-occurs where a dyke cuts the ground surface hence acting as an impermeable rock
-the spring occurs where the water table meets the dyke. Such springs can have a high &
continuous discharge bcoz of a higher volume of water.

Fault spring
diag
-occurs when a fault develops resulting in block subsidence. When the water table is cut by
subsidence, the point of intersection will result in a spring to form
-Such springs will have high discharge bcoz water will be flowing in concentrated lines along
faults

Dip scarp foot slope springs

diag
-occurs in areas of alternating layers of permeable & impermeable rocks as in cuestas. Springs
can be found at the scarps of such geological formations
-these can be a chain of springs which may favour settlement . These springs have restricted
discharge bcoz the water will be flowing against the dip of the rocks
-the water is able to flow against the dip of the rocks bcoz, according to Dacy’s law, the
hydraulic gradient forces the water to flow towards the foot of the scarp
-on the dip slope, dip slope springs are formed. These will have more discharge bcoz they will
have an extended catchment
-these springs migrate up & down the dip with seasons. The summer springs become
intermittent & the winter springs permanent in relation to their discharge

Vauclusian springs
diag
-these occur in limestone areas & are usually found at their exists of underground rivers
-water percolates along joints & bedding planes until it reaches an impermeable stratum
-it flows horizontally until it encounters the ground surface & forms a spring

Discharge of springs can be determined by the thickness & porosity of the aquifer. If the
aquifer is thick & porous, it will have a large storage capacity hence it will be able to maintain
a constant discharge throughout the year
This is bcoz any changes in the volume of water either added or lost from the aquifer will have
very insignificant changes on the total volume of water stored by that aquifer
In thin aquifers, spring flow tends to be variable bcoz the changes in storage in relation to the
total amount of water stored are likely to be more significant

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WATER BALANCE/BUDGET
-is a relationship or a state of equilibrium which is derived when the inputs of the hydrological
cycle or inputs of the sub-systems of the cycle are equated to the outputs of the cycle or its
sub-systems
-precipitation is the input in the cycle, runoff & evapotranspiration are its outputs
-according to Stodart (1960) the global water balance can be expressed as an equation as
shown below:

P = E + R +/-S
Where P - precipitation
E - evapotranspiration
R - runoff
S - changes in storage i.e. gains or losses
-this equation can be useful for short term periods where there are significant changes in
storage
-over long periods of time the ‘S’ in the equation can remain constant hence its sometimes
omitted from the equation

FACTORS AFFECTING THE WATER BALANCE

Temperature
-high temps increase e.t. rates & an increase in e.t. will in turn result in the likelihood of
precipitation

Vegetation
-it reduces surface runoff due to increased infiltration & will result in an increase in the storage
component of the water balance
-bare ground surfaces facilitates more overland flow bcoz there is little or no foliage to
increase interception

Relief
-on gentle sloping areas infiltration increases resulting in reduced overland flow leading to an
increase in the storage component
-on steep slopes surface runoff increases & there is very little or no infiltration

Rock type
-impermeable rocks facilitates high surface runoff meaning that hence very little infiltration
whereas permeable rocks increases infiltration contributing to underground storage

Human activities
-cultivation increases the storage component through increased infiltration this means little
surface runoff
-drilling of boreholes or digging of wells increases the use of underground water hence
reducing it
-aforestation increases interception reducing surface runoff & increasing the chances of
precipitation

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Climate
-in equatorial forests there is very high annual precipitation & e.t. bcoz of dense vegetation &
high temps
-high levels of precipitation exceeds infiltration capacity of soils hence there is considerable
runoff throughout the year, causing perennial rivers
-double maxima of precipitation in March & September result in increased runoff & e.t.
-the storage component will be high due to increased infiltration enhanced by the dense
vegetation. However this component may not vary much throughout the year bcoz of the
continuous rainfall which maintains vegetation cover & therefore allows constant infiltration
& percolation

-in seasonally humid climates (savanna) the water balance caries considerably due to changes
in seasons
-in winter there is very little or no precipitation e.t. therefore exceed rainfall resulting in very
little or no runoff for some streams
-the storage component will be greatly reduced through increased use by human beings heavy
utilisation of underground water by plants & contribution to the base flow in rivers
-in summer there is more rainfall hence more inputs high temps facilitate increased e.t.
-on the onset of the summer season there will be high runoff bcoz the ground will be almost be
bare & the scanty vegetation will have little foliage causing very little interception & therefore
more runoff
-as the season progresses, more precipitation causes vegetation to recuperates hence less
overland flow due to increased infiltration resulting in an increase in the storage component
-cultivation increases storage through increased infiltration & little overland flow

-in hot deserts precipitation is less than 250mm per year & it occurs as occasional
thunderstorms meaning the greater part of the year the ground will be dry
-high temps during the day increases e.t. & overland flow is very minimal. Overland flow is
usually short lived & occur over short distances which later on turn into mudflow. The storage
component will be low

-in tundra & cold climates precipitation is about 250mm per year, part of which falls as rain in
summer & part as snow in winter
-storage component is increased when snow falls & ice accumulates, but its reduced in
summer when ice melts bcoz of temps which will be slightly above 0ºC
-runoff is increased in summer but very little or no in winter
-e.t. is low bcoz of scanty vegetation cover & low temps of about -29ºC in winter & 10ºC in
summer

FLOOD/STORM HYDROGRAPH
diag
-it shows how a river response to a storm over a short period of time. Discharge is the amount
/volume of water passing through a gauging station over a time period. It is measured in cubic
metres per second i.e. cumecs
-when a storm begins, the river doesn’t respond quickly but take some time flowing as base
flow shown on the graph as approach segment

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-as overland flow reaches the river channel, the discharge starts to increase as shown by the
rising limb. This rising limb is very steep representing a rapid increase in the amount of water
reaching the channel
-when discharge reaches the banks’ height it is said to be at bankful discharge & any further
water flowing above this, the river is said to be in flood
-the rising limb reaches a maximum called peak flow/discharge beyond which the water level
starts to decline
-when the water level starts to fall it is shown by a falling/recession limb which is much
gentler
-it is gentle bcoz of additional water continuously added to the channel by through flow
-the time taken between rainfall peak & peak flow is called lag time which varies as a result of
an interplay of different factors which influence the effectiveness of overland flow

FACTORS AFFECTING STORM HYDROGRAPH

Basin size
-lag time will be smaller in a smaller basin bcoz rainfall reaches the main channel more rapidly
-on large basin sizes lag time will be longer bcoz rainfall will take longer time to reach the
main channel & the gauging station

Basin shape
-a circular basin has a shorter lag time & a higher peak flow than an elongated one bcoz in a
circular basin water will reach the river in almost the same time & the time taken for the water
to reach the river is short since it will travel an almost equidistant from within the drainage
basin

Duration of rainfall
-long period of heavy rainfall causes flooding when the soil becomes saturated & infiltration is
replaced by runoff
-rainfall of short duration is mostly absorbed by the soil leaving very little if any as overland

Rainfall intensity
-when rainfall intensity exceed infiltration capacity of the soil overland flow occurs which will
result in a rapid rise in river levels hence a short lag time & a higher peak flow

Form of precipitation
-when temp rises in tundra regions water held as snow melts & reaches the rivers. This
increases the discharge in rivers resulting in a high peak
-drizzle is likely to be lost as infiltration due to its light in intensity as compared to rain

Relief
-in steep upland valleys water is likely to reach the river more rapidly than in gentle sloping
areas causing a short lag time & a high peak flow

Temperature
-extremes of temp can restrict infiltration i.e. very cold in winter & very hot & dry in summer,
& so increase overland flow. When overland flow increases the lag time is reduced & peak
flow is higher
-if e.t. rates are high then there will be less water available to flow into rivers

Land use

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-vegetation prevent flooding by intercepting rainfall. Plant roots especially those of trees
reduce through flow by taking up water from the soil. This results in a delayed lag time & a
low peak flow
-flooding occurs on bare ground which causes a shorter lag time & a higher peak flow
-in areas of aforestation flooding may initially increase as the land is cleared of old vegetation
& drained but later decreases as the planted trees mature

Urbanisation
-this increases flood risk. Tarmac concrete surfaces gutters & drains carry water more rapidly
to the nearest river. This results in more water in the river & a shorter lag time

Rock type
-permeable & porous rocks allow rapid infiltration & limited surface runoff & a limited
number of surface streams. This causes a delayed lag time & a low peak flow
-impermeable rocks don’t allow water to pass through them so they produce more surface
runoff & a greater number of surface streams

Soil type
-it controls the rate & volume of infiltration, amount of soil moisture storage & rate of through
flow
-sandy soils allow rapid infiltration & reduce the risk of flooding whereas clay soils encourage
overland flow resulting in a short lag time & a higher peak flow

Drainage density
-it refers to the number of surface streams measured in a given area
-the higher the density the greater the chances of flash flood. A flash flood is a sudden rise of
water in a river, shown on a hydrograph as a shorter lag time & a higher peak flow

