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Chapter 2: Materials of Baking

Lecturer: Dr. Vu Tran Khanh Linh

Department of Food Technology
Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology
Email: linhvtk@hcmute.edu.vn

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<2> Water
 Functions:
 influent the formation of dough and batter:

 act as a ………………. in the dough

 ………………. proteins and carbohydrates,

 necessary for development of a …………………………

 during cooking/baking:

 act as a major heat transfer mechanism

 …………………… the starch

 contribute to product …………………….

 adds ………………………. to the finished products

 The amount of water controls the …………….., ……………, …………,

………….., ……………, ……………, and mouth feel of bakery products
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<2> Water
 Water activity
𝑎 = (0 < aw < 1)
 P:
 Po:
 aw determines the microbial safety of food

 if the water vapor of the atmosphere surrounding the food

is greater than the water activity of the food: water is
…………………………..; otherwise, ………………………. takes place

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<2> Water
 Drinking Water quality:
 Biologically, water should be free of …………………………………

 Chemically, certain metal ions and anions should be

…………….. safe limits.; Carcinogens, dioxins, accumulative
chemicals (mercury, lead) need special attention
 Water hardness

 pH
 Physically, all solids, colors, odors, and tastes must be
removed for drinking water

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Note: The first figure is the usual accepted level for each element. Where a second figure
is quoted this is the maximum level permitted by the World Health Organization’s
European Standards.
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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

 Functions:
 add …………………………………

 give ………………….

 each sweetener has its own functions in each product

 Some sweeteners can have similar functions in different
groups of products

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

Table. Functionality of Sugar and Syrup Sweeteners in Baked Goods
Baked Goods Functions
Category
Breads • Supply fermentable solids
• Improve crumb texture and softness
• Extend shelf life by the hygroscopicity

Cakes • Affect cake structure formation

• Improve crumb texture and crumb tenderness
• Extend freshness by aiding moisture retention
and decreasing water activity of the product
• Promote a good crust color

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

Table. Functionality of Sugar and Syrup Sweeteners in Baked Goods
Baked Goods Functions
Category
Cookies • Affect cookie spread
• Control crispiness

Crackers • Reduce the amount of water used in the dough

• Supply fermentable solids if fermentation
process is involved

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.1. Saccharose:
 can be extracted economically from ………………………….

 colors: white  medium, or golden brown dark brown

 grain sizes: 1500 – 10 mm  various areas of application:

 Fine granulations:

 Powdered sugars:

 Coarse sugars:

 Sugar cubes or nibs:

 bakeries normally use sucrose in several forms:

 granulated (i.e. crystalline sugar), milled sugar (icing sugar),
and possibly 66% sugar syrup
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Granulated sugar Brown sugar

Icing sugar Sugar cube Nib sugar

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.1. Saccharose:
 Liquid sugar:

 is usually …………. solids and may contain a low (never more

than ……..) content of invert sugar to prevent …………………….:
 handleable syrup at ………………………………….

 prevent ………………………………..

 store liquid sugar at ………………………. 20oC to prevent

crystallization
Advantages:

Disadvantages:

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.1. Saccharose:
 Functions:

 Sucrose and texture:

 During mixing: sucrose ties up H2O & competes with proteins
for H2O  prevent …………….......… of gluten + retard its ………….
  sugar level  less water for ………………… longer ……………….
to optimally develop the ………………………………
 Doughs containing sucrose exhibit more ………….. than ……………
properties  act as a ………………… agent, producing a slack,
non-cohesive dough mass.
 sugar in the recipe + a proper ……………………….. gluten
reaches and maintains optimum …………………  the gases
produced during proofing to be held within the dough

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.1. Saccharose:
 Functions:
 Sucrose and yeast:

 Sucrose and foams: sucrose aids mechanical aeration when it is

beaten with shortenings, butter or eggs.

 Sucrose and gelatinization: during baking, sugar tenderizes the

matrix by absorbing liquids and delaying starch ……………………..
 gelatinization temp. of starch……
 allows the development of …………….  the development of a
more ………………. structure of the end product

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.1. Saccharose:
 Functions:
 Sucrose and browning:

 Sucrose and shelf-life:

 Increasing levels of sucrose lower product ……………………. and
have a significant effect on product .........................................
 Sucrose may prevent or reduce undesirable migration of water
molecules, slow down increases or decreases in the
……………………….. of a product and reduce ………………………

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.1. Saccharose:
 Handling and storage of crystal sugar:

 Store in silos a place of even ………………….. and low ………………….