HJULSTROM CURVE

It’s a graph which shows the relationship between particle size (competence) & water velocity
-the mean/critical erosion velocity curve gives the approximate velocity needed to pick up &
transport, in suspension particles of different sizes
-the mean fall or settling velocity curve shows the velocities at which particles of a given size
become too heavy to be transported & so will fall out of suspension & be deposited
-competence is the maximum size of material/load which a river is capable of transporting
-capacity is the total load actually transported
-as water flows over a particle, it is subjected to drag. The drag force needed to set a particle in
motion is called critical tractive force or erosion velocity
-if the size of the particle increases the critical tractive force must be increased if movement is
to occur
diag

-the graph shows that sand can be transported at lower velocity than any other particles, bcoz
of their loose structure
-clay particles need a velocity that equals that of pebbles bcoz of their cohesive nature i.e. the
individual clay particles are closely packed, so they need a higher velocity to be dislodged
-as velocity increases the size & amount of the river’s load increases considerably

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-the velocity needed to maintain particles in suspension is less than that needed to pick them
up
-for very fine particles like clay, once they are dislodged they can be carried by suspension
with velocity of almost nil – at which point the river must have stopped flowing
-for coarser particles the boundary between transportation & deposition is narrow, showing
that only a relatively small drop in velocity is needed to cause sedimentation

CHANNEL PATTERNS
Straight channels
-are not very common. The straight sections in a river are often fault or joint controlled

Meandering channels
-these are single channels which wind from side to side
-they may occur initially as straight channels with the occurrence of pools & rifles
-their occurrence will result in a river to meander as shown below
diag

Braided channels
-this is an extremely wide shallow channel in which a river divides or subdivide into more than
one channel characterised by mid channels bars & islands
-such channels typically develops in areas with easily erodible banks from which the
sediments for the bars & islands come from

Anastomosing channel
-these are rivers with permanent & stable bars
-the several channels converge & diverge around relatively large & usually well vegetated
stable islands

Anabranching channel
-this is somehow similar to anastomosing channel but the individual channels are not
permanent due to the shoaling process which is formed due to high sediment input
-due low discharge only one channel functions & under flooding all channels operate

Students should read & make notes with diagrams on river processes & landforms

THE GRADED/LONG & CROSS PROFILE

diag
-the shape of a river from source to mouth is known as the graded/long profile
-theoretically long profiles of rivers are concave in shape. Although rivers are working to
erode down to the base level, the level is not fixed as it can change
-the cross profiles vary considerably depending on;
1 whether the river is in its upper, middle & lower course
2 type of underlying rock
3 rejuvenation
-in its upper course the cross profile is ‘V’ shaped & near its mouth it’s a wide gentle shallow
plain
-rivers flowing over alternating weak & hard rocks have cross profiles which alternate between
wide & open, steep & narrow respectively
-if rejuvenation occurs at lower course the cross profile may be a narrow sided gorge

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-only very few rivers have a profile as smooth as the theoretical curve due to variations in rock
hardness & changes in base level

Changes in base level

-base level may rise if the climates of the earth become warmer so that some of the water
trapped in the continental ice sheets in the Arctic & Antarctic is released into the sea
-this will submerge the lands along the coast, drowning the valley & therefore weakening the
erosive power of rivers
-flow is checked & large quantities of sediments will be dropped, the lower course may be
partly in the sea
-the features of deposition are shifted upwards to the middle course, the upper course is less
affected
-base level may fall if climates become slightly colder so more ice is formed in the land
-this will result in vertical down cutting of a river at the point where there was the former sea
level i.e. rejuvenation. This occurs bcoz the river’s gradient is steepened

Tectonic uplift
-level of land may rise or fall due to earth movements
-when the level of the sea against the land changes so that the land is in a higher position than
it was before then rivers flowing into the sea are rejuvenated
-the river’s energy is increased as the height through which it drops has now increased
-the level of land may drop due to block subsidence, the features of a lower course of a river
are evident
-the point where the old & the rejuvenated profile meet is called knick point
-if rejuvenation occurs in the upper course as a result of uplift, river valleys are deepened &
steep sided gorges are formed
-in the middle & lower course vertical corrasion replaces lateral corrasion & existing meanders
are vertically eroded by the rejuvenated stream
-a distinct inner trench is cut in the old valley & the river develops a deep valley with
entrenched or incised meanders

FLOODS
-it’s the overflowing of water after the discharge has reached bankful flow or when areas along
the coast are in flood

CAUSES OF FLOODS
1 Rainfall duration
-prolonged rainfall lead to a decrease in infiltration capacity & an increase in
surface runoff causing floods
2 Global warming
When temp rises, the ice sheets in polar regions melt & causes floods in coastal
areas as a result of an increase in sea level
3 Deforestation
-when the ground is bare, there is high overland flow than infiltration bcoz soil pore
spaces will be closed by raindrop impact
4 Urbanisation
-paved surfaces promote surface runoff than infiltration hence more water flows
over the land & into the rivers
5 Siltation

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-the deposition of sediments along the bed of the river reduces the depth of river
which will result in bankful discharge to be reached quickly causing floods
6 Dam collapse
-if a dam wall collapse or bursts it may cause floods downstream
7 Impermeable rock
-if the rock on the river bed is hard & resistant it impedes any infiltration which
means all the flowing water has no where else to go besides overflowing hence this
increases chances of flooding
8 High drainage density
-this facilitates the chances of a river to easily get flooded since more tributaries
will be pouring into the consequent river
9 Tropical cyclones
-since these are associated with heavy rainfalls, they are often accompanied by
flooding
10 Tsunamis

EFFECTS OF FLOODS
-loss of life
-starvation
-destruction of infrastructure
-outbreak of waterborne diseases
-deposition of rich alluvium soils
-loss of productive land
-disturbance of aquatic life

Nature of hazards from floods

 Loss of life
 Destruction of crops
 Erosion of topsoil
 Destruction of transport systems

Prevention measures
-aforestation & re-forestation
-construction of strong dam walls
-construction of artificial levees/embarkments
-widening river channels
-dredging
-cultivating 30m away from river banks
-construction of relief channels/overflow/spillways
-straightening river channels
-education
-evacuation
-early warning systems
-rescue & medical teams
-landuse zoning
-holding dams – to hold back flood waters. Misissippi has 200 of these
-check dams – these trap the river’s load so that it does not fill up the channel
further down thus reducing its capacity to carry water. They can be emptied by
diggers when they fill up
-sediment traps

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-coastal defense mechanisms

-government relief following flood disasters
-insurance
-international aid & funding
-legislation against practices which cause increased runoff
-wing dykes – these are walls built out from the side of the river made out of
concrete & stone on one side of a river channel. The aim is to force the into a
smaller area which means it flows faster & carries away the bed load & alluvium.
Therefore it does the job of dredging without the use of machines. These are used
on the Mississippi river

DROUGHTS

-a prolonged period without precipitation

-in Britain its officially defined as being a period of 15 or more days during which less than
0,2mm of rain is received
-this term is a relative one which means different things to different people. There are 3 types
of droughts i.e. meteorological, agricultural & hydrological
-meteorological drought refers to a fall in precipitation below the expected amount over a
measured period
-agricultural drought refers to a fall in the soil moisture & subsequent less sustainance of crops

CAUSES OF DROUGHT
1 Deforestation
-this leaves the ground bare resulting in a higher albedo i.e. these light coloured
soils reflect more radiation from the sun hence the ground warms less intensely
-conventional currents & subsequent conventional storms are rare so rainfall is
reduced since they will be areas of cool air & act as zones of divergence (high
pressure zones)
-this divergence at the surface allows subsidence in the upper layers allowing stable
conditions
-absence of vegetation entells absence of moisture for e.t. hence there is no water
vapour available for condensation to occur

2 High amounts of dust particles

-as particles are required for condensation to occur so that droplets may form in the
first place, the super abundance of minute dust particles produced from eroded soil
will be a good thing
-with abundant particles condensation may occur, however there is a critical
number & size of particles which should be present in the AT for condensation to
occur
-if farming practises & wind erosion are forming too much dust, small droplets will
condense around each individual particle
-droplets of insufficient size will grow but they will be very small to fall to the
ground hence there will be no rainfall

3 Climatic variability (El Nino)

-this is a pacific ocean current which was discovered by fishermen working in
Spanish parts of the 17th century

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-the name El Nino means little boy child bcoz the days it happens fall around
Christmas
-this current begins in the Pacific between Papua New Guinea & Micronesia & it
flows across vast oceans towards Peru
-it occurs every 3 – 10 years when the sea north of New Guinea warms reaching
temps up to 30ºC
-this replaces the usual cold current & hence prevents the upwelling of cold,
nutrient rich deep water on which plankton feed
-the feeding habits of fish are affected & this results in small catches & therefore
has adverse effects on the economy of the Peruvian fishing industry
-this El Nino bring changes in rainfall, pressure, wind & ocean currents
-pressure rises over the western Pacific & falls over Peru & California
-over Indonesia descending air gives this region much drier conditions than it
usually experiences & on extreme occasions it causes droughts
-over Peru air now rises giving much wetter conditions in these areas that normally
experiences drought
-an El Nino event lasts for 12 – 18 months. Evidence collected during the El Nino
events of 1982-83, 86 & 1992-93increasingly suggested that the EL Nino also
known as ENSO had a major effect on places far beyond the Pacific margins
-apart from drier conditions in SE Asia, it also causes severe droughts in the Sahel
region & southern Africa as well as across the Indian subcontinent

Effects of drought
 Very little/no rainfall leading to drying out of rivers leading to death of fish
 Lack of drinking water & also water for industry leading to reduced
industrial production
 Death of domestic animals & wildlife – loss of income from tourism
 Crop failure leading to famine & finally malnutrition
 Land degradation leading to reduced soil productivity
 Loss of biodiversity
 Lowering of ground water hence difficult to abstract water

Nature of hazards from drought

 Water deficients
 Destruction of flora & fauna
 Loss of biodiversity
 Environmental degradation

Measures to reduce effects of drought

o Food aid & money from outside
o Introducing drought levies; building stocks at national level
o Early warning systems/predictions
o Damming & irrigation
o Drilling boreholes
o Use of drought-resistant crops, breed new stock
o Adjust eating habits
o Long term relief & emergency services & advice
o Use of GMOs
o Afforestation & re-aforestation

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WEATHERING & GEOMORPHOLOGY

WEATHERING
-it is the disintegration or decomposition of rocks in situ at or beneath the earth’s
surface to form small particles
-there are two types of weathering i.e. physical/mechanical & chemical
-physical weathering is the breakdown of rock without change in mineral
composition producing coarse materials mainly caused by physical means e.g.
temperature changes e.t.c.
-chemical weathering is the decomposition of rocks with a change in rock
composition & producing fine materials. It is mainly caused by reactions of
minerals in the rock with agents dissolved in water

MECHANICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

Insolation/ Thermal Expansion/ Exfoliation/ Onion weathering

diag
-dominant in deserts where diurnal temp range is of about 50ºC. It is the peeling out
of rock surfaces to form scree as a result of alternate heating & cooling
-high insolation during the day causes the outer surfaces of the rock to expand since
rocks are poor conductors of heat
-low temps during the night causes the outer layers of rock to contract. The
alternate heating & cooling or expansion & contraction causes stresses in the
rock causing the rock to peel off
-heterogeneous rocks like granite with different minerals are also affected by this
type of weathering
-the different minerals absorb heat at different rates & contract at different rates
causing stresses resulting in the rock to peel off

Freeze-thaw
diag
-common in temperate regions where temps fluctuates around 0ºC. When temps are
above freezing point, water collects in joints, cracks & crevices of the rock
-when temp fall below 0ºC water in the joints freezes. The frozen water occupies a
volume larger than it occupies when in liquid state i.e. 10%
-this greater volume will exert pressure within the joints, the repeated
freezing & thawing of water causes the rock to peel off

Salt crystallisation/ Haloclasty

-common in deserts where there is capillary action. Saline water enters rocks
through joints or cracks
-when temps are high the water evaporates leaving salt crystals, which will exert
pressure within the rock resulting in stresses in the rock leading to granular
disintegration

Pressure release/ Offloading/ Dilatation

diag

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-occurs in intrusive rocks which are formed under great pressure from the
overburden
-when the overburden has been removed the pressure once exerted on the rock is
removed & the rock recoil outwards
-this expansion will cause the rock to form dilatation joints which are parallel to the
surface. The rock peel off to form scree

Root action
diag
-roots may grow in rock cracks/joints. As the tree grows so does its roots in the
joints
-as the roots grow they widen the joints causing stresses within the rock resulting in
disintegration

CHEMICAL WEATHERING PROCESSES

Oxidation
-it involves the absorption of oxygen from air by rocks especially those containing
ion compounds. When ion absorb moisture they are oxidised to give a
reddish/yellowish brown colour i.e. rust

Hydration
-certain rock minerals absorb water & when they do so they increase in volume
exerting pressure on the rock
-some minerals change their composition when they absorb like haematite changes
to limonite

Hydrolysis
-this is the reaction between rock minerals & ions of water. Feldspar reacts with
hydrogen ions to form kaolinite clay

Carbonation
-it occurs when carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form a weak carbonic acid.
When this reacts with calcium it forms calcium bicarbonate which is soluble in
water

Solution
-some minerals are soluble in water so these are carried in solution

Reduction
-it is opposite of oxidation & it results from the absence of oxygen from rocks or
removal of it
-it is usually the case with sub-surface rocks in the zone of saturation or water-
logged areas on the earth’s surface. The deficiency in oxygen results in a
bluish-purplish colour in the rocks

Chelation
-some plants which grow on rocks e.g. lichens produce organic acids which act on
rocks through corrosion-thus breaking up the rock minerals

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-also humic acids which are formed by plant’s litter during the humification or
decomposition of plant materials

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE & TYPE OF WEATHERING

Rock hardness
-this refers to the type of cement that binds rock minerals together in the rock. If a
rock is made of hard minerals but bound with a weak mineral cement it will be
easily weathered
-on the other hand, if a rock is made up of weak minerals but cemented with a hard
cement it will be resistant to weathering

Chemical composition
-rocks which contain minerals which are prone to weathering like calcium, iron &
feldspar are easily weathered
-it also has an effect on mechanical weathering e.g. granite rocks with mica, quartz
& feldspar will absorb heat & contract at different rates

Rock texture
-it refers to the crystalline nature of the rocks i.e. some rocks are fine grained &
others are coarse grained
-fine grained rocks are easily weathered than coarse grained rocks

Rock structure
-this refers to the presence of joints in rocks. The presence of joints increases the
surface area which can be attacked by mechanical or chemical weathering
processes
-a well jointed rock with bedding planes allows the penetration of water, acids &
other agents of decomposition
-massive rocks i.e. rocks without joints or bedding planes are resistant to
weathering, only the outer surface is attacked & little or no chemical processes
occur

Climate
diag
-different weathering processes occur in different climates at different rates. The
main climatic controls are temp & rainfall
1 Equatorial climate
-these are characterised by high temp & rainfall. These conditions facilitates
chemical processes to occur
-high temps speed up chemical reactions. The availability of dense vegetation
also promote chemical weathering through the release of humic acids
2 Savanna climate
-these are characterised by a summer & winter season. Summers are hot & wet,
& winters are cool & dry
-during summer chemical weathering is dominant bcoz of the presence of rain
together with high temps
-rocks are easily eroded, so mechanical processes also occur like offloading &
exfoliation
3 Hot deserts

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-have very high temps during the day & very low at night resulting in high daily
temp range, rainfall is very erratic/sporadic & low
-exfoliation & salt weathering processes are dominant
4 Temperate climates
-are characterised by cool wet summers which promote chemical weathering to
take place at low rates
-temp in winter may go below 0ºC which facilitates frost shattering

Relief
-steep slopes are affected by physical weathering since rocks are exposed to the surface
-on gentle slopes chemical weathering is more common as water is given more time to enter
through rock joints

GRANITE CHARACTERISTICS & LANDFORMS

Characteristics
1 It is an igneous rock
2 It is crystalline in nature i.e. made up of small grains
3 It can be either intrusive or extrusive depending on where magma cooled
4 It is a heterogeneous rock i.e. made of different minerals quartz, mica & feldspar
5 It has internal joints which are vertical formed as a result of cooling of magma but
the joints are not permeable
6 It can have joints which are well connected well after formation
7 It is a massive rock i.e. its impermeable

These characteristics increases the chances of granite to be weathered or to be resistant to

weathering agents
Landforms commonly found in granitic areas are: tors, castle kopjes, dwalas, bornhardts

LIMESTONE CHARACTERISTICS & LANDFORMS

Characteristics
1 Its an organically formed sedimentary rock which contains plant & animal remains
2 Its characterised by joints & bedding planes which provide passages through which
water can pass
3 It is characterised by calcium

Landforms
diags
-in karst regions there is a general absence of surface drainage as most of the surface water
disappears underground
-streams flow over limestone rocks for a short distance then disappear underground for the
greater part of their course along joints & bedding planes where we find a system of
underground water channel
-surface valleys are dry when the water penetrates to the base of the limestone rock
-when it meets a non-porous rock it re-emerges to the surface as a spring or resurgence
-progressive widening of the cracks by solution enlarges them to form a limestone pavement.
When the joints are enlarged & deepened they become grikes & clints. The grikes are the
depressions or enlarged joints & clints are ridges or rectangular blocks
-on the surface of the limestone are numerous swallow holes or sink holes which are small
depressions curved by solution

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-when a number of swallow holes coalesce or join a large hole is formed called a doline
-dolines are shallow depressions with gently sloping sides & a circular shape. They range from
a few to 100m in diameter
-when several dolines merge as a result of subsidence a large depression is formed a uvala with
a diameter which is greater than 500m. The sides are steep sided & has a flat floor

SLOPE GEOMORPHOLOGY
-a slope is the inclination of the land surface or the angle of inclination of the ground
or any profile of the landscape which runs from the division of water shed to their river valleys