 Storage temp. should be close to the temp. of the sugar when it is
delivered.
 Local conc. of dust (sugar fines) created during handling (mechanical
or pneumatic):
 reduce flow characteristic of the sugar
 tends to pick up …………………………..  electrical spark could
cause an ………………..
 Severe problem during pneumatic conveying
 much care should be taken to ……………. pipes and containers

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.2. Syrups:
 Sucrose/invert syrups:
 mixtures of sucrose + invert sugar + varying proportions of
other matter derived from the cane sugar liquor during
refining  ………………………. colours + …………………. flavours
 strongly recommended for .…………….. manufacture
 about……% solids.
 more …………….. than sucrose syrup  normally handled
warm (~ …...oC) to render them more easily pumpable.

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.2. Syrups:
 Invert sugar syrup:

 a mixture of sugars, usually …………….. and ……………., with

low levels of ………………
 is usually purchased as an 80% solids syrup and should be
stored at not less than ……oC to prevent ……………………….
 quite popular in baked products:

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.2. Syrups:
 Glucose syrup:
 Produced by …………….. of starch materials
 Glucose syrups are commonly defined by their DE (dextrose
equivalent)
 Roles:

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.3. Polyols:
 Sugar replacers, sugar alcohol, non-nutritive sweeteners,
reduced caloric sweeteners, bulk sweeteners
 not ………………. sugars and do not contribute to the ………………
reaction
 used commercially in food: sorbitol, mannitol, maltitol,
isomalt, lactitol, xylitol, erythritol
 Functions:

 Provide …………………

 provide fewer ………………..

 retain ………………………………. in food products

 lowering ………………………………

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<3> Sugars and Sweeteners

3.3. Polyols:

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<4> Leavening agents

 “Leavening agents” : a term used to indicate a source of ………
that causes a dough or batter to ……………………

 These gases must be ……………….. in the product until the

structure is set enough by the coagulation of ………….. and
…………………. and the gelatinization of …………….. to hold its
shape
 Three types of leavening agents can be used in bakery products:

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<4> Leavening agents

4.1. Yeast:


 available in two forms:

 acts on sugars

 optimum temperature for fermentation:

 02 main advantages of using yeast in bakery products:

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Baker’s yeast manufacturing

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<4> Leavening agents

4.2. Chemical leavens:
 produce C02 by one of two means:

 chemical decomposition through the application of ………..

 a reaction of an ………. with a ..……..

4.2.1. Sodium Bicarbonate - NaHCO3 (baking soda):

 Can be decomposed alone at temp ≥ oC:

 Na2CO3 :
 NaHCO3 reacts with ………………. present to accelerate the
reaction for ………….. production at a lower temperature:

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<4> Leavening agents

4.2. Chemical leavens:
4.2.2. Ammonium Bicarbonate (NH4HCO3):
 Decomposed at temp ≥ oC:

 can only be used in ………………….. applications

4.2.3. Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3):
 For low-sodium applications

 Heat decomposition:

 For a complete decomposition, an acid and a long baking

process are required
 When decomposition is not complete, discoloration and a
bitter flavor are present.
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<4> Leavening agents

4.2. Chemical leavens:
4.2.3. Baking powder:
 Baking soda + acid/acidic salt + ………………….

 produce CO2 either ……………. baking or …………… baking

 The acidulants and acids have to be adapted in nature and

concentration so that:
 (1) a controlled quantity of ……….. is released

 (2) the ………… is controlled

 (3) no ……………... acidulant or NaHCO3 is left at the end of

the reaction.
 The acidic products are:

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<4> Leavening agents

4.2. Chemical leavens:
4.2.3. Baking powder:
 Some acidic products:

 Fast acting:

 Tartaric acid: C4H6O6 + 2NaHCO3  Na2C4H4O6 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

 cream of tartar: KHC4H4O6

KHC4H4O6 + NaHCO3  CO2 + KNaC4H4O + H2O

 Monocalcium phosphate: Ca(H2PO4)2.H2O

 Slow acting:

 Sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP): Na2H2P2O7

Na2H2P2O7 + 2NaHCO3  Na4P2O7 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

 Sodium aluminium phosphate (SALP): NaH14Al3(PO4)8.4H2O
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<5> Lipids
5.1. Major functions of fats in baked items are:
 impart shortening, richness, and tenderness to improve
flavor and eating characteristics
 enhance ……………….. for leavening and volume.

 promote desirable grain and texture qualities

 provide ………………. in pie, crusts, Danish, and puff pastry

 provide ……………… to prevent the wheat gluten particles

from ………………… together to retard ……………………
 affect …………………… retention for shelf life improvement

 provide structure for …………………………………..

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<5> Lipids
5.2. Fat’s Role in Bakery Products
a. Yeast-raised products: (Breads, rolls)
 Typically don’t have much oil/fat in their formulation, but fat
is important because:
 Lubricate the cells 

 …………………………………….

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<5> Lipids
5.2. Fat’s Role in Bakery Products
b. Laminated products: requires 02 types of fat
 In-dough fat:

 provide ……………… and enhance …………………..

 Roll-in fat:
 create the ………………………. of the products

 provide …………………………………………..

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<5> Lipids
5.2. Fat’s Role in Bakery Products
c. Cakes:
 contribute to …………….., mouthfeel, and …………………

 contribute to good aeration: allows even distribution of

………………………… and ………………….. released during baking
 increased ……………., lower …………………….., and a more
desirable ………………….. in the finished product

 the solid fat crystals in the fats should be at the right type,
size, and shape to give proper aeration

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<5> Lipids
5.2. Fat’s Role in Bakery Products
d. Cookies & crackers: have lower ……………. levels, depend more
on the fat for tenderness and mouthfeel
 Cookies: dough fat, filling fat

 Dough fat has 4 primary functions:

 Lubrication:
o coating ……………………..particles
o reduce …………..….. development
o Prevent the dough from sticking to the baking surface
 Aeration:
 Spread: ………. shortening levels
 Eating quality: ……….. percentages of fat

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<5> Lipids
5.2. Fat’s Role in Bakery Products
d. Cookies và crackers:
 Cookies:

 Filling fat (crème filling)

 ~……… of a crème filling (the other 1/3 is mainly …………)

 The fat used must enhance eating quality, serve as an
……………….. for the two halves of the sandwich
 depend on SFI
o High SFI:
o Low SFI:

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<5> Lipids
5.2. Fat’s Role in Bakery Products
d. Cookies và crackers:
 Crackers: most crackers don’t have much in-dough fat

 smoothen and soften the dough to improve

……………………………………….
 fat added after the bake as top spray oil

 enhances the ……………………………………….

 can be used to add flavorings to the spray oil
 protect the crackers from ………………………………………

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<5> Lipids
5.3. Types of Fat and Oil for Bakery Products
5.3.1. Butter (milk fat):
 made exclusively from ………….. or …………….. or both

 ……. % milk fat,……… % water, (…… % salt),……….% milk solid

 02 types:
 offer an edge in mouthfeel and flavor that helps define a
premium dessert
 ………… and ………… when cold and very …….. at room temp.,
and melts easily  dough made with butter is ……………………
……………………….

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<5> Lipids
5.3. Types of Fat and Oil for Bakery Products
5.3.2. Shortening:
 generally consist of nearly …………. fat (vegetable oils, animal
fats, or both). During manufacturing, the fats are ……………….
 02 main types used in bakery products:

 Regular shortenings:

 fairly tough, waxy texture, melt only at a high

temperature
 good ……………………….
 flaky products (piecrusts, biscuits), pastries, breads,
products mixed by creaming (pound cakes, cookies,
quick breads)

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<5> Lipids
5.3. Types of Fat and Oil for Bakery Products
5.3.2. Shortening:
 Emulsified shortening:

 Soft, spread easily throughout a batter and quickly coat

the particles of sugar and flour
 contain added emulsifying agents  can hold a larger
quantity of ………. and ………… than regular shortenings
 ……………………. texture of cake and also a ………………..
cake
 high-ratio cake, icings

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<5> Lipids
5.3. Types of Fat and Oil for Bakery Products
5.3.3. Margarine:
 ..……….% fat (hydrogenated animal and vegetable fats),....%
moisture, and about …… % salt, milk solids, flavoring
ingredients, emulsifiers, coloring agents and other
ingredients.
 02 major categories of margarines for bakers:

 Cake margarine (or baker’s margarine): soft, good

………………….
 Pastry margarine: ……………., more …………………, and have a
........................, formulated for dough that forms layers