Single slope profile

Cliff/ Free Face
-is a vertical or near vertical slope which develops along the coast by wave undercutting or on
escarpment found in massive crystalline rocks
-there are so steep about 40º or more. There is little or no accumulation of detritus hence the
name ‘free face’
-the weathered material may accumulate at the foot of the cliff unless otherwise removed by
transportational processes
-a depositional feature may develop at an angle controlled by the size & shape of fragments. If
fragments are coarse & more angular they result in a steep slope with an angle of 35º
-with time the growth of the talus will result in the reduction in the free face height, protecting
it from further weathering

Convex/ Waxing slope

diag
-usually found at the upper part of the slope profile hence the term summital convexity
-they result from erosional processes where they comprises of a gently sloping surface with a
thin layer of alluvium cover

Rectilinear/ Constant
-it is transportational slope. It is common to find it leading down to the valley bottoms
-they are restricted to the middle or central part of the slope profile where it separates a
broader convexity above from a larger concavity below
-its known as a repose slope

Concave/waning slope
-it's usually located at the base of the slope profile hence it can be called basal concavity
-it is a result of deposition of material carried from upslope downwards, though some would
like to explain them as a result of erosion by running water bcoz they liken it to the curve of
water erosion

COMPLEX SLOPES
These are due to the combination of some or all of the single profile described above. Such
profiles are often unique as they are really found in areas of soft rock which are unable to
support free face

Convex-rectilinear-concave slope
diag
-these comprise of an upper convexity, central rectilinear & lower concavity

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-the profiles are dominant in areas typical of weak rocks such as sand & clay

-in areas of alternate massive & thinly bedded weak rock strata a cliff composite slope profile
occur
-these profiles may comprise of numerous free faces associated with massive strata &
rectilinear debris controlled slopes. Summital convexity & basal concavity slopes may be
limited or absent
Diag

-in areas of hard crystalline rock a composite slope may develop with an upper free face & a
central boulder controlled slope & a lower concave slope often called pediment
diag

FACTORS AFFECTING SLOPE FORM & DEVELOPMENT

Rock type
-It’s a primary factor which affect the steepness of the slope. Hard & resistant rocks like
granite support steepness. Weakly cemented rocks like limestone are more prone to weathering
thus they collapse & form gentle slope.
-However the above information is too general since steep slopes are not always a result of
hard and resistant rocks because they can be reduced greatly if they have joints & fractures
through which water can penetrate thus giving rise to gentle slope

Climate
-it influence the type & rate of weathering & thus the thickness of regolith. It also affect slope
transportational processes like runoff & mass movements
-in humid climates most slopes are curved smoothly by mass movements, in arid & semi-arid
areas slopes are regular or irregular & steeper bcoz they experience little rainfall which cause a
slow rate of erosion

Vegetation
-in areas of sparse vegetation displacement & transport of slope particles is much more active
by rainfall i.e. slope retreat is faster. This is dominant in semi arid & seasonally humid
climates where low angled slopes like pediments are extensive reflecting the transportation of
alluvium by rainwash during occasional rainstorms
-a thick forest stabilises the regolith by its root system, maintaining slope steepness

Earth movements
-they affect slope form e.g. the formation of fault scarps. Rivers act rapidly downwards
maintaining steep slopes which are characterised by active weathering & transport
-in more stable areas where rivers have long since cut down to base level of erosion with little
or no vertical incision, slope waste is likely to have reduced most slopes to a gentle one

Soil type
-some soils support plant life thus creating less lateral erosion due to the binding effects of the
roots. Poor soils that don’t support plant life are easily eroded forming gentle slopes
-fine grained soils are tightly packed together thus allowing little erosion to act upon them, this
gives rise to steep slopes

Human activities

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-deforestation facilitates weathering, erosion & mass movements on slopes to form gentle ones
-forestation & regressing help in stabilising slope steepness
-mining on the other hand result in the creation of steep slopes

ACTION OF RUNNING WATER ON SLOPES

-geomorphologists argue that running water is responsible for the formation of concave slope
while other say that the whole of the soil profile is shaped by rain wash
-however the significance of rainwash maybe noted over a long time
-the effect of running water (runoff) is illustrated by Horton’s theory. Horton argued that
runoff occurs when rainfall is greater than the infiltration capacity hence the volume of water
thickens downslope
-running water increases in velocity downslope as the gradient steepens, in addition the
volume also increases as more water flows from the slope summit
-the increase in volume gives the flow power to erode & transport material which is limited
towards the slope base
-however the volume of running water on the summit may vary from place to place due to
differences in vegetation cover, soil & type
-Horton proposed that slope profile can be divided into three:
diag

1 On the upper part of the slope, surface water layer is thin & slow moving hence
eroding force is weak creating a zone of no erosion

2 On the middle part of the slope eroding force is increased due to an increase in
gradient. There is rapid erosion & active slope retreat hence a rectilinear slope
develops

3 At the lower part of the slope, running water is fully loaded with sediments & a
decrease in gradient results in reduced erosion & deposition will take place. The
slope form a concave slope

ACTION OF MASS MOVEMENTS

-it refers to the downward movement of weathered material under the influence of gravity

Factors influencing the rate & type of mass movements

1 Type of slope
-the steeper the slope the faster the rate of movement. On gentle slope the
movement is slow

2 Vegetation cover
-dense vegetation will obstract the material moved. On bare ground movement is
facilitated

3 Tectonic movements
-earthquakes trigger slumps, heaves, rock falls & avalanches
- volcanic eruptions: tremors trigger slumps, lava flows downslope
-heavy rains accompanying eruptions result in mudflows

4 Nature of material & extend of saturation

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-where material is deep or where rocks are weak wasting is rapid. The more
saturated the material is, the more likely it is to be moved

5 Climate
-heavy rains associated with wet climates facilitate flows or flowing, on the other
hand dry climates like deserts experience creeping since there is little water to
lubricate the material

6 -mining especially the blasting of rock trigger slump, rock falls due to sound &
vibrations,
7 -building on vulnerable slopes lead to slumps ,
8 -sheep rearing on slopes affect the stability of the surface layers & thus
facilitate rapid movement of material
9 -movement of haulage trucks on road undercutting trigger rock falls &
avalanches due to the sound & vibrations
10 -deforestation increases slope instability & failure as well as creating
mudflows
11 -heavy torrential/incessant rains increase volume of water & weight of
slope materials causing slumps, slides, mudflows as material overcomes its initial
inertia 12 -rapid vertical downcutting on soft bedrock leads to slope
failure or slumping as angle of slope steepens by undercutting

NB: PUPILS TO WRITE NOTES ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENTS

SLOPE EVOLUTION/ SLOPE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH TIME

-over time slopes may change a bit either in angle, steepness or in profile. With time the action
of weathering & transport may produce some significant changes

THEORIES OF SLOPE EVOLUTION

Slope Decline (W.M. Davis)

diag
-he based his studies in humid areas. He proposed that at the early stages of development
valley side slopes are steep
-with time they become gentler until finally they form an undulating plain called a pediplain
-this is based on two explanations
1 Down cutting by rivers ceases as they approach base level of erosion. Weathering
& transport continues on the interfluves resulting in the reduction of their cross
sectional areas causing a gradual reduction of slope angle
2 When weathering takes place on the upper part of the slope segments, debris is
transported down slope & accumulate at the base of the slope profile. The lower
slope segment is insulated or protected from further weathering, the upper parts are
exposed to weathering hence it will recede more rapidly i.e. down wearing & an
overall slope decline in angle results. The weathered material is transported by
overland flow

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Slope Replacement (W. Penck)

diag
-he based his studies in tectonic areas. He proposed that a slope will retreat from its original
position & during the process it will be replaced by a slope of lower gradient below it due to
erosion & mass wasting processes
-as the slope continues to retreat the height of the accumulating sediments tend to increase at
the expense of the cliff
-with time the cliff is removed & replaced by a more gentler slope, bcoz the weathered
sediments or debris insulate the lower part of the cliff from weathering hence only the exposed
part is weathered
-the rate of retreat is determined by slope gradient, thus the steeper the slope the faster the rate
of weathering & erosional processes

Parallel Slope Retreat (L.C. King)

diag
-he based his studies in arid & semi arid areas. He suggested that the slope is weathered
uniformly across the whole profile such that the slope retreats maintaining its angle
-the slope profile has four segments i.e. convex, cliff, rectilinear & concave
-the first three segments retreat parallel to themselves, as they retreat they leave a surface of
low gradient which he called he pediment
-the angle of the pediment decreases as it increases in length
-the balance between the debris supplied & the rate at which it is removed also facilitates
parallel retreat to take place
-this balance is achieved in deserts where the rate of weathering is very low as a result of the
absence of water
-the weathered material is removed by thunderstorms or flash floods
-if the balance is disrupted or absent there is no parallel retreat