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<5> Lipids
5.3. Types of Fat and Oil for Bakery Products
5.3.4. Vegetable Oils:
 sources: canola, cocoa beans, coconuts, corn, cottonseed,
palm, peanuts, soybeans, and sunflower seeds…

 Applications:
 in-dough fat;

 Spray oil

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<6> Fat replacers

 a wide variety of products that replace some or all of the fat
in foods  reduce the _____________ content of the food
while changing its ________________ as little as possible

 Fat substitutes or analogs:

 physically and chemically resemble ……………….., but are not
chemically classified as fat and contribute less or no energy
 replicate the ……………….. and …………………… properties of fat

 may be used to replace ………… or …………………. of the fat

present in a product
 Eg: Salatrim, Caprenin;

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<6> Fat replacers

 Fat mimetics:
 imitate one or more of the sensory or functional properties of
fats but ……………. replace fat on a gram-for-gram basis (cannot be
used for ………………)
 Eg: carbohydrate-based fat replacers, protein-based fat replacers

 Fat barriers:
 ingredients added to …………….. the absorption of fats during the
frying process.
 Eg.

 Fat extenders:
 optimize the ……………………. of fat  allow a …………………. in the
usual amount of fat used in a product
 Eg: emulsifiers, modified starch, dextrinx, maltodextrins, gums

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<7> Eggs

 egg white/albumen:
 foaming + foam stabilizing stability (due to …………………)

 ……………….. ability (heating above oC)

 egg yolk:

 Emulsification of fat (dominated by …………………………………)

 ………………… ability (heating above oC)
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<7> Eggs

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<7> Eggs
 Market forms of eggs:
 fresh eggs/ shell eggs (whole eggs, whole eggs with extra
yolks, whites, yolks)
 frozen eggs

 dried eggs (whole, yolks, whites)

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<8> Dairy Products

 Functions:
 Fresh milk (………….. % water):

 Milk contributes to:

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<8> Dairy Products

 Milk-based products:
 Dried Milk Products:

 Dried whole milk: contains original ………………….

 Nonfat dry milk:

 ………………. shelf-life
 Add ……………, …………. and contribute to …………….…
 Whey products: often substitute for milk solids, primary for
cost savings
 Dry sweet whey

 Whey protein concentrate

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<8> Dairy Products

 Milk-based products:
 Cream:

 Available in various types of fresh cream (differing

primarily in fat content):
 Whipping cream (30 – 40% fat)
 Light whipping cream (30 – 35% fat)
 Heavy whipping cream (36 – 40% fat)
 Ultrapasteurized cream: keep longer than regular
pasteurized cream, will not whip as well
 Light cream (table cream, coffee cream): 16 – 22%

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<8> Dairy Products

 Milk-based products:
 Cheese: used for the production of cheese fillings and
cheese cakes
 Baker’s cheese:

 soft, unaged cheese with very low fat content

 dry and pliable
 Cream cheese:

 soft, unaged cheese, higher fat content (~35%)

 Used mainly in rich cheesecakes

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<9> Salt

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<10> Emulsifiers
 the general class of …………………… agents and are able to form
an …………….. with two liquids that are normally ……………………
 emulsifiers are fatty substances having both ………………….. and
………………………. properties.

 Functionality of Emulsifiers:
 interaction with starch  produces

 provides good emulsification of fat in dough and dispersion

as a film between gluten  bigger ……………………. , a fine
and regular crumb structure, and ………………….. bread

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<10> Emulsifiers
 Emulsifiers in the Baking Industry:
 Lecithin: natural product extracted from soy or corn oil

 Monoglycerides and diglycerides

 Eg. Glyceryl monostearate (E471)

 Calcium stearoyl-2-lactylate (E 481)

 Diacetyl tartaric acid esters (DATA, E472)

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<11> Flavorings
 Sources and Types of flavors:
 Spices and herbs (clove, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg,….)

 Essential oils: a volatile mixture of organic compounds

(alcohols, aldehydes, esters, ethers, ketones, phenols and

hydrocarbons)
 Oleo resins: solvent extracted compounds remaining when

the solvent has been …………………..  very ……………………….

 Synthetic flavours – GRAS (generally accepted as safe)

 Other flavoring substances: cheese powders, dried autolysed

yeast, dried meats and extracts, vegetable protein

hydrolysates, dried and diced nuts and fruits

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<12> Other ingredients

 Colours
 Oxidizing and Reducing agents

 Enzymes

 Hydrocolloids

 Preservatives

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