TROPICAL LANDFORMS
-landforms are those in humid & sub-humid regions. Humid regions refer to the equatorial
climate, sub-humid refers to the savanna climate
-deep weathering is the decomposition of rocks deep underground by chemical weathering
processes
-a number of factors have promoted deep chemical weathering. Deep layers of weathered
material i.e. sapprolite or regolith build up over time

Factors influencing deep weathering

Rainfall
-this is a very important factor in influencing the rate & amount of denudational processes
-it the most important reagent of chemical weathering
-tropical regions receive very high rainfall hence chemical weathering is very dominant

Temperature
-it plays an important role in the acceleration of chemical weathering
-processes like hydrolysis double or treble for every 10ºC increase in temp
-high temps facilitates rapid reactions of chemical weathering

Vegetation
-a dense forest with a canopy protects the surface from being washed by erosional processes

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-it also provides humic acids to facilitate chemical weathering processes

-the dense network anchors regolith from erosional processes through their root system. This is
evidenced by the accumulation of thick weathered layers even on steep slopes

Long Tectonic Stability

-prolonged stability has allowed deep profiles to develop
-most of the regolith layer which cover larger parts of the humid areas has been stable since
the tertiary period
-this long time of crustal stability has resulted in the layers not to be exposed to erosional
processes due to uplift

Rock Texture
-most of the rocks in the humid tropics are crystalline i.e. coarse textured granite & they
decompose more rapidly than fine textured basalt
-the coarse textured are weakly cemented than fine textured ones hence they are more prone to
chemical weathering processes

Rock Structure
-granite & gneiss are prone to deep chemical weathering bcoz of the occurrence of fissures &
joints. These promote weathering agents to penetrate in crystalline rocks thereby decomposing
them

Development of deep weathered layers

diag
-this model is based on observations of actual weathering horizons in Hong Kong
-it shows that granite is gradually weathered from the surface downward producing four
identifiable zones, each older or more advanced than that lying beneath it
-the uppermost horizon comprise of the fully developed weathered regolith/residual debris
which is a mixture of sand & clay up to 25m
-it results from complete decomposition of granite over a long period of time
-zone 2 is less decomposed & made up of residual debris & a number of ‘floating’ rounded
corestones (masses of unweathered rock)
-it may be up to 60m in thickness & commonly referred to as residual debris with corestones
-zone 3 is usually 17m thick. It is dominated with corestones & partially decomposed gruss
hence the name corestones with residual debris
-zone 4 is the partially weathered rock bcoz chemical weathering has started opening up the
joints. It may be 30m thick
-with time the uppermost zones will continue to grow at the expense of the lower zone &
eventually the whole layer will be made up of weathered material
-this occurs bcoz deep chemical weathering will have reached the limit of weathering deep
underground, marked by basal surface of weathering or weathering front which is the fresh
rock ready to be attacked by chemical weathering

Stripping of regolith
-this is the removal of the thick weathered material resulting in the reduction of the regolith
-this is dominant in seasonally humid climates where erosion has been so severe that some
parts of the basal surface of weathering has been exposed
-stripping is as result of uplift & climatic change

Uplift of land

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-in areas where there is uplift of land erosive power of rivers is rejuvenated hence stripping.
This occurs in areas of instability

Climatic change
-its believed that the present day savanna region used to experience an equatorial type of
climate. Due to climatic change, rainfall became seasonal
-during the wetter period, a thick layer of regolith accumulated
-on the onset of the rain season, before vegetated recapitulates on the ground surface, there is
excessive erosion by running water & other mass wasting processes
-this has also been accelerated by the excessive destruction of vegetation which also assist in
the stabilisation of the soil
-several features are associated with the processes of stripping the regolith. Theories have been
put forward to explain formation of inselberg

THEORIES OF INSELBERG FORMATION

-these are isolated upland areas from the surrounding plain & they are often steep sided
-they are of different forms e.g. domed inselberg (bornhardt), blocky inselbergs, tors, castle
kopjes dwalas e.t.c.

Pediplanation Theory (L.C.King)

diag
-the theory explains the evolution of inselbergs through the twin processes of scarp retreat &
pedimentation
-weathering takes place on well jointed sections of the rock called shatter zones
-as weathering takes place on the shatter zones these areas are lowered down since the regolith
is removed by running water i.e. down wearing & in the process a scarp is formed
-the scarp begin to retreat as a result of weathering i.e. scarp retreat or backwearing
-as the scarp retreats, a low lying area is left & continued back wearing will result in the
extension of this lowland called pediment i.e. pedimentation
-the processes will leave an isolated dome shaped feature known as an inselberg

Exhumation/ Etchplanation Theory

diag
-the theory states that inselbergs are buried beneath weathered rock. This occurs bcoz
weathering varies according to the amount of jointing in the rock
-with time, the weathered material is stripped away leaving a fresh unweathered rock as
inselbergs
-as deep weathering continues, sub-arial erosion attacks the bornhardt leading to the formation
of castle kopjes
-this explains inselbergs which are less than 100m in height
-an explanation was still needed to explain inselbergs which are 200m & above in height
-the theory was edited by others who proposed that the basal surface of weathering occurs as
domical rises buried underground by regolith
-when stripping occurs the domical rises of the weathering front are exposed to form
whalebacks/ruwares
-as stripping continues these are increased in height to form dwalas with steep sides
-deep weathering occurs on the sides of the dwala & it is followed by another episode of
stripping which result in the formation of bornhardts

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-when the domed inselbergs have been exposed they are attacked by other weathering agents
to form castle kopjes & tors
-tors can also be formed whilst deep underground when deep chemical weathering occurs
-regolith is formed but it has floating corestones. When regolith has been removed the
corestones pile on top of each other to form tors

Duricrusts
diag
-a hard residual deposit at/ near the earth’s surface created from the weathering of rocks under
humid tropical conditions
-it consist of oxides of iron & aluminium & is associated with plain surfaces of low relief
-they are formed when large-scale chemical weathering results in leaching of silica & bases
from the parent materials
-these are cemented together to form a hard layer below the surface. They may be exposed to
the surface as cap rock
-secondary laterites may also form through spring sapping & collapse of primary laterites.
- some particularly those found in deserts are as a result of precipitation of minerals drawn
upwards by capillarity
-dissection by stream erosion of these may result in landscapes of plateaus, mesas & buttes

SECTION C OPTIONS
-choose one question from this section out of two.

TOPICS TO BE COVERED
 HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS
 ARID & SEMI-ARID ENVIRNMENTS

HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS
Hazardous events from crustal movements

Introduction
-these are earthquakes & volcanoes
-the earth consists of three components i.e. core, mantle & crust
-the central core consists of material of high density at a temp of about 5 300ºC
-the mantle layer is about 300km thick at a temp of 3 000ºC. It is composed of rocks rich in
iron & magnesium
-the crust is about 25km thick & it is made up of igneous rocks
-the theory of tectonics states that the earth is composed of a number of mobile plates floating
on the asthenosphere which is the uppermost zone of the earth’s mantle
-the larger plates may include portions of both oceans & continental crust

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-the continental plate is made up of rocks rich in silica & aluminium (sial), the oceanic plate is
made up of rocks rich in silica & magnesium (sima)
-the continental plate is old & lighter while the oceanic one is younger & denser
-the names oceanic & continental do not refer to the usual oceans or continents, but different
types of rocks
-plates are rigid blocks which extends to the upper limit of the mantle & these rigid blocks
extends from the asthenosphere which extends from the surface to 100km
-at this depth mantle material is near its melting point & acts similar to a plastic material
-the movements of plates are caused by convectional currents
-when hot currents from the core in the interior of the earth moves upwards they reach lower
parts of the crust which are cold comparing with where they are from
-these results in the currents to branch outwards & later sink thus causing a divergence on the
plates
-the movement of the hot currents as they rise cause excess pressure on crustal plates causing
the plates to move i.e. divergence or convergence depending on the streams of currents

Types of plate boundaries

Convergence
-this take place in three ways i.e. continental vs continental, oceanic vs oceanic & continental
vs oceanic
-it takes place when plates move towards each other
-when two continental plates collide they do not sink into the mantle bcoz they are of equal
densities
-instead they crumble & fold to form mountains e.g. the Himalayas
-when an oceanic & a continental plate collide the oceanic plate sinks downwards bcoz it’s
denser than the continental one which is lighter
-the sinking oceanic plate is absorbed into the hot mantle. The region where the plates are
destroyed is called the subduction zone
-in oceans the downward movement create a trench, with time sediments from the continental
plate are crushed & folded to form mountain ranges or chain of islands
-when two oceanic plates collide they all sink bcoz they are dense & they form trenches

Divergence
-occurs when plates pull apart. This creates a trench which is later filled up by the upwelling of
molten rock called magma which slowly cools & form a new crust
-when plates move apart beneath oceans the upwelling magma produces mountain ridges that
cross oceans e.g. the Atlantic ridge
-when divergence occurs beneath continents, tensional forces are produced resulting in cracks,
fissures or faults
-block subsidence occur resulting in formation of rift valleys which may be occupied by a sea

Transform/ Shear
-takes place when plates move sideways past each other. There is no destruction or creation of
a new crust

EARTHQUAKES
diag
-these are vibrations caused by the movement of surface rocks. These vibrations called seismic
waves occur when rocks suddenly break

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-rocks have elastic properties, so when this elasticity is passed the rocks break i.e. a fault. The
stored energy is released as seismic waves
-movement along the fault occur in any direction i.e. past each other with rocks sliding &
grinding on each other, or in the same direction but at different rates
-earthquakes are associated with deep ocean trenches whenever oceanic plates descend into the
mantle
-few earthquakes have a focus of below 700km bcoz most of the plates would have melted by
the time this depth is reached
-they also occur when continental plates converge as rocks are folded into mountains
-intensity of earthquakes is measured using a seismograph, the ritcher scale indicates the
magnitude of an earthquake
-the ritcher scale is open ended bcoz there is no highest number & the strongest earthquake is
yet to occur
-the focus is the point of origin & the point directly above it on the ground surface is the
epicentre
-the shockwaves pass very rapidly through the rocks to the surface where they cause great
damage
-in oceans they are not significant due to deep waters but on reaching the coast the waves may
be as high as 12m submerging the coast. These gigantic waves are called tsunamis

Causes of tsunamis
-seismic disturbances on the ocean floor such as faulting of rocks
-rock displacement on sea floor creates earthquakes that raises the sea floor by several metres
-volcanic eruption in the oceans
-landslides though they are a minor cause

Effects of tsunamis
-wave breaks on coast floods coastal area
-destruction of property/loss of life
-retreating wave sweeps these far outwards sea
-coastal erosion

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

o Destruction of buildings & infrastructure

o Flooding of rivers
o Outbreak of uncontrollable fires
o Loss of life
o Landslides

Nature of hazards from earthquakes

 Tsunamis
 Landslide & avalanches
 Damage of buildings
 Loss of life
 volcanoes

MEASURES OF REDUCING IMPACTS

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 Building of wooden houses as these withstand vibrations

 Building earthquake proof houses
 Hazard zonation maps
 Early warning systems
 Disaster warning response machinery
 Rescue & medical teams teams
 Evacuation
 Medical & food aid
 Temporal shelter provision - tents
 Education
 Insurance
 International aid & funding

VOLCANOES
diag
-vulcanicity involves all processes by which solid, liquid & gaseous material inside the earth
are forced into earth’s crust or find their way onto the surface
-they are most popular where oceanic plates collide or one oceanic & the other continental
-when collision occurs the oceanic plate descends & melts. When it melts it forms magma
which when it finds its way out to the surface though cracks, fissures or joints will erupt to
form a volcano

EFFECTS

o Loss of life
o Destruction of crops
o Incineration of buildings
o Destroys infrastructure
o Torrential heavy rainfall

Nature of hazards from volcanoes

 Lava & mudflow

 Torrential rainfall
 Volcanic bomb
 Toxic gases
 Loss of farmlands
 Acid lake
 Tsunamis – if occurs in ocean

HAZARDS RESULTING FROM TROPICAL CYCLONES

diag
-a cyclone is an area of low pressure into which violent winds flow
-the isobars of a tropical cyclone are very close showing a marked difference in pressure
between high pressure areas & low pressure areas i.e. high pressure gradient
-they form over oceans within the tropics i.e. between latitude 5º & 23½º N & S of the equator

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-the wind spiral towards the center rushing upwards with great force in the area called vortex
which surrounds the central eye of the cyclone
-the winds move anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere & clockwise in the southern
hemisphere due to their deflection by coriolis force
-convergence occurs in the ocean where temps are about 26ºC which facilitate the creation of
low pressure & in oceans there is abundance supply of moisture for condensation to take place
& there is less friction in water
-the rapidly rising air will cool adiabatically resulting in the formation of convectional rainfall
bringing about torrential rains & strong winds
-they move in a westerly direction & then changes depending on their location e.g. in the
southern hemisphere they will change from westerly to south-westerly then southerly direction
-on reaching the land they dissipate quickly bcoz of insufficient of moisture, removal of heat &
increased friction over the land
-when they reach the land they are very harmful

EFFECTS
o Loss of life
o Destruction of infrastructure
o Destruction of vegetation & crops
o Outbreak of water borne diseases
o Flooding of coastal areas & rivers bcoz of excessive rainfall

Nature of hazards from tropical cyclones

 Destruction of vegetation
 Destruction of buildings
 High wind speed
 Loss of life
 floods

MEASURES TO REDUCE EFFECTS

 Use of radar tracking

 Hazard zonation maps
 Evacuation of people
 Food aid
 Medical aid
 Provision of clothes, blankets, shelter

TORNADOES
-it is a violently rotating column of air which descends from a thunderstorm to the ground
-they form several thousands feet above the earth’s surface
-air rises & become saturated with moisture
-as it continue to rise to greater heights it produce a thunderstorm cloud if the atmosphere is
stable. It forms in areas where winds of all levels of the atmosphere are strong & turn with
height in a clockwise or veering direction

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-as water vapour condenses it releases heat, this release of heat creates the energy in a
thunderstorm
-when the air moving up into the cloud is very strong a tornado develops
-the whirling winds are like a spinning column of air that comes down from the thunderstorm
-winds can be as strong as 483km/hr, when it reaches the ground, the winds cause a great deal
of damage
-on the ground, it follows the same path as the thundercloud. Larger tornadoes can travel faster
& can last for hours
-it destroy anything that gets in their way

Prediction

 Early warning systems

 Radar systems allow meteorologists to see when they are about to form
 Looking at debris balls & air rotation to know if its forming in the short term
 Use of sophisticated computers to predict what is likely to weather
 Radar tracking to gauge the shape, power & direction of storm
 radar antennas which are several metres high to track the storms
 weather balloons which are send into the air about 35,5km or more before they fall
back to the earth. Beneath each balloon is a pop of sensors that send back information
about temperature, humidity, pressure, windspeed & direction – information that help
forecasters figure out when tornadoes are likely to occur. It has been observed that the
number of balloons (about 69) send don’t provide enough data for good forecasting

Mass Movements
Causes
 Sudden changes in temperatures which causes avalanches
 Torrential rainfall causes lubrication for mudflows
 Volcanic eruptions trigger rockfalls or landslides
 Earthquakes trigger rockfalls or landslides
 Deforestation
 Mining
 Road construction destabilises the slopes

Effects
 Loss of life
 Destruction of infrastructure
 Destruction of crops

Nature of hazards from mass movements

 Loss of life
 Destruction of crops
 Blocking of roads
 Destruction of communication lines & property

Measures

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 Slope stitching
 Terracing
 Early warning systems
 Evacuation of people
 Minimal construction of tall buildings on slopes

ARID & SEMI-ARID ENVIRONMENTS

-aridity refers to the dryness of an area as a result of little or no rainfall of less than 250mm/
year
-climatic conditions of arid areas include:
 Low rainfall
 Episodic rainfall (distribution)
 Very high temperature (hot), during the day
 Very low temperature at night due to radiation loss & absence of cloud cover. This
results in high diurnal range
 Windy

The main weathering processes are: exfoliation, pressure release, freeze-thaw, salt
crystallisation, block disintegration
Candidates should look at characteristics of soils in arid & semi-arid areas as well as
vegetation characteristics & adaptation

-arid & semi-arid areas are considered as harsh environments bcoz of:
Extremely high temperatures (daytime) & very low temperatures (night time) due to
rapid radiation & absence of cloud cover
Evapotranspiration is higher than precipitation resulting in very dry conditions. There
is moisture deficit
Very limited ground water supplies – low rate of replenishment
Areas largely barren & rugged
Often very dusty from the strong winds blowing across these areas

DISTRIBUTION & CAUSES OF ARIDITY

Diag

CONTINENTALITY
-this refers to the distance from the sea. Some deserts are located far from the sea such that the
air masses that reach them would have lost their moisture in areas near the coast
-by the time they reach these areas they will be dry resulting in no rainfall bcoz instead of
condensation taking place, evaporation will take place instead

HIGH PRESSURE
-some deserts lie between 15º & 30º N/S of the equator which is the zone of high pressure belt
characterised by descending cool air e.g. the Sahara
-on reaching the ground the subsiding air will diverge
-as the air descends, it compressed/contracts therefore warming adiabatically. In the process it
suppresses uplift of air

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-this results in stable conditions with clear skies & no rainfall

OFF-SHORE WINDS & OCEAN CURRENTS

-some deserts are located on the western side of continents as a result of prevailing winds
which blow parallel to the coast
-these winds blow over or across cold waters hence they are cooled reducing their water
holding capacity
-as these winds reach the land, they are warmed & result in advection fog instead
-e.g. of such deserts are the Namib & Atacama

RAINSHADOW EFFECT
-some deserts lie on the leeward side where there is descending dry air which have lost its
moisture on the windward side
-as the cool air descends it warms adiabatically
-e.g. the Patagonian

It has been believed that deserts have undergone some climatic change. They once experienced
some wetter periods in the past like savanna
-there is evidence to show that deserts once experienced a wetter period in the past

EVIDENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN DESERTS

The evidence was provided by Deel to show that deserts once experienced wetter periods
during the quaternary period

 In parts of western Australia sheets of laterites have been found & these relate to a
humid climate early in the tertiary era
 In the Hoggar Massif of the Saharan interior, numerous water curved valleys of
considerable sizes have been observed
 Pockets of red soils typical of present day savanna have also been found in Sahara
 Botanical remains in parts of Sahara indicate that these parts were once occupied by
open savanna woodland or steppe grasslands
 Many signs of human occupation by people who fished in rivers & lakes which no
longer exists & hunted animals like elephants & giraffes & cattle herding
 In the Arabian deserts, limestone rocks have been penetrated by solution pipes of a
depth of about 30m or more although the present annual rainfall is about 100mm
 In granite terrain many low lying areas are underlain by chemically rotten rocks
containing corestones
 In Saudi Arabia there are great quantities of fossil ground water lying at depths of
several hundreds of metres beneath the surface of limestone & sandstone areas. Today
recharging these aquifers is impossible bcoz evaporation exceeds rainfall, so this fossil
water must point to the occurrence of lengthy wetter periods in the past

PROCESSES & LANDFORMS OF HOT DESERTS

AEOLIN/WIND PROCESSES

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WIND TRANSPORTATIONAL PROCESSES

-wind movement is greatest where winds are strong, usually over 20km/hr
-winds can move material by three processes i.e. suspension, saltation & surface creep. The
effective of each of the processes rely on particle size

Suspension
-where material is very fine, less than 0,15mm in diameter, it can be picked up by wind, raised
to considerable height & carried for great distances
-the extreme of these is when dust from the Sahara has been carried northwards & deposited
over parts of Britain
-dust storms can reduce visibility in deserts to less than 100m

Saltation
-when wind speeds exceed threshold velocity i.e. the speed required to initiate movement, fine
& coarse grained sand particles are lifted
-they may rise almost vertically for several cm before returning to the ground in a relatively
flat trajectory way of less than 12º
-turbulence lift sand particles for short distances before dropping them
-as wind continues to blow, sand particles bounce along leap frogging over one another
-even in vast storms, sand grains are rarely lifted higher than 2m

Surface creep
-every time a sand particle is transported by saltation, as it lands it may dislodge & push
forward larger particles more than 0,25mm in diameter which are too heavy to be uplifted
-this constant bombardment gradually moves small stones & pebbles over the desert surfaces

EROSIONAL PROCESSES
-the three main types of wind erosion are deflation, abrasion & attrition

Deflation
-this is the progressive removal of fine material by wind leaving pebble strewn desert
pavements
-as this process continues it may eventually leads to the development of hallows
-dew may collect in these hallows & material may be loosened by chemical weathering & then
removed by wind to leave depressions or deflation hallows
-these depressions are numerous & vary greatly in size from a few metres to the extensive
Quatarra depression in Egypt which reaches a depth of 154m below sea level

Abrasion
-this is a sand blasting action affected by material as they are moved by saltation
-this sand blasting lifts sand particles more than a metre above the ground
-it is therefore concentrated at that height & has an undercutting effect on rock obstacles
-large smooth rocks are polished & others like granite will form rough surfaces due to some
minerals being softer than others so they are easily eroded
-pebbles of small rocks are shaped into ventifacts with polished windward sides. Ventifacts are
individual rocks with sharp edges & smooth sides, they are due to abrasion
-the zone of maximum erosion is within 1m since sand particles cannot be uplifted very high

Attrition
-this is the wearing down of rock particles being carried by wind

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-as the rock particles are in transit they rub against each other hence wearing each other

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Rock pedestals
diag
-when rocks containing horizontal bands of hard & soft rock are subjected to abrasion,
differential erosion occurs with the soft rocks being eroded faster
-since abrasion is greatest less than a metre from the ground, it will results in the formation of
mushroom-shaped features known as rock pedestals or gows

Yardangs
diag
-these develop where rock masses have vertical bands of hard & soft rock which lie to the
direction of the prevailing wind
-wind abrasion attacks the softer rock to form troughs & the more resistant rock stand as ridges
-the ridges are the yardangs

Zeugens
diag
-these develop where rocks have horizontal layers of hard & soft rock
-weathering concentrated along joints & faults allows wind erosion to attack the underlying
soft rock
-this will produce a ridge & furrow landscape
-the ridges are the zeugens

Deflation hallows
diag
-these are depressions formed by wind deflation deepening greatly weathered rock surface
-initially hallows are formed & these retain moisture more than adjacent areas & this
encourages chemical weathering on the floor making the weathered material easy to be
removed by deflation
-this process can continue repeatedly resulting in the deepening of the depression
-the depth of the depression is limited by the water table since once this is reached wind will
not be able to easily lift out wet particles
-oasis lakes may form on the floor
-e.g. is the Quattara depression which is 122m below sea level

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
-deposition occurs when there is an obstacle in the path of the wind or there is a drop in wind
velocity
-coarse material of sand is deposited first followed by finer dust particles
-about 30% of the world’s desert surfaces are composed of wind-blown sands forming vast
sand seas or ergs
-wind speed controls the volume of sand that is moved & hence the size of ripples
windflow patterns control the shapes of the depositional features
the most dominant landforms are ripples & sand dunes

Ripples
-these are bedform-shaped mounds of varying sizes which form regularly repeated patterns
known as ripples

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-they are the smallest depositional features

-they are caused by either small- scale turbulence in the air flow base or by the impact of
bombarding sand grains (impact ripples)
-they have a wavelength (distance between their crests) of 1 to 250cm & heights of up to
100cm

Sand dunes
-these have much greater wavelengths of between 3m & 600m & they vary in height from 20m
to 400m
-there are different types of sand dunes i.e. barchans, seif & transverse

Barchan
diag
-this is a crescent-shaped dune with a gentle convex windward side with two ‘horns’ which
curve downwind on either side of the steeper concave slip face of the leeward side
-it is formed at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind
-it starts off as a small mound of sand accumulating on the windward side of the obstacle
-once established, it will continue to trap more sand blown in by the wind
-they migrate in a downwind direction. The rate of migration is greatest at the outer edges
where there is less sand hence the development of horns pointing down wind
-they are symmetrical in profile

Seif/longitudinal dunes
diag
-these are long ridge-like dunes which run parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind
-they are asymmetrical in cross profile & may be up to 100m in high & 200m long
-they develop when secondary cross winds modify & merge a series of barchan dunes
-where cross wind blow frequently, the windward horn of a barchan dune will receive greater
increments of sand resulting in its coalescence with a barchan in its downwind direction
-this causes the steep slip faces of the barchans to become reoriented across the path of the
secondary winds
-they are maintained by the prevailing winds which sweep clear sand from the troughs between
dunes & they are regularly spaced
-it’s also believed that they can be formed when a barchan dune suffers a blow-out which
results in its partial destruction

Transverse dunes
diag
-start off as irregular ridges formed due to coalescence of several barchans
-they form a series of long wavy ridges lying at right angles to the direction of cross winds
-their spacing is irregular due to the wave flow of the air

Loess deposits
-it refers to a thick brownish yellowish sandy loam rich in lime & homogenous in structure
-these are sand materials transported from the deserts & deposited in areas outside the desert
margins
-they cover about 10% of the earth’s land surface
-the most extensive loess deposits are found in China where they cover one million square km
& vary in thickness from 30 to 100m
-when they break down they form rich fertile soils

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WATER ACTION IN DESERTS

-landforms in deserts had been entirely attributed to wind action but research has proved that
some of the landforms can’t be as a result of wind action only
-it is no longer feasible to regard erosion, transport & deposition by running water as being
secondary to wind
-running water in deserts occurs in two forms i.e. sheet & stream floods

Sheet floods
-this is when running water is not confined but covers the whole ground surface
-they form as a result of the transformation of stream floods as they emerge from the mouth of
canyons on the pediment
-or they can develop when the sudden storms fall directly on the pediment & begins to flow
-since they comprise of a shallow layer of water, their power to erode & transport is very
limited
-the role & effects of sheet floods on development of landforms is very controversial
-some scholars believe that they are eroding agents which lower surface of pediments
-others say that they are transporting agents which carry or transport the sediments from steep
slopes across the pediment to the zone of alluviation

Stream floods
-these are confined to dissected uplands which contain channels that are normally dry but
become flooded after heavy storms
-the significance of these is not clear, they are assumed to be responsible for curving deep
steep sided flat floored wadis
-their effectiveness is questionable bcoz these features are as a result of erosion by some
permanent rivers during the quaternary period
-others believe that the task which is performed by these floods is causing lateral erosion/
planation of surfaces

WATER RELATED LANDFORMS

Wadis/ Canyons
diag
-these are deep steep sided valleys which are normally dry but occupied by stream floods
-these stream floods don’t travel for long distances since they are quickly choked with material
& therefore converted into mudflow losing their momentum
-these could have been formed during the Pleistocene era where rivers could manage to erode
vertically to form the deep valleys

Mesas & buttes

diag
-these are areas of elevated land with a flat top & steep sides
-they are formed as a result of both weathering & erosion of horizontally layered rocks
-stream dissection & slope retreat will cause the dissected areas to be eroded downwards &
backwearing will result in the reduction in size of the mesa to a butte
-variations in the ability of different types of rock to resist weathering & erosion cause the
weaker types of rock to be eroded away leaving the more resistant type

Alluvial fans

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-when stream floods emerge at the mouth of canyons, the water is dissipated over a wide area,
so reducing its energy to transport its load
-coarse material is deposited first & fine particles later on
-the deposited sediment will take the form of a fan or cone

Salt lakes/ Playas/ Temporary lakes

-in arid & semi-arid regions flowing streams from upland regions are short & intermittent
-they drain into lower depressions (inland drainage)
-water collected in a depression or an oasis doesn’t completely disappear by evaporation or
seepage so a temporary lake is formed
-such lakes contain high percentage of salts bcoz of high evaporation
-when they dry they are white in colour,7 they are known as playas

Bajada
-when alluvial fans coalesce they form a bajada

DESERT PIEDMONT ZONE

diag
-this is an area which separates plateaus & upland areas from the broadlands of erosion &
deposition
-this is where the most significant geomorphological processes in deserts take place

Mountain front
-it’s a high & steep slope ranging in angle from 35º to 90º
-it rises abruptly from the gentler slopes beneath
-many scholars believe that it retreats without much loss in angle
-the explanation for the formation is through parallel retreat which is initiated by stream or
sheet floods
-when it has a low angle i.e. rectilinear boulders can rest on it released by block disintergration
-the size & shape of these boulders control the slope’s angle
-these boulders which occupy the mountain front either move very slowly downhill or decay as
a result of granular disintergration

Knick point
-is a sharp break in the profile which separates the scarp slopes from the pediment below
-it also marks the change in the weathered material from the coarse boulders upslope to fine
grained alluvial in the pediment
-in some cases it is buried beneath alluvial fans but more commonly it is exposed
-its origin has been attributed to lateral undercutting by running water. The stream floods
issuing out from canyon mouth are able to swing against the base of the mountain front on
either side
-others believe that they are a result of weathering phenomena like King

Bajada
-it is formed when alluvial fans coalesce. It sometimes insulates or covers the knick point

Peripediment
-it is a broad area of fine material washed by sheet floods across the pediment from nearby
uplands

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-it is enclosed by centripetal drainage of temporal lakes which exists only after rainstorm

Pediment
-it is the most problematic of all landforms & has given rise to the greatest controversy
-it is a gently inclined rock surface leading up to the foot of the mountain front
-it is concave in shape with angles reaching from 7º to about ½º
-the concavity suggests that running water is an agent in the formation of pediments
-the rock surface may be covered by an alluvial veneer which may be patchy thereby
completely masking the solid rock
-downslope this veneer tend to end to be more continuous & thicker
-when pediments extend into canyon mountains they form pediment embayments diag
-when the embayments grow towards each other & coalesce they give rise to a pediment pass
- a number of theories have been put forward to explain the formation of pediments

Theories of pediment formation

-these are categorised into two i.e. water related & composite theories

Water related theories

Johnson (1932)
-he located pediments at a transitional stage between dissected uplands where streams will be
undergoing vertical corrasion resulting in steep sided canyons, & low lying areas
(peripediment) where deposition takes place
-the streams undergo a change from an underloaded, in the uplands, to an overloaded
condition, in the lowlands, but fully loaded i.e. the stream’s energy is totally consumed in the
movement of the water & its load hence no available under vertical corrassion
- he accepted that such streams are capable only of lateral erosion

Howard (1942)
-he regarded lateral planation as the major process involved in pedimentation
-he suggested that lateral planation by both stream & sheet floods leads to the continual
extension & lowering to the operation to form pediments
-running water occurs in various forms together with the retreat of the mountain front as a
result of weathering & transportation
-though these processes are quite different they work harmoniously together. The rate of
recession of the mountain front is equal to the rate of headward extension of the pediment

Composite theories
Lawson (1915)
diag
-he considered the reason of a fault scarp which is subjected to attack under arid conditions as
the main cause of pediment formation
-the scarp retreats backwards by wearing, & the disintegrated rock will accumulate at the foot
of the scarp unless removed by streams
-with time this detritus would grow upwards & encroach on the receeding scarp face
-the lower part will be buried & insulated from further weathering, only the exposed upper part
will continue to retreat
-this will result in the formation of a convex slope i.e. the sub-alluvial bench
-the removal of the upper most layers of the detritus will result in a slope of lower angle or
exposure of the rock pediment

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L.C. King
-he considered the development of a pediment in semi-arid & arid desert regions as a result of
the recession of the convex, cliff & rectilinear slope forms
-as the forms retreat they leave a concave slope lower in angle which he called the pediment
-uniform weathering upslope is facilitated by insolation & the rate of weathered material
accumulating is similar to the rate at which it is removed by sudden storms.

DESERTIFICATION
-refers to the transformation of productive land into non-productive land. The loss of the
productive capacity of land occurs because of the spread of desert or desert like conditions into
areas which did not originally experience these. Desert or desert like conditions include
climatic desiccation or a tendency towards aridity, increasing temperature & a reduction in the
vegetation material of an area & reduced rainfall.
Diag

Causes of desertification
Drought
-increased incidents of droughts set in favourable conditions for desertification. Droughts have
reduced the vegetation cover.

Rapid population growth

-has resulted in higher numbers of people in relationship to the carrying capacity of land. The
increased numbers of people has led to an increased demand for land leading to soil erosion
-it has also led to an increased demand for wood fuel leading to deforestation, a contributing
factor to the process of desertification.

Monoculture
-this has led to overcultivation of land which in turn has led to a reduction in the productive
capacity of land, itself an indicator that desertification has set in

Overgrazing
-this has taken place even on bare slopes leading to the degradation of the land. This leads to
the development of bad lands like dongas & gullies

Wood fuel
-in many rural areas this is the major source of fuel. This has led to the indiscriminate cutting
down of trees leading not only to deforestation but also a reduction in the biodiversity of these

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areas. This has reduced the productive potential of these areas allowing desertification to settle
in

Poor methods of farming

-in subsistence farming people employ such methods like ploughing down slope & shifting
cultivation. If these methods are practised over a long period of time, it will lead to diminution
or destruction of the biological potential of the land, an indicator of desertification settling in
an area

El Nino phenomenon
Regional shift in upper circulation causing persistant & anti-cyclonic weather
Changes in the hydrological cycle associated with frequent droughts

Climate change
This results in low rainfall being experienced, & droughts become more frequent
The level of water table drops, rivers & water holes become dry, vegetation dies due to severe
soil moisture deficits
The reduction in vegetation cover intensifies wind & water erosion resulting in land
degradation & desertification.
Global Warming
It causes increased evaporation & intensification of droughts

Over-cultivation
This normally occurs on marginal lands due to increased demand for food.

Hazards associated with desertification

 high temperatures
 strong winds/dust storms
 water scarcity in urban areas & agriculture
 crop failure – food shortages – famine
 soil erosion & impoverishment
 loss of livestock – loss of livelihood
 loss of biodiversity etc

Ways of reducing desertification

 use of improved methods of farming e.g. crop rotation, irrigation & grain storage to
reduce pressure on land
 introduction of new crops or new varieties of traditional crops with high yielding &
drought resistant qualities. There can be the use of fertilisers to produce double yields
& this will reduce the need to open up new land for farming
 quality of stock can also be improved through vaccination programmes & the
introduction of better breeds, better yields of meat, better quality of milk without
increasing the size of the herd
 agroforestry can be applied. This combines agriculture & forestry, allowing the farmer
to continue cropping while trees for fodder, fuel & building timber are maintained
bcoz trees provide shade & fertilise the soil. Social forestry can be used i.e. village-
based tree planting schemes involving all members of the community. This will enable
people to be environmentally aware & appreciate the need to carefully use & manage
the environment

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 education campaign There is need to raise the general level of awareness of the
problem of environmental degradation.

Effects of desertification
 soil becomes less usable
 vegetation is damaged
 growth of poverty
 out-migrations
 high temperatures
 unreliable rainfall

Measures to reduce effects of desertification

 financial aid
 drought relief in form of food aid
 self help projects e.g. food for work
 international agreements/protocols like Kyoto protocol, Copenhagen
 dam construction
 irrigation
 herd diversification among nomads
 afforestation & reforestation
 destocking & rotational grazing to allow pasture to recover
 drought warning systems, forecasts, predictions
 landuse planning
 re-grassing
 gully control & reclamation in badly eroded areas
 use of fertilisers & organic manure to improve soil fertility
 resettling people from overcrowded & severely degraded areas
 rural electrification to reduce the demand for wood fuel
 legislation & environmental protection laws
 repatriation of refugees

“YESTERDAY IS NOT OURS TO RECOVER, BUT TOMORROW IS OURS TO WIN OR

LOSE.”

